Difference between revisions of "Zhou Dynasty" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m
 
(11 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Contracted}}{{submitted}}
+
{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}
  
 +
[[Image:China 2a.jpg|thumb|250px|Boundaries of the Western '''Zhou Dynasty''' (1050–771 B.C.E.) in China]]
 +
The '''Zhou Dynasty''' (Chinese: 周朝; Pinyin: Zhōu Cháo; Wade-Giles: Chou Ch`ao) (1022 B.C.E. to 256 B.C.E.) followed the [[Shang dynasty|Shang (Yin) dynasty]] and preceded the [[Qin dynasty]] in [[China]]. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other in Chinese history, and the use of [[iron]] was introduced to China during this time. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the ancient stage as seen in early Western Zhou [[bronze]] inscriptions, to the beginnings of the modern stage, in the form of the archaic clerical script of the late Warring States period.
  
The '''Zhou Dynasty'''; 1022 B.C.E. to 256 B.C.E.) followed the [[Shang Dynasty|Shang (Yin) Dynasty]] and preceded the [[Qin Dynasty]] in [[China]]. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other in Chinese history, and the use of iron was introduced to China during this time. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the ancient stage as seen in early Western Zhou bronze inscriptions, to the beginnings of the modern stage, in the form of the archaic clerical script of the late Warring States period. The Zhou introduced the notion of the Mandate of Heaven, that is, that the King or Emperor reigned as the direct representative of the Gods. The belief developed that the earthly bureaucracy mirrors the heavenly, with the earth as the yang (masculine) asepct and heaven as the ying (feminine) aspect. It was essential to maintain harmony and balance between the two spheres, and what happens on earth influences heaven, and vice-versa.The ideal is to live life in harmany with forces of the Universe, to flow with, not against, the natural rhythms of life and of nature (''wuwei''). Thus, at a very early period, the Chinese developed an empathetic relationship with the natural world, which respected nature. The long-lasting Zhou dynasty gave stability to a large area of China for almost a millennium, allowing people to develop a sense of mutual responsibility and a shared view of life. Family responsibility, and duties towards the state, were stressed. The concept of the mandate of heaven has something in common with the European doctrine of the divine right of Kings, except that as that developed in medieval Europe (almost two thousand years later) it saw rebellion against the King as an unthinkable sin. The Chinese dogma recognized from the outset that the ruler could forfeit the Mandate, if his rule did not benefit the people. This was also emphasized by the great teacher, Kong Fu Zi (Confucius), 551-479) who lived during the Zhou dynasty at Lu, where he advised the government. He advocated humane co-operation, politeness and virtuous living (''Ren'', ethics, humaneness). Instead of co-ercing his subjects, the ruler should love them and lead by setting a virtuous example. Kong Fu Zi really believed that a polite, well ordered society in which everyone had a presecribed role, would banish hatred and war. Contemporary governments too often allow vested interests to domimate their agendas and to influence their policies for the benefit of these interests rather than of the elctorate. The radical idea that rulers should love their subject, and work for their welfare, was alive and well in China during the Zhou dynasty. Those who understand history from a providential point of view could well conclude that the length of the Zhou dynasty's reign was a consequence of their enjoying the Mandate of Heaven.
+
The Zhou introduced the notion of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], that is, that the king or emperor reigned as the direct representative of the [[god]]s. The belief developed that the earthly [[bureaucracy]] mirrors the heavenly, with the earth as the [[yin and yang|yang]] (masculine) aspect and heaven as the yin (feminine) aspect. It was essential to maintain harmony and balance between the two spheres, and what happens on earth influences heaven, and vice-versa. The ideal is to live life in harmony with forces of the universe, to flow with, not against, the natural rhythms of life and of nature ''([[wu-wei]])''. Thus, at a very early period, the Chinese developed an empathetic relationship with the natural world, which respected nature.
 +
 
 +
The long-lasting Zhou dynasty gave stability to a large area of China for almost a millennium, allowing people to develop a sense of mutual responsibility and a shared view of life. [[Family]] responsibilities and duties towards the state were stressed. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven has something in common with the [[Europe]]an doctrine of the [[divine right of kings]], except that as that developed in medieval Europe (almost two thousand years later) it saw rebellion against the king as an unthinkable sin. The Chinese [[dogma]] recognized from the outset that the ruler could forfeit the Mandate, if his rule did not benefit the people. This was also emphasized by the great teacher, [[Confucius]] (551-479 B.C.E.), who lived during the Zhou dynasty at Lu, where he advised the government. He advocated humane co-operation, politeness and virtuous living (''Ren'', ethics, humaneness). Instead of coercing his subjects, the ruler should love them and lead by setting a virtuous example. Confucius taught that a polite, well ordered society in which everyone had a prescribed role, would banish hatred and [[war]].  
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Contemporary governments too often allow vested interests to dominate their agendas and to influence their policies for the benefit of these interests rather than of the electorate. The radical idea that rulers should love their subject, and work for their welfare, was alive and well in China during the Zhou dynasty. Those who understand history from a providential point of view could well conclude that the length of the Zhou dynasty's reign was a consequence of their enjoying the Mandate of Heaven.  
  
