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| − | {{Infobox Military Conflict
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| − | |conflict=Glorious First of June
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| − | |partof=the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]
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| − | |image=[[Image:Loutherbourg, The Glorious First of June.jpg|300px|]]
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| − | |caption=''[[Lord Howe's action, or the Glorious First of June]]''<br/>[[Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg]], 1795
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| − | |date=1 June 1794
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| − | |place=[[Atlantic Ocean]], {{convert|400|nmi|km}} west of [[Ushant]]<ref> Although some sources differ from the accepted position of the battle (Smith, p. 82 claims only 50 km from Ushant, which may be a typo), the action was fought approximately {{convert|400|nmi|km}} west of [[Ushant]] in the Eastern Atlantic. (Padfield, p. 13)</ref>
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| − | |result= British tactical victory, French strategic success
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| − | |combatant1={{flagicon|UK|1606}} [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]
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| − | |combatant2={{flagicon|France}} [[First French Republic|French Republic]]
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| − | |commander1=[[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]]
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| − | |commander2=[[Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse]]
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| − | |strength1=25 ships of the line
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| − | |strength2=26 ships of the line
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| − | |casualties1=1,200 casualties
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| − | |casualties2=7 ships lost, approx. 4,000 casualties, 3,000 captured
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| − | }}
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| − | {{Campaignbox First Coalition}}
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| − | {{Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars Naval Battles}}
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| − | '''The Glorious First of June''' (also known as the '''Third Battle of Ushant''', and in France as the '''''Bataille du 13 prairial an 2''''' or '''''Combat de Prairial''''')<ref>The battle is generally known in both English and French by its date rather than its geographical location. Naval battles were traditionally known by the closest land feature to the battle or a particularly prominent coastal feature nearby. In the case of the Glorious First of June however, the nearest land was hundreds of miles away and bore no relation to the battle. Thus the date has instead been commonly used to represent the action. The discrepancy between English and French renditions is a result of the different calendars then in use: for Britain the [[Gregorian calendar]] and for France the [[French Revolutionary calendar]]. The name Third Battle of Ushant follows the nearest landmark tradition and also acknowledges the two previous [[Battles of Ushant]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]].</ref> was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[First French Republic]] during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. The [[British Channel Fleet]] under [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] attempted to interdict the passage of a vitally important [[France|French]] grain convoy from the [[United States]], which was protected by the [[French Navy|French Atlantic Fleet]], commanded by [[Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse]]. The two forces clashed in the [[Atlantic Ocean]], some {{convert|400|nmi|km|0}} west of the French island of [[Ushant]].
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| − | The Glorious First of June demonstrated some of the major problems inherent in the French and British navies at the start of the Revolutionary Wars—both admirals, faced with disobedience from their captains and ill-discipline and poor training among their crews, failed to control their fleets effectively. They both suffered further from a shortage of conscripts and reliable officers. The result of the battle was seized upon by the press of both nations as a shining example of the prowess and bravery of their respective navies.
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| − | ==Background==
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| − | Since early 1792 France had been at war with three of its neighbors on two fronts, battling [[Habsburg Austria|Austria]] and [[Prussia]] in the [[Austrian Netherlands]], and the Austrians and [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Sardinians]] in [[Italy]]. On 2 January 1793, almost one year into the French Revolutionary War, republican-held forts at [[Brest, France|Brest]] in [[Brittany]] fired on the British [[brig]] HMS ''Childers''.<ref name="Barlow">HMS ''Childers'' was under the command of Lieutenant [[Robert Barlow (Royal Navy officer)|Robert Barlow]], who later commanded the frigate [[HMS Pegasus (1786)|HMS ''Pegasus'']] at the Glorious First of June. (Tracy, p. 3)</ref> Just weeks later, following the execution of the imprisoned [[Louis XVI of France|King Louis XVI]] and his wife [[Marie Antoinette]] at the start of the period known as [[The Terror]],<ref name="RG9">Gardiner, p. 9</ref> diplomatic ties between Britain and France were broken. It was not long before France declared war on both Britain and the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], seeking to spread the Revolutionary ethos to the people of these monarchies.<ref name="HM373"/>
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| − | Protected from immediate invasion by the [[English Channel]], Britain prepared for an extensive naval campaign and dispatched troops to the Netherlands for service against the French.<ref name="PP15">Padfield, p. 15</ref> Throughout the remainder of 1793, the British and French navies undertook minor operations in Northern waters, the Mediterranean and in the [[Caribbean|West]] and [[East Indies]], where both nations maintained [[colonies]]. The only major clash was the [[Siege of Toulon]], a confused and bloody affair in which the English force holding the town—alongside Spanish, Sardinian, Austrian and French Royalist troops—had to be evacuated by the [[Royal Navy]] to prevent its imminent defeat at the hands of the French Republican army.<ref name="NT27">Tracy, p. 27</ref> The aftermath of this siege was punctuated by recriminations and accusations of cowardice and betrayal among the allies, eventually resulting in Spain switching allegiance with the signing of the [[Second Treaty of San Ildefonso|Treaty of San Ildefonso]] two years later.<ref name="HW387">Williams, p. 387</ref> Nevertheless, the siege produced one major success: [[William Sidney Smith|Sir Sidney Smith]], with parties of sailors from the retreating British fleet, accomplished the destruction of substantial French naval stores and shipping in [[Toulon]].<ref name="HM373">Williams, p. 373</ref> More might have been achieved had the Spanish raiding parties that accompanied Smith not been issued with secret orders to stall the destruction of the French fleet.<ref name="NT53">Tracy, p. 53</ref>
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| − | The situation in Europe remained volatile into 1794. Off Northern France, the French Atlantic Fleet had mutinied due to arrears in provisions and pay. In consequence, the French Navy officer corps suffered greatly from the effects of he [[Reign of Terror]], as many experienced sailors were executed, imprisoned or dismissed from the service for perceived disloyalty.<ref name="WJ122">James, p. 122</ref> The shortage of provisions was more than a navy problem though; France itself was starving because the social upheavals of the previous year had combined with a harsh winter to ruin the harvest.<ref name="HM381"/> By this time at war with all her neighbors, France had nowhere to turn for overland imports of fresh provisions. Eventually a solution to the food crisis was agreed by the [[National Convention]]: food produced in France's overseas colonies would be concentrated on board a fleet of merchant ships gathered in [[Chesapeake Bay]], and augmented with food and goods purchased from the United States.<ref name="NT89">Tracy, p. 89</ref> During April and May of 1794, the merchantmen would convoy the supplies across the Atlantic to Brest, protected by elements of the French Atlantic Fleet.
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| − | The action was the culmination of a [[May 1794 Atlantic campaign|campaign]] that had criss-crossed the [[Bay of Biscay]] over the previous month. Both sides had captured numerous merchant ships and minor warships and had engaged in two partial, but inconclusive, fleet actions. The aftermath of 1 June 1794 left both fleets shattered and in no condition for further combat. Both sides claimed victory; despite losing seven [[ships of the line]], Villaret bought enough time for his grain convoy to reach safety. However, he was also forced to withdraw his battle-fleet to port, leaving the British free to conduct a campaign of blockade for the remainder of the war.
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| − | ==Fleets==
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| − | {{details|Order of battle at the Glorious First of June}}
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| − | The respective navies of Britain and France in 1794 were at very different stages of development. Although the British fleet was numerically superior, the French ships were larger, stronger and carried a heavier weight of shot.<ref name="FJ96"/> The largest French ships were three-decker [[first rates]], carrying 110 or even 120 guns, compared with 100 guns on the largest British vessels.<ref name="WJ127"/> However, morale, manning and discipline would also affect naval performance in the spring of 1794.