 
==Mandate of Heaven==
 
==Mandate of Heaven==
In the Chinese historical tradition, the rulers of the Zhou displaced the Shang and legitimized their rule by invoking the Mandate of Heaven, the notion that the ruler (the "son of heaven") governed by divine right (granted by the Supreme God of Heaven) but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate. The doctrine explained and justified the demise of the Xia and Shang Dynasties and at the same time supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers. The Zhou dynasty was founded by the Ji family and had its capital at Hào (near the present-day city of Xi'an). Sharing the language and culture of the Shang (Yin), the early Zhou rulers, through conquest and colonization, gradually sinicized, that is, extended Shang (Yin) culture through much of China Proper north of the [[Yangtze River]].  According to the Zhou, the Shang had ruled unethically, squandering the resources of the kingdom.  The mandate required rulers to rule justly.  Each succeeding generation had to justify the dynasty's continued claim to hold the mandate. Negligence and abuse could revoke the mandate.  The will of the people, ultimately, sanctioned the king's rule.
+
{{readout||left|250px|The [[Mandate of Heaven]], requiring rulers to rule justly, was introduced by the Zhou Dynasty of [[China]]}}
 +
In the Chinese historical tradition, the rulers of the Zhou displaced the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and legitimized their rule by invoking the [[Mandate of Heaven]], the notion that the ruler (the "son of heaven") governed by divine right (granted by the Supreme God of Heaven) but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate. The doctrine explained and justified the demise of the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]] and Shang dynasties and at the same time supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers. The Zhou dynasty was founded by the Ji family and had its capital at Hào (near the present-day city of [[Xi'an]]). Sharing the language and culture of the Shang (Yin), the early Zhou rulers, through conquest and colonization, gradually extended Shang (Yin) culture through much of China Proper north of the [[Yangtze River]].
  
[[Image:China_2a.jpg|left|thumb|Western Zhou civilization.]]
+
According to the Zhou, the Shang had ruled unethically, squandering the resources of the kingdom. The mandate required rulers to rule justly. Each succeeding generation had to justify the dynasty's continued claim to hold the mandate. Negligence and abuse could revoke the mandate. The will of the people, ultimately, sanctioned the king's rule.
[[Image:ZhouVase.JPG|thumb|200px|Western Zhou dynasty vase with glass inlays, 4th-3rd century B.C.E., British Museum.]]
 
  
 
==Fēngjiàn (封建)==
 
==Fēngjiàn (封建)==
In the West, the Zhou period is often described as feudal because the Zhou's early rule invites comparison with [[Middle Ages|medieval rule in Europe]]. However, historians debate the meaning of the term ''feudal''; the more appropriate term for the Zhou Dynasty's political arrangement would be from the Chinese language itself: the ''Fēngjiàn'' (封建) system. The Zhou amalgam of city-states became progressively centralized and established increasingly impersonal political and economic institutions. These developments, which probably occurred in the later Zhou period, were manifested in greater central control over local governments and a more routinized agrarian taxation.
+
[[Image:ZhouVase.JPG|thumb|200px|Western Zhou dynasty vase with glass inlays, fourth-third century B.C.E., [[British Museum]]]]
 +
In the West, the Zhou period is often described as feudal because the Zhou's early rule invites comparison with [[Middle Ages|medieval rule in Europe]]. However, historians debate the meaning of the term ''feudal''; the more appropriate term for the Zhou Dynasty's political arrangement would be from the Chinese language itself: the ''Fēngjiàn'' (封建) system. The Zhou amalgam of [[city-state]]s became progressively centralized and established increasingly impersonal political and economic institutions. These developments, which probably occurred in the later Zhou period, were manifested in greater central control over local [[government]]s and a more routinized agrarian taxation.
  