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| − | ===Royal Navy===
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| − | [[Image:Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe - Project Gutenberg eText 18314.jpg|thumb|upright|Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe<br/>mezzotint engraving by R. Dunkarton, after the painting by [[John Singleton Copley]]]]
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| − | Since the Spanish armament of 1790, the British Royal Navy had been at sea in a state of readiness for over three years.<ref name="WJ48">James, p. 48</ref> Due to extensive preparations under [[First Lord of the Admiralty]] [[Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham|Charles Middleton]], the Navy's dockyards were all fully fitted and prepared for conflict. They had learned their lesson from the disasters of the [[American Revolutionary War]] ten years earlier, when an ill-prepared Royal Navy had taken too long to reach full effectiveness. As a result the Navy had been unable to support the North American campaign, which ended in defeat at the [[Battle of Yorktown]] due to lack of supplies.<ref name="NR429">Rodger, p. 429</ref> With British dockyards now readily turning out cannon, shot, sails, provisions and other essential equipment, the only remaining problem was that of manning the several hundred ships on the Navy list.<ref name="FJ94"/>
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| − | Gathering sufficient manpower proved problematic, and was never satisfactorily accomplished throughout the entire war. The shortage of seamen was such that the [[press gangs]] were forced to take thousands of men with no experience of the sea, and whose training and preparation for naval life would take quite some time.<ref name="FJ94"/> The lack of [[Royal Marines]] was even more urgent, and soldiers from the [[British Army]] were drafted into the fleet for service at sea. Men of the [[Queen's Royal Regiment]] and the [[29th Regiment of Foot]] served aboard Royal Navy ships during the campaign; their descendant regiments still maintain the [[battle honor]] "1 June 1794".<ref name="Worcs">[http://www.worcestershireregiment.com/wr.php?main=inc/h_glorious_first The Glorious First of June 1794], ''[[Worcestershire Regiment]]'', Retrieved 23 December 2007 </ref><ref name="QRSR">[http://www.queensroyalsurreys.org.uk/1661to1966/gloriousfirst/gloriousfirst.html The Glorious First of June 1794], ''Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment'', Retrieved 1 January 2008 </ref>
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| − | Despite these difficulties, the Channel Fleet was possessed of some of the best naval commanders of the age; its commander-in-chief, [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe]], had learned his trade under [[Edward Hawke|Sir Edward Hawke]] and fought at the [[Battle of Quiberon Bay]].<ref name="ODNBHowe">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13963?docPos=2 Howe, Richard], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Roger Knight, Retrieved 23 December 2007</ref> In the spring of 1794, with the French convoy's arrival in European waters imminent, Howe had dispersed his fleet in three groups. [[George Montagu (Royal Navy officer)|George Montagu]], in [[HMS Hector|HMS ''Hector'']], was sent with six ships of the line and two frigates to guard British convoys to the East Indies, West Indies and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] as far as [[Cape Finisterre]]. [[Peter Rainier, junior|Peter Rainier]], in [[HMS Suffolk (1765)|HMS ''Suffolk]] and commanding six other ships, was to escort the convoys for the rest of their passage. The third force consisted of 26 battleships, with several supporting vessels, under Howe's direct command. They were to patrol the Bay of Biscay for the arriving French.<ref name="WJ125">James, p. 125</ref>
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| − | ===French Navy===
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| − | [[Image:Villaret-Joyeuse.jpg|thumb|upright|Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse,<br/>[[Jean-Baptiste Paulin Guérin]]]]
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| − | In contrast to their British counterparts, the [[French Navy]] was in a state of confusion. Although the quality of the fleet's ships was high, the fleet hierarchy was riven by the same crises that had torn through France since the [[French Revolution|Revolution]] five years earlier.<ref name="FJ94">Jane, p. 94</ref> Consequently the high standard of ships and ordnance was not matched by that of the available crews, which were largely untrained and inexperienced. With The Terror resulting in the death or dismissal of many senior French sailors and officers, political appointees and conscripts—many of whom had never been to sea at all, let alone in a fighting vessel—filled the Atlantic fleet.<ref name="RG16">Gardiner, p. 16</ref>
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| − | The manpower problem was compounded by the supply crisis which was affecting the entire nation, with the fleet going unpaid and largely unfed for months at time.<ref name="WJ58">James, p. 58</ref> In August 1793, these problems came to a head in the fleet off Brest, when a lack of provisions resulted in a mutiny among the regular sailors. The crews overruled their officers and brought their ships into harbor in search of food, leaving the French coast undefended.<ref name="WJ59">James, p. 59</ref> The [[National Convention]] responded instantly by executing a swathe of senior officers and ship's non-commissioned officers. Hundreds more officers and sailors were imprisoned, banished or dismissed from naval service. The effect of such a draconian move was devastating, seriously degrading the fighting ability of the fleet by removing at a stroke many of its most capable personnel.<ref name="WJ122"/> In their places were promoted junior officers, merchant captains and even civilians who expressed sufficient revolutionary zeal, although few of them knew how to fight or control a battle fleet at sea.<ref name="WJ123">James, p. 123</ref><ref name="PP13">Padfield, p. 13</ref>
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| − | The newly-appointed commander of this troubled fleet was [[Villaret de Joyeuse]]; although formerly in a junior position, he proved to possess a high degree of tactical ability.<ref name="FJ96">Jane, p. 96</ref> However, Villaret's attempts to mould his new officer corps into an effective fighting unit were continually hampered by another new appointee, a deputy of the National Convention named [[Jean-Bon Saint-André]]. Saint-André's job was to report directly to the National Convention on the revolutionary ardour of both the fleet and its admiral. He frequently intervened in strategic planning and tactical operations.<ref name="WJ123">James, p. 123</ref><ref> Shortly after his arrival, Saint-André proposed issuing a decree ordering that any officer deemed to have shown insufficient zeal in defending his ship in action should be put to death on his return to France, although this highly controversial legislation does not appear to have ever been acted upon. (James p. 123)</ref> Although a thorn in the side of Villaret, Saint-André's dispatches to [[Paris]] were published regularly in ''[[Le Moniteur]]'', and did much to popularize the Navy in France.<ref name="WJ124">James, p. 124</ref>
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| − | The French Atlantic fleet was even more dispersed than the British in the spring of 1794: Rear-Admiral [[Pierre Vanstabel]] had been dispatched, with five ships including two of the line, to meet the much-needed French grain convoy off the American eastern seaboard. Rear-Admiral [[Joseph-Marie Nielly]] had sailed from [[Rochefort]] with five battleships and assorted cruising warships to rendezvous with the convoy in the mid-Atlantic. This left Villaret with 25 ships of the line at Brest, to meet the threat posed by the British fleet under Lord Howe.<ref name="WJ127"/>
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| − | ===Convoy===
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| − | By early spring of 1794, the situation in France was dire. With famine looming after the failure of the harvest and the blockade of French ports and trade, the French government was forced to look overseas for sustenance.<ref name="NR429"/> Turning to France's colonies in the Americas, and the agricultural might of the United States, the National Convention gave orders for the formation of a large convoy of sailing vessels to gather at [[Hampton Roads]] in the [[Chesapeake Bay]], where Admiral Vanstabel would wait for them. According to contemporary historian [[William James (naval historian)|William James]] this conglomeration of ships was said to be over 350 strong, although he disputes this figure, citing the number as 117 (in addition to the French warships).<ref name="WJ127">James, p. 127</ref>
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| − | The convoy had also been augmented by the United States government, in both cargo and shipping, as repayment for French financial, moral and military support during the [[American Revolution]]. In supporting the French Revolution in this way, the American government, urged especially by Ambassador [[Gouverneur Morris]], was fulfilling its ten year old debt to France.<ref name="HM381">Williams, p. 381</ref> However, the friendly relationship between the two nations did not long survive the atrocities of The Terror; four years later the two would be at loggerheads in the [[Quasi War]].
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| − | ==May 1794==
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| − | [[Image:First of June 1794 Map.png|thumb|upright|Map of the Atlantic Ocean showing the position of the naval battle on June 1 1794]]
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| − | {{details|Atlantic campaign of May 1794}}
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| − | The French convoy, escorted by Vanstabel, departed America from [[Virginia]] on 2 April, and Howe sailed from [[Portsmouth]] on 2 May, taking his entire fleet to both escort British convoys to the [[Western Approaches]] and intercept the French. Checking that Villaret was still in [[Brest, France|Brest]], Howe spent two weeks searching the Bay of Biscay for the grain convoy, returning to Brest on 18 May to discover that Villaret had sailed the previous day.<ref>It has been suggested that allowing Villaret to escape Brest was part of a deliberate strategy on Howe's part. If Howe could draw Villaret into the open ocean, he could rely on superior training and tactics to destroy the French fleet in battle. If successful, this would eliminate the threat from the French Atlantic Fleet for years to come. (Padfield p. 17)</ref> Returning to sea in search of his opponent, Howe pursued Villaret deep into the Atlantic. Also at sea during this period were the squadrons of Nielly (French) and Montagu (British), both of whom had met with some success; Nielly capturing a number of British merchant ships and Montagu taking several back. Nielly was the first to encounter the grain convoy, deep in the Atlantic in the second week of May. He took it under escort as it moved closer to Europe, while Montagu was searching fruitlessly to the south.<ref name="WJ128">James, p. 128</ref>
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| − | Despite Howe's pursuit, the main French sortie also found success, running into a Dutch convoy and taking 20 ships from it on Villaret's first day at sea. For the next week Howe continued to follow the French, seizing and burning a trail of French-held Dutch ships and enemy corvettes.<ref name="RG27">Gardiner, p. 27</ref> On 25 May Howe spotted a straggler from Villaret's fleet and gave chase; [[French ship Audacieux (1784)|''Audacieux'']] led Howe straight to his opponent's location.<ref name="WJ130">James, p. 130</ref> Having finally found Villaret, on 28 May Howe attacked, using a flying squadron of his fastest ships to cut off its rearmost vessel [[French ship Bretagne (1766)|''Révolutionnaire'']]. This [[first rate]] was at various times engaged with six British ships and took heavy damage, possibly striking her colors late in the action.<ref name="WJ132">James, p. 132</ref> As darkness fell the British and French fleets separated, leaving ''Révolutionnaire'' and her final enemy, [[HMS Audacious (1785)|HMS ''Audacious'']], still locked in combat behind them. These two ships parted company during the night and eventually returned to their respective home ports.<ref name="RG28">Gardiner, p. 28</ref> By this stage Villaret knew through his patrolling frigates that the grain convoy was close, and deliberately took his fleet to the west, hoping to decoy Howe away from the vital convoy.<ref name="HM381"/>
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| − | Taking the bait, the following day Howe attacked again, but his attempt to split the French fleet in half was unsuccessful when his lead ship, [[HMS Caesar (1793)|HMS ''Caesar'']], failed to follow orders.<ref name="WJ138">James, p. 138</ref> Much damage was done to both fleets but the action was inconclusive, and the two forces again separated without having settled the issue. Howe had however gained an important advantage during the engagement by seizing the [[weather gage]], enabling him to further attack Villaret at a time of his choosing.<ref>The weather gage was a vital advantage in sailing warfare because the ships required wind of the correct volume and direction to conduct offensive operations. When the wind was in the wrong direction, a captain could [[tacking|tack]] to compensate, but possessing the weather gage meant that a ship could use the wind to attack their opponent directly, without the need for complicated manoeuvre.</ref><ref name="NR430">Rodger, p. 430</ref> Three French ships were sent back to port with damage, but these losses were offset by reinforcements gained the following day with the arrival of Nielly's detached squadron.<ref name="PP16">Padfield, p. 16</ref> Battle was postponed during the next two days because of thick fog, but when the haze lifted on 1 June 1794, the battle lines were only 6 miles (10 km) apart and Howe was prepared to force a decisive action.<ref name="PP16"/>
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| − | ==First of June==
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| − | [[Image:June 1 1794 Order of Battle Map.png|thumb|right|The British and French fleets on the morning of 1 June 1794]]
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| − | Although Howe was in a favorable position, Villaret had not been idle during the night. He had attempted, with near success, to distance his ships from the British fleet; when dawn broke at 05:00 he was within a few hours of gaining enough wind to escape over the horizon.<ref name="WJ146"/> Allowing his men to breakfast, Howe took full advantage of his position on the weather gage to close with Villaret, and by 08:12 the British fleet was just four miles (6 km) from the enemy. By this time, Howe's formation was strung out in a organized line parallel to the French, with [[frigate]]s acting as repeaters for the admiral's commands.<ref name="FJ95">Jane, p. 95</ref> The French were likewise in [[line ahead]] and the two lines began exchanging long-range gunfire at 09:24, whereupon Howe unleashed his innovative battleplan.<ref name="WJ146">James, p. 146</ref>
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| − | It was normal in fleet actions of the 18th century for the two lines of battle to pass one another sedately, exchanging fire at long ranges and then [[jibe|wearing]] away, often without either side losing a ship or taking an enemy.<ref name="PP18">Padfield, p. 18</ref> In contrast, Howe was counting on the professionalism of his captains and crews combined with the advantage of the weather gage to attack the French directly, driving through their line.<ref name="FJ94"/> However, this time he did not plan to maneuver in the way he had during the two previous encounters; each ship following in the wake of that in front to create a new line arrowing through his opponent's force (as [[George Rodney|Rodney]] had done at the [[Battle of the Saintes]] 12 years earlier).<ref name="RG31">Gardiner, p. 31</ref> Instead, Howe ordered each of his ships to turn individually towards the French line, intending to breach it at every point and rake the French ships at both bow and stern. The British captains would then pull up on the far side of their opposite numbers and engage them directly, hopefully forcing each to surrender and consequently destroying the French Atlantic Fleet.<ref name="NR430"/>
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| − | ==British break the line==
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| − | Within minutes of issuing the signal and turning his flagship [[HMS Queen Charlotte (1790)|HMS ''Queen Charlotte'']], Howe's plan began to falter. Many of the British captains had either misunderstood or ignored the signal and were hanging back in the original line.<ref name="PP22">Padfield, p. 22</ref> Other ships were still struggling with damage from Howe's earlier engagements and could not get into action fast enough. The result was a ragged formation tipped by ''Queen Charlotte'', that headed unevenly for Villaret's fleet. The French responded by firing on the British ships as they approached, but the lack of training and coordination in the French fleet was obvious; many ships which did obey Howe's order and attacked the French directly arrived in action without significant damage.<ref name="WJ155">James, p. 155</ref>
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| − | ===Van squadron===
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| − | [[Image:The 'Defence' at the Battle of the First of June, 1794.jpg|thumb|right|''HMS Defence at the Battle of the Glorious 1st June 1794'',<br/>[[Nicholas Pocock]]<ref>Pocock had been an officer with the British Fleet at the Glorious First of June, serving aboard the repeating frigate [[HMS Pegasus (1786)|HMS ''Pegasus'']]</ref>]]
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| − | Although ''Queen Charlotte'' pressed on all sail, she was not the first through the enemy line. That distinction belonged to a ship of the [[Vanguard|van squadron]] under [[Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|Admiral Graves]]—[[HMS Defence (1763)|HMS ''Defence'']] under Captain [[James Gambier]], a notoriously dour officer nicknamed "Dismal Jimmy" by his contemporaries.<ref name="RG32">Gardiner, p. 32</ref> ''Defence'', the seventh ship of the British line, successfully cut the French line between its sixth and seventh ships; [[French ship Orion (1787)|''Mucius'']] and [[French ship Tourville (1788)|''Tourville'']]. Raking both opponents, ''Defence'' soon found herself in difficulty due to the failure of those ships behind her to properly follow up.<ref name="WJ158">James, p. 158</ref> This left her vulnerable to ''Mucius'', ''Tourville'' and the ships following them, with which she began a furious fusillade. However, ''Defence'' was not the only ship of the van to break the French line; minutes later [[George Cranfield-Berkeley]] in [[HMS Marlborough (1767)|HMS ''Marlborough'']] executed Howe's maneuver perfectly, raking and then entangling his ship with [[French ship Impétueux (1787)|''Impétueux'']].<ref name="PP29">Padfield, p. 29</ref><ref name="WJ157">James, p. 157</ref>
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| − | In front of ''Marlborough'' the rest of the van had mixed success. [[HMS Bellerophon (1786)|HMS ''Bellerophon'']] and [[HMS Leviathan (1790)|HMS ''Leviathan'']] were both still suffering the effects of their exertions earlier in the week and did not breach the enemy line. Instead they pulled along the near side of [[French ship Éole (1789)|''Éole'']] and [[French ship America (1788)|''America'']] respectively and brought them to close gunnery duels. Rear-Admiral [[Thomas Pasley]] of ''Bellerophon'' was an early casualty, losing a leg in the opening exchanges. [[HMS Royal Sovereign (1786)|HMS ''Royal Sovereign'']], Graves's flagship, was less successful due to a miscalculation of distance that resulted in her pulling up too far from the French line and coming under heavy fire from her opponent [[French ship Terrible (1779)|''Terrible'']].<ref name="WJ157"/> In the time it took to engage ''Terrible'' more closely, ''Royal Sovereign'' suffered a severe pounding and Admiral Graves was badly wounded.<ref name="WJ157"/>
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| − | More disturbing to Lord Howe were the actions of [[HMS Russell (1764)|HMS ''Russell'']] and HMS ''Caesar''. ''Russell's'' captain [[John Willett Payne]] was criticised at the time for failing to get to grips with the enemy more closely and allowing her opponent [[French ship Téméraire (1782)|''Téméraire'']] to badly damage her rigging in the early stages, although later commentators blamed damage received on 29 May for her poor start to the action.<ref name="WJ156">James, p. 156</ref> There were no such excuses, however, for Captain [[Anthony Molloy]] of ''Caesar'', who totally failed in his duty to engage the enemy. Molloy completely ignored Howe's signal and continued ahead as if the British battleline was following him rather than engaging the French fleet directly.<ref name="PP24">Padfield, p. 24</ref> ''Caesar'' did participate in a desultory exchange of fire with the leading French ship ''Trajan'' but her fire had little effect, while ''Trajan'' inflicted much damage to ''Caesar's'' rigging and was subsequently able to attack ''Bellerophon'' as well, roaming unchecked through the melee developing at the head of the line.<ref name="WJ155">James, p. 155</ref>
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| − | ===Center===
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| − | The center of the two fleets was divided by two separate squadrons of the British line: the forward division under admirals [[Benjamin Caldwell]] and [[Sir George Bowyer, 1st Baronet|George Bowyer]] and the rear under Lord Howe. While Howe in ''Queen Charlotte'' was engaging the French closely, his subordinates in the forward division were less active. Instead of moving in on their opposite numbers directly, the forward division sedately closed with the French in line ahead formation, engaging in a long distance duel which did not prevent their opponents from harassing the embattled ''Defence'' just ahead of them.<ref name="WJ158"/> Of all the ships in this squadron only [[HMS Invincible (1765)|HMS ''Invincible'']], under [[Thomas Pakenham (Royal Navy officer)|Thomas Pakenham]], ranged close to the French lines. ''Invincible'' was badly damaged by her lone charge but managed to engage the larger [[French ship Juste|''Juste'']].<ref name="WJ159">James, p. 159</ref> [[HMS Barfleur (1768)|HMS ''Barfleur'']] under Bowyer did later enter the action, but Bowyer was not present, having lost a leg in the opening exchanges.<ref name="PP32">Padfield, p. 32</ref>
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| − | Howe and ''Queen Charlotte'' led the fleet by example, sailing directly at the French flagship [[French ship Océan (1790)|''Montagne'']]. Passing between ''Montagne'' and the next in line [[French ship Vengeur du Peuple| ''Vengeur du Peuple'']], ''Queen Charlotte'' raked both and hauled up close to ''Montagne'' to engage in a close-range artillery battle.<ref name="PP24"/> As she did so, ''Queen Charlotte'' also became briefly entangled with [[French ship Auguste (1778)|''Jacobin'']], and exchanged fire with her too, causing serious damage to both French ships.<ref name="PP31"/>
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| − | To the right of ''Queen Charlotte'', [[HMS Brunswick (1790)|HMS ''Brunswick'']] had initially struggled to join the action. Laboring behind the flagship, her captain [[John Harvey (Royal Navy officer)|John Harvey]] received a rebuke from Howe for the delay. Spurred by this signal, Harvey pushed his ship forward and almost outstripped ''Queen Charlotte'', blocking her view of the eastern half of the French fleet for a time and taking severe damage from French fire as she did so. Harvey hoped to run aboard ''Jacobin'' and support his admiral directly, but was not fast enough to reach her and so attempted to cut between [[French ship Annibal (1779)|''Achille'']] and ''Venguer du Peuple''. This manoeuvre failed when ''Brunswick's'' anchors became entangled in ''Vengeur's'' rigging. Harvey's [[Master mariner|master]] asked if ''Vengeur'' should be cut loose, to which Harvey replied "No; we have got her and we will keep her".<ref name="ODNBJHarvey"/> The two ships swung so close to one another that ''Brunswick's'' crew could not open their gunports and had to fire through the closed lids, the battleships battering one another from a distance of just a few feet.<ref name="WJ161">James, p. 161</ref>
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| − | Behind this combat, other ships of the center division struck the French line, [[HMS Valiant (1759)|HMS ''Valiant'']] passing close to [[French ship Patriote (1785)|''Patriote'']] which pulled away, her crew suffering from [[Infectious disease|contagion]] and unable to take their ship into battle.<ref name="WJ165">James, p. 165</ref> ''Valiant'' instead turned her attention on ''Achille'', which had already been raked by ''Queen Charlotte'' and ''Brunswick'', and badly damaged her before pressing on sail to join the embattled van division.<ref name="PP31"/> [[HMS Orion (1787)|HMS ''Orion'']] under [[John Thomas Duckworth]] and [[HMS Queen (1769)|HMS ''Queen'']] under Admiral [[Alan Gardner, 1st Baron Gardner|Alan Gardner]] both attacked the same ship, ''Queen'' suffering severely from the earlier actions in which her masts were badly damaged and her captain [[John Hutt (Royal Navy officer)|John Hutt]] mortally wounded.<ref name="PP31">Padfield, p. 31</ref> Both ships bore down on the French [[French ship Northumberland (1780)|''Northumberland'']], which was soon dismasted and left attempting to escape on only the stump of a mast. ''Queen'' was too slow to engage ''Northumberland'' as closely as ''Orion'', and soon fell in with [[French ship Alexandre (1794)|''Jemmappes'']], both ships battering one another severely.<ref name="NT99"/>
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| − | ===Rear===
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| − | Of the British rear ships, only two made a determined effort to break the French line. Admiral Hood's flagship [[HMS Royal George (1788)|HMS ''Royal George'']] pierced it between [[French ship Royal Louis (1780)|''Républicain'']] and [[French ship Sans Pareil|''Sans Pareil'']], engaging both closely, while [[HMS Glory (1788)|HMS ''Glory'']] came through the line behind ''Sans Pareil'' and threw herself into the melee as well. The rest of the British and French rearguard did not participate in this close combat; [[HMS Montagu (1779)|HMS ''Montagu'']], with her captain [[James Montagu]] killed in the opening exchanges, fought a long range gunnery duel with [[French ship Neptune (1778)|''Neptune'']] which damaged neither ship severely.<ref name="WJ167">James, p. 167</ref> Next in line, [[HMS Ramillies (1785)|HMS ''Ramillies'']] ignored her opponent completely and sailed west, Captain [[Henry Harvey]] seeking ''Brunswick'', his brother's ship, in the confused action around ''Queen Charlotte''.<ref name="WJ163">James, p. 163</ref>
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| − | Three other British ships failed to respond to the signal from Howe, including [[HMS Alfred (1778)|HMS ''Alfred'']] which engaged the French line at extreme range without noticeable effect, and Captain [[Sir Charles Cotton, 5th Baronet|Charles Cotton]] in [[HMS Majestic (1785)|HMS ''Majestic'']] who likewise did little until the action was decided, at which point he took the surrender of several already shattered French ships.<ref name="WJ167"/> Finally [[HMS Thunderer (1783)|HMS ''Thunderer'']] under [[Sir Albemarle Bertie, 1st Baronet|Albemarle Bertie]] took no part in the initial action at all, standing well away from the British line and failing to engage the enemy despite the signal for close engagement hanging limply from her mainmast. The French rear ships were no less idle, with [[French ship Entreprenant (1787)|''Entreprenant'']] and [[French ship Seduisant (1783)|''Pelletier'']] firing at any British ships in range but refusing to close or participate in the melees on either side.<ref name="WJ167"/> The French rear ship [[French ship Saint-Esprit (1766)|''Scipion'']] did not attempt to join the action either, but could not avoid becoming embroiled in the group around ''Royal George'' and ''Républicain'' and suffered severe damage.<ref name="WJ168">James, p. 168</ref>
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| − | ==Melee==
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| − | [[Image:Combat-de-prairial.jpg|thumb|right|Dismasted ships in the aftermath of battle<br/>Lithograph after Meyer]]Within an hour of their opening volleys the British and French lines were hopelessly confused, with three separate engagements being fought within sight of one another. In the van, ''Caesar'' had finally attempted to join the fight, only to have a vital spar shot away by ''Trajan'' which caused her to slip down the two embattled fleets without contributing significantly to the battle.<ref name="WJ154">James, p. 154</ref> ''Bellerophon'' and ''Leviathan'' were in the thick of the action, the outnumbered ''Bellerophon'' taking serious damage to her rigging. This left her unable to maneuver and in danger from her opponents, of which ''Eole'' also suffered severely. Captain [[William Johnstone Hope]] sought to extract his ship from her perilous position and called up support; the frigate [[HMS Latona|HMS ''Latona'']] under Captain [[Edward Thornbrough]] arrived to provide assistance.<ref name="WJ155"/> Thornbrough brought his small ship between the ships of the French battleline and opened fire on ''Eole'', helping to drive off three ships of the line and then towing ''Bellerophon'' to safety. ''Leviathan'', under [[Lord Hugh Seymour]], had been more successful than ''Bellerophon'', her gunnery dismasting ''America'' despite receiving fire from ''Eole'' and ''Trajan'' in passing. ''Leviathan'' only left ''America'' after a two-hour duel, sailing at 11:50 to join ''Queen Charlotte'' in the center.<ref name="WJ156">James, p. 156</ref>
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| − | ''Russell'' had not broken the French line and her opponent ''Témeraire'' got the better of her, knocking away a topmast and escaping to windward with ''Trajan'' and ''Eole''. ''Russell'' then fired on several passing French ships before joining ''Leviathan'' in attacking the center of the French line. ''Russell's'' boats also took the surrender of ''America'', her crew boarding the vessel to make her a prize (although later replaced by men from ''Royal Sovereign'').<ref name="NT98">Tracy, p. 98, ''Biographical Memoir of Rear-Admiral John Willett Payne''</ref> ''Royal Sovereign'' lost Admiral Graves to a serious wound and lost her opponent as well, as ''Terrible'' fell out of the line to windward and joined a growing collection of French ships forming a new line on the far side of the action. Villaret was leading this line in his flagship ''Montagne'', which had escaped from ''Queen Charlotte'', and it was ''Montagne'' which ''Royal Sovereign'' engaged next, pursuing her close to the new French line accompanied by ''Valiant'', and beginning a long-range action.<ref name="WJ157"/>
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| − | Behind ''Royal Sovereign'' was ''Marlborough'', inextricably tangled with ''Impétueux''; badly damaged and on the verge of surrender, ''Impétueux'' was briefly reprieved when ''Mucius'' appeared through the smoke and collided with both ships.<ref name="PP33">Padfield, p. 33</ref> The three entangled battleships continued exchanging fire for some time, all suffering heavy casualties with ''Marlborough'' and ''Impétueux'' losing all three of their masts. This combat continued for several hours. Captain Berkeley of ''Marlborough'' had to retire below with serious wounds, and command fell to Lieutenant John Monkton, who signalled for help from the frigates in reserve.<ref name="WJ158"/> ''Marlborough'' was rescued by [[HMS Aquilon (1786)|HMS ''Aquilon'']], who towed her out of the line as ''Mucius'' freed herself and made for the regrouped French fleet to the north. ''Impétueux'' was in too damaged a state to move at all, and was soon seized by sailors from HMS ''Russell''.<ref name="NT98"/>
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| − | Dismasted, ''Defence'' was unable to hold any of her various opponents to a protracted duel, and by 13:00 was threatened by the damaged ''Républicain'' moving from the east. Although ''Républicain'' later hauled off to join Villaret to the north, Gambier requested support for his ship from the fleet's frigates and was aided by [[HMS Phaeton (1782)|HMS ''Phaeton'']] under Captain [[William Bentinck]]. ''Phaeton'' was fired on by ''Impétueux'' as she passed, to which Bentinck responded with several broadsides of his<!-- Bentinck is subject of sentence fragment, so "his," not "her." For "her," Phaeton would need to be subject—> own.<ref name="WJ158"/> ''Invincible'', the only ship of the forward division of the British center to engage the enemy closely, became embroiled in the confusion surrounding ''Queen Charlotte''. ''Invincible's'' guns drove [[French ship Juste|''Juste'']] onto the broadside of ''Queen Charlotte'', where she was forced to surrender to Lieutenant [[Henry Blackwood]] in a boat from ''Invincible''.<ref name="WJ159"/> Among the other ships of the division there were only minor casualties, although [[HMS Impregnable (1786)|HMS ''Impregnable'']] lost several [[yard (sailing)|yards]] and was only brought back into line by the quick reactions of two junior officers, Lieutenant [[Robert Otway]] and Midshipman Charles Dashwood.<ref name="ODNBOt">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/20943 Otway, Sir Robert], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', J. K. Laughton, Retrieved 2 January 2008 </ref>
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| − | The conflict between ''Queen Charlotte'' and ''Montagne'' was oddly one sided, the French flagship failing to make use of her lower-deck guns and consequently suffering extensive damage and casualties.<ref name="WJ149"/> ''Queen Charlotte'' in her turn was damaged by fire from nearby ships and was therefore unable to follow when ''Montagne'' set her remaining sails and slipped to the north to create a new focal point for the survivors of the French fleet.<ref name="WJ149">James, p. 149</ref> ''Queen Charlotte'' also took fire during the engagement from [[HMS Gibraltar (1780)|HMS ''Gibraltar'']], under [[Thomas Mackenzie (Royal Navy officer)|Thomas Mackenzie]], which had failed to close with the enemy and instead fired at random into the smoke bank surrounding the flagship. Captain [[Andrew Snape Douglas|Sir Andrew Snape Douglas]] was seriously wounded by this fire.<ref name="PP32">Padfield, p. 32</ref> Following ''Montagne'''s escape, ''Queen Charlotte'' engaged ''Jacobin'' and ''Républicain'' as they passed, and was successful in forcing the surrender of ''Juste''.<ref name="PP37"/> To the east of ''Queen Charlotte'', ''Brunswick'' and ''Vengeur du Peuple'' continued their bitter combat, locked together and firing main broadsides from point blank range. Captain Harvey of ''Brunswick'' was mortally wounded early in this action by [[Naval artillery in the Age of Sail#Shot|langrage fire]] from ''Vengeur'', but refused to quit the deck, ordering more fire into his opponent.<ref name="ODNBJHarvey">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12525?docPos=3 Harvey, John], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', J. K. Laughton, Retrieved 24 December 2007</ref> ''Brunswick'' also managed to drive ''Achille'' off from her far side when the French ship attempted to intervene. ''Achille'', already damaged, was totally dismasted in the exchange and briefly surrendered, although her crew rescinded this when it became clear ''Brunswick'' was in no position to take possession.<ref name="WJ163"/> With her colors rehoisted, ''Achille'' then made what sail she could in an attempt to join Villaret to the north. It was not until 12:45 that the shattered ''Vengeur'' and ''Brunswick'' pulled apart, both largely dismasted and very battered. ''Brunswick'' was only able to return to the British side of the line after being supported by ''Ramillies'', while ''Vengeur'' was unable to move at all.<ref name="PP37">Padfield, p. 37</ref> ''Ramillies'' took ''Vengeur's'' surrender after a brief cannonade but was unable to board her and instead pursued the fleeing ''Achille'', which soon surrendered as well.<ref name="WJ164">James, p. 164</ref>
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| − | To the east, ''Orion'' and ''Queen'' forced the surrender of both ''Northumberland'' and ''Jemmappes'', although ''Queen'' was unable to secure ''Jemmappes'' and she had to be abandoned later. ''Queen'' especially was badly damaged and unable to make the British lines again, wallowing between the newly reformed French fleet and the British battleline along with several other shattered ships.<ref name="NT99">Tracy, p. 99, ''Biographical Memoir of Captain James Manderson''<br/>(Manderson served as a lieutenant aboard HMS ''Queen'')</ref> ''Royal George'' and ''Glory'' had between them disabled ''Scipion'' and ''Sans Pareil'' in a bitter exchange, but were also too badly damaged themselves to take possession. All four ships were among those left drifting in the gap between the fleets.<ref name="WJ168"/>
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| − | ==French recovery==
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| − | Villaret in ''Montagne'', having successfully broken contact with the British flagship and slipped away to the north, managed to gather 11 ships of the line around him and formed them up in a reconstituted battle squadron.<ref name="NT99"/> At 11:30, with the main action drawing to a close, he began a recovery manoeuvre intended to lessen the tactical defeat his fleet had suffered. Aiming his new squadron at the battered ''Queen'', Villaret's attack created consternation in the British fleet, which was unprepared for a second engagement.<ref name="PP38">Padfield, p. 38</ref> However, discerning Villaret's intention, Howe also pulled his ships together to create a new force. His reformed squadron consisted of ''Queen Charlotte'', ''Royal Sovereign'', ''Valiant'', ''Leviathan'', ''Barfleur'' and ''Thunderer''.<ref name="WJ151">James, p. 151</ref> Howe deployed this squadron in defense of ''Queen'', and the two short lines engaged one another at a distance before Villaret abandoned his maneuver and hauled off to collect several of his own dismasted ships that were endeavoring to escape British pursuit.<ref name="RG38">Gardiner, p. 38</ref> Villaret was subsequently joined by the battered ''Terrible'', which sailed straight through the dispersed British fleet to reach the French lines, and he also recovered the dismasted ''Scipion'', ''Mucius'', ''Jemmappes'' and ''Républicain''—all of which lay within reach of the unengaged British ships—before turning eastwards towards France.<ref name="WJ169">James, p. 169</ref><ref name="RW36">Several of these ships had already signified surrender by lowering their flags, only to re-hoist them once out of danger. This was a severe breach of the customs of naval warfare at the time and provoked outrage in the British naval establishment.(Woodman, p. 36)</ref> At this stage of the battle, the septuagenarian Howe retired below and the British consolidation was left to his Fleet Captain, [[Roger Curtis|Sir Roger Curtis]]. Curtis was subsequently blamed by some in the Navy for not capturing more of the dismasted French ships, and was also accused of actively dissuading Howe from attempting further pursuit.<ref name="FJ96"/>
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| − | [[Image:Vengeur du Peuple-Prairial.png|thumb|The sinking of the ''Vengeur du Peuple'',<br/>engraving by P. Ozanne]]
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| − | In fact, the British fleet was unable to pursue Villaret, having only 11 ships still capable of battle to the French 12, and having numerous dismasted ships and prizes to protect. Retiring and regrouping, the British crews set about making hasty repairs and securing their prizes; seven in total, including the badly damaged ''Vengeur du Peuple''. ''Vengeur'' had been holed by cannon firing from ''Brunswick'' directly through the ship's bottom, and after her surrender no British ship had managed to get men aboard. This left ''Vengeur'''s few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could—a task made harder when some of her sailors broke into the spirit room and became drunk.<ref name="WJ164"/> Ultimately the ship's pumps became unmanageable, and ''Vengeur'' began to sink. Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged ''Alfred'' and [[HMS Culloden (1783)|HMS ''Culloden'']], as well as the services of the cutter HMS ''Rattler'', saved any of the ''Vengeur's'' crew from drowning, these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them.<ref name="RG33">Gardiner, p. 33</ref> Lieutenant John Winne of ''Rattler'' was especially commended for this hazardous work.<ref name="WJ164">James, p. 164</ref> By 18:15,''Vengeur'' was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded, the dead and the drunk remained aboard. Several sailors are said to have waved the [[French tricolour|tricolour]] from the bow of the ship and called "Vive la Nation, vive la République!"<ref>The arguments surrounding the accounts of the final minutes of ''Vengeur du Peuple'' have been extensive and bitter. Sources based on French accounts report the story as a patriotic gesture. (Williams, p. 381) Lord Howe however debunks the account entirely, claiming that it never occurred, (Tracy, p. 95) a position followed by many British sources. (Jane, p. 95) [[William James (naval historian)|William James]] provides a more reasoned explanation when he comments that whilst the event probably did happen, it is likely that any person who behaved in such a manner on the stricken ship was acting under the influence of alcohol. (James, p. 164). In his ''Histoire de la Marine française'' [[Claude Farrère]] attributes the sinking to failure of the crew to close damaged lower gunports, claims that a good part of the crew evacuated the ship, and describes the patriotic cries as those of wounded men trapped on the sinking ship with no hope of rescue. (Farrère, p. 271)</ref>
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| − | Having escaped to the east, Villaret made what sail his battered fleet could muster to return to France, and dispatched his frigates in search of the convoy. Villaret was also hoping for reinforcements; eight ships of the line, commanded by Admiral [[Pierre-François Cornic]], were patrolling near the [[Ushant]] headland. Behind him to the west, the British took the whole night to secure their ships and prizes, not setting out to return to Britain until 05:00 on 2 June.<ref name="WJ169"/>
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| − | Casualties in the battle are notoriously hard to calculate exactly, mainly due to the extreme paucity of French sources.<ref name="Casualties">French losses have been estimated by various commentators and historians with some variation: N.A.M. Rodger gives 4,200 casualties and 3,300 captured; (Rodger, p. 430) Digby Smith gives 4,270 casualties and 3,254 captured; (Smith, p. 83) Padfield lists 3,500 casualties;(Padfield, p. 39) Gardiner 3,500 casualties and the same number captured. (Gardiner, p. 38) Saint-André gave 3,000 killed and wounded in his official dispatch and James assesses total French killed, wounded and captured as no fewer than 7,000.(James, p. 153) British casualty returns are easier to establish due to surviving records although there are discrepancies here too. The official total was 287 killed and 811 wounded during the campaign, while the individual ship totals listed in James do not add up to his eventual total of 1,148, coming in slightly under this figure. (James, p. 152) Most sources agree however that the total casualty figure is approximately 1,200.</ref> With only one exception aboard ''Scipion'', no accurate records were made by the French captains of their losses at the time. Thus the only clear casualty counts available are the sketchy reports of Saint-André and the records made by British officers aboard the captured ships, neither of which can be treated as completely reliable.<ref name="WJ153">James, p. 153</ref> Most sources accept that French casualties in the action numbered approximately 7,000, including around 3,000 captured, but these figures are vague and frequently do not agree with each other on details.<ref>As an example of this, the losses sustained aboard the sinking ''Vengeur'' have been variously reported as "very low besides the badly wounded," (James, p. 164) 150 survivors, (Gardiner, p. 33) and "over 600 drowned." (Tracy, p. 106)</ref> British casualties are easier to confirm, thanks to the survival of every [[ship's log]] from the British fleet. Here too there are discrepancies, but overall British casualties are generally given as around 1,200.<ref name="Casualties"/>
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| − | ==The convoy arrives==
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| − | With a large portion of his fleet no longer battleworthy, Howe was unable to resume his search for the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay. The [[Admiralty]], though unaware of Howe's specific circumstances, knew a battle had taken place through the arrival of [[HMS Audacious (1785)|HMS ''Audacious'']] in Portsmouth, and was preparing a second expedition under George Montagu. Montagu had returned to England after his unsuccessful May cruise, and was refitting in Portsmouth when ordered to sea again.<ref name="WJ169"/> His force of ten battleships was intended to both cover Howe's withdrawal from Biscay, and find and attack the French grain convoy. Montagu returned to sea on 3 June, and by 8 June was off Ushant searching for signs of either the French or Howe; unknown to him, neither had yet entered European waters. At 15:30 on 8 June Montagu spotted sails, and soon identified them as the enemy. He had located Cornic's squadron, which was also patrolling for the convoy and the returning fleets. Montagu gave chase and drove Cornic into Bertheaume Bay, where he blockaded the French squadron overnight, hoping to bring them to action the following day.<ref name="WJ171">James, p. 171</ref> However, on 9 June, Montagu sighted 19 French battleships appearing from the west—the remnants of Villaret's fleet. Hastily turning his ships, Montagu sailed south to avoid becoming trapped between two forces which might easily overwhelm him.<ref name="HM382">Williams, p. 382</ref> Villaret and Cornic gave chase for a day before turning east towards the safety of the French ports.<ref name="WJ171"/>
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| − | Howe benefited from Montagu's withdrawal, as his own battered fleet passed close to the scene of this stand-off on 10 June, pushing north into the English Channel.<ref name="WJ172"/> With Villaret and Cornic fortuitously pursuing Montagu to the south, Howe was free to pass Ushant without difficulty and arrived off [[Plymouth]] on 12 June, joined soon afterwards by Montagu. Villaret had anchored with Cornic in Bertheaume Bay the day before, but Saint-André refused to allow him to enter Brest until the republican attitudes of the town's population had been assessed.<ref name="WJ172"/> On 12 June, the convoy from America finally arrived off France, having lost just one ship in passage during a storm.<ref name="WJ172">James, p. 172</ref>
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| − | ==Aftermath==
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| − | Both Britain and France claimed victory in the battle: Britain by virtue of capturing or sinking seven French ships without losing any of her own and remaining in control of the battle site; France because the vital convoy had passed through the Atlantic unmolested and arrived in France without significant loss.<ref name="NT89"/> The two fleets were showered by their respective nations with both praise and criticism–the latter particularly directed at those captains not felt to have contributed significantly to the fighting.<ref name="WJ173">James, p. 173</ref> The British fleet in [[Spithead]] was treated with a Royal visit by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] and the entire royal household.<ref name="NT95">Tracy, p. 99, ''The Biographical memoir of Lord Howe''</ref>
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| − | ===France===
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| − | In France the revolutionary principles of ''égalité'' precluded extensive awards, but Villaret was promoted to vice-admiral and other minor awards were distributed to the admirals of the fleet. In addition the fleet's officers took part in a celebratory parade from Brest to Paris, accompanying the recently arrived food supplies. Opinion in France concerning the battle's outcome was divided; while many celebrated Saint-André's exaggerated accounts of victory in ''Le Moniteur'', senior naval officers disagreed.<ref name="WJ174">James, p. 174</ref> Among the dissenters was the highly experienced but recently dismissed Admiral [[Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec|Kerguelen]]. Kerguelen was disgusted by Villaret's failure to renew the battle after he had reformed his squadron, and felt that the French fleet could have been successful tactically as well as strategically if only Villaret had made greater efforts to engage the remains of Howe's fleet.<ref name="WJ175">James, p. 175</ref> The French Navy had suffered its worst losses in a single day since the [[Battle of La Hogue]] in 1692.<ref name="NR430"/>
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| − | Ultimately the revolutionary excess of the period would prove disastrous for the French Navy. Poor leadership, conflicting and arbitrary orders and the decimation of the experienced seamen in the ranks promoted a negative attitude in the French officer corps.<ref name="PP163"/> The French battlefleet did not contest British dominance in Northern European waters again, and their raiding operations repeatedly ended in failure at the hands of more confident British squadrons and the unforgiving Atlantic weather. By 1805, when the last great French fleet to take to the sea was crushed at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], poor training and low investment in the Navy had reduced its efficiency to levels unthinkable 20 years earlier.<ref name="PP163">Padfield, p. 163</ref>
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| − | ===Britain===
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| − | [[Image:Glorious First of June, Daniel Orme.jpg|thumb|right|''The celebrated victory obtained by the British Fleet under the Command of Earl Howe, over The French Fleet on The Glorious First of June, 1794'',<br/>[[Daniel Orme]], 1795]]
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| − | In Britain, numerous honors were bestowed on the fleet and its commanders. Howe, already an earl, refused any further elevation, and [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George]] was dissuaded from making him a [[Knight of the Garter]] by one of Howe's political opponents.<ref name="WJ179"/> Admiral Graves was elevated to the [[Peerage of Ireland]] as [[Baron Graves]], while Admiral Hood was made [[Viscount Bridport]].<ref>The title [[Viscount Hood]] was already in use as the title of his cousin the admiral [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]].</ref> Junior admirals Bowyer, Gardner, Pasley and Curtis were all made [[baronets]], and Bowyer and Pasley also received pensions of £1,000 a year to compensate them for their severe wounds.<ref name="WJ179">James, p. 179</ref> All first lieutenants were promoted to [[commander]] and numerous other officers were promoted in consequence of their actions. The thanks of parliament were unanimously passed to all who fought at the action and various other gifts and awards were distributed among the fleet.<ref name="RG39">Gardiner, p. 39</ref> A memorial to Captains John Hutt and John Harvey, both of whom had died of their wounds on 30 June, was raised in [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="ODNBJHarvey"/>
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| − | There was, however, a bitter consequence of the awards, rooted in Howe's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle, which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis.<ref name="NR430"/> Howe had appended a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed merited special reward for their part in the battle. The list included Admirals Graves, Hood, Bowyer, Gardner and Pasley, Captains Seymour, Pakenham, Cranfield-Berkeley, Gambier, John Harvey, Payne, Henry Harvey, Pringle, Duckworth, Elphinstone, Nichols and Hope. Also mentioned were Lieutenants Monkton and Donnelly.<ref name="WJ181">James, p. 181</ref> The list had omitted a number of officers who had served in the battle, and the justice of their omission was a highly controversial issue in the Navy.<ref name="NT90">Tracy, p. 90</ref> After studying the ship's logs and reports of the battle, the Admiralty minted a medal to be awarded to the living captains on the list only (although Captain [[Sir William Parker, 1st Baronet, of Harburn|William Parker]] of HMS ''Audacious'' was awarded one as well).<ref name="NR430"/> The captains excluded from the list were furious, and the furore from this selective commendation lasted years: in 1795 Admiral Caldwell quit the service in anger as a result,<ref name="ODNBCald">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4383 Caldwell, Sir Benjamin], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', J. K. Laughton, Retrieved 08 December 2007</ref> while [[Cuthbert Collingwood]], flag captain of ''Barfleur'', refused all awards for future service until the Glorious First of June medal was presented to him as well. He eventually received it after the [[Battle of Cape St Vincent]] in 1797.<ref name="ODNBColl">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5930?docPos=1 Collingwood, Cuthbert], ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', C. H. H. Owen, Retrieved 31 December 2007 </ref>
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| − | Bitterest of all was the [[whispering campaign]] directed at Anthony Molloy, captain of HMS ''Caesar''. Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe's orders on both 29 May and 1 June. Requesting an official court-martial to clear his name, Molloy's legal bid failed, and although his personal courage was not called into question, his professional ability was.<ref name="RG39">Gardiner, p. 39</ref> Molloy was dismissed his ship, a punishment which effectively fired him from the Navy.
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| − | Of the captured ships, several enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy, in particular [[HMS Sans Pareil|HMS ''Sans Pareil'']] which was not broken up for many years, and [[HMS Juste|HMS ''Juste'']], which was a popular command until her decommissioning at the [[Peace of Amiens]].<ref name="RG41">Gardiner, p. 41</ref> Of the other prizes, ''Achille'' and ''Northumberland'' were broken up as unserviceable soon after arrival in Britain, while ''Impétueux'' was destroyed in a dockyard fire while undergoing repairs. ''America'', the final prize, was commissioned into the Royal Navy as [[HMS Impetueux|HMS ''Impetueux'']] and remained in service until 1813.<ref name="RG40">Gardiner, p. 40</ref>
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{reflist|2}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | first = Claude
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| − | | authorlink = Claude Farrère
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| − | | year = 1956
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| − | | chapter = Chapitre IX: Révolution française
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| − | | title = Histoire de la Marine française
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| − | | publisher = Flammarion
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id =
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| − | }} OCLC 3184130
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| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Gardiner
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| − | | first = Robert
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| − | | authorlink =
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| − | | year = 2001 [1996]
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| − | | chapter = The Glorious First of June
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| − | | title = Fleet Battle and Blockade
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| − | | publisher = Caxton Editions
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 0-84067-363-X
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| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = James
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| − | | first = William
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| − | | authorlink = William James (naval historian)
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| − | | year = 2002 [1827]
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = The Naval History of Great Britain, Volume 1, 1793-1796
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| − | | publisher = Conway Martime Press
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 0-85177-905-0
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| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Jane
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| − | | first = Fred T.
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| − | | authorlink = Fred T. Jane
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| − | | year = 1997 [1912]
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = The British Battle-Fleet
| |
| − | | publisher = Conway Maritime Press
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 0-85177-723-6
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| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Padfield
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| − | | first = Peter
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| − | | authorlink =
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| − | | year = 2000 [1976]
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = Nelson's War
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| − | | publisher = Wordsworth Military Library
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 1-84022-225-5
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| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Rodger
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| − | | first = N.A.M.
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| − | | authorlink = Nicholas Rodger
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| − | | year = 2004
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = The Command of the Ocean
| |
| − | | publisher = Allan Lane
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 0-71399-411-8
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Smith
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| − | | first = Digby
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| − | | authorlink =
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| − | | year = 1998
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = The Napoleonic Wars Data Book
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| − | | publisher = Greenhill Books
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 0-85367-276-9
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Tracy
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| − | | first = Ed. Nicholas
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| − | | authorlink =
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| − | | year = 1998
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = The Naval Chronicle, Volume 1, 1793-1798
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| − | | publisher = Chatham Publishing
| |
| − | | location =
| |
| − | | id = ISBN 1-86176-091-4
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Williams
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| − | | first = Ed. Henry Smith
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| − | | authorlink =
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| − | | year = 1907
| |
| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = History of France, 1715–1815
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| − | | publisher = [[The Times]]
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id =
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| − | }}
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| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Woodman
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| − | | first = Richard
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| − | | authorlink =
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| − | | year = 2001
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| − | | chapter =
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| − | | title = The Sea Warriors
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| − | | publisher = Constable Publishers
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| − | | location =
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| − | | id = ISBN 1-84119-183-3
| |
| − | }}
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| − |
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| − | [[category: Politics and social sciences]]
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| − | [[category: Politics]]
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| − | [[category: History]]
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| − | {{credits|210492604}}
| |