 
==Western and Eastern Zhou==
 
==Western and Eastern Zhou==
Initially the Ji family was able to control the country firmly. In 771 BCE, after King You of Zhou had replaced his queen with a concubine Baosi, the capital was sacked by the joint force of the queen's father, who was the powerful Marquess of Shen, and a nomadic tribe. The queen's son King Ping of Zhou was proclaimed the new king by the nobles from the states of Zheng, Lü, Qin and the Marquess of Shen. The capital was moved eastward in 722 BCE to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province.  
+
Initially the Ji family was able to control the country firmly. In 771 B.C.E., after King You of Zhou had replaced his queen with a concubine, the capital was sacked by the joint force of the queen's father, who was the powerful Marquess of Shen, and a nomadic tribe. The queen's son, King Ping of Zhou, was proclaimed the new king by the nobles from the states of Zheng, Lü, Qin and the Marquess of Shen. The capital was moved eastward in 722 B.C.E. to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province.  
  
Because of this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into the '''Western Zhou''' (Xī Zhōu), lasting up until 771 BCE, and the '''Eastern Zhou''' (Dōng Zhōu) from 770 up to 256 BCE. The beginning year of the Western Zhou has been disputed - 1122 BCE, 1027 BCE and other years within the hundred years from late 12th century BC to late 11th century BC have been proposed. Chinese historians take 841 BC as the first year of consecutive annual dating of the history of China, based on the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' by Sima Qian. The Eastern Zhou corresponds roughly to two subperiods. The first, from 722 to 481 BCE, is called the Spring and Autumn Period, after a famous historical chronicle of the time; the second, which extends slightly past the 256 BCE end date of the Eastern Zhou, is known as the Warring States Period (480 to 221 BCE). This discrepancy is due to the fact that the ast Zhou king's reign ended in 256, 35 years before the beginning of the Qin dynasty which ended the Warring States period.
+
Because of this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into the '''Western Zhou''' (Xī Zhōu), lasting up until 771 B.C.E., and the '''Eastern Zhou''' (Dōng Zhōu) from 770 up to 256 B.C.E. The beginning year of the Western Zhou has been disputed—1122 B.C.E., 1027 B.C.E. and other years within the hundred years from late twelfth century B.C.E. to late eleventh century B.C.E. have been proposed. Chinese historians take 841 B.C.E. as the first year of consecutive annual dating of the history of [[China]], based on the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' by Sima Qian. The Eastern Zhou corresponds roughly to two sub-periods. The first, from 722 to 481 B.C.E., is called the Spring and Autumn Period, after a famous historical chronicle of the time; the second, which extends slightly past the 256 B.C.E. end date of the Eastern Zhou, is known as the [[Warring States period]] (480 to 221 B.C.E.). This discrepancy is due to the fact that the last Zhou king's reign ended in 256, 35 years before the beginning of the [[Qin dynasty]] which ended the Warring States period.
  
 
==Decline==
 
==Decline==
With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually diminished; the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. From Ping Wang onwards, the Zhou kings ruled in name only, with true power lying in the hands of powerful nobles. Towards the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the nobles did not even bother to acknowledge the Ji family symbolically and declared themselves to be kings. They wanted to be the king of the kings. Finally, the dynasty was obliterated by Qin Shi Huang's unification of China in 221 BCE. The Zhou had always had a concern for unity but in the end they could not sustain the untiy of their emppire, and lost the mandate of heaven.
+
With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually diminished; the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. From Ping Wang onwards, the Zhou kings ruled in name only, with true power lying in the hands of powerful nobles. Towards the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the nobles did not even bother to acknowledge the Ji family symbolically and declared themselves to be kings. They wanted to be the king of the kings. Finally, the dynasty was obliterated by Qin Shi Huang's unification of China in 221 B.C.E. The Zhou had always had a concern for unity but in the end they could not sustain the unity of their empire, and lost the mandate of heaven.
  
 
==Agriculture==
 
==Agriculture==
Agriculture in Zhou Dynasty was very intensive and in many cases directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles, who then gave their land to their serfs, similar to European feudalism. For example, a piece of land was divided into nine squares in the shape of the character for "water well," jing (井), with the grain from the middle square taken by the government and that of surrounding squares kept by individual farmers. This way, the government was able to store surplus food (such as rice) and distribute them in times of famine or bad harvest. Some important manufacturing sectors during this period include bronze making, which was integral in making weapons and farming tools. Again, these industries were dominated by the nobility who direct the production of such materials.
+
[[Agriculture]] in Zhou dynasty was intensive and in many cases directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles, who then gave their land to their serfs, similar to [[Europe]]an [[feudalism]]. For example, a piece of land was divided into nine squares in the shape of the character for "water well," jing (井), with the grain from the middle square taken by the government and that of surrounding squares kept by individual farmers. This way, the government was able to store surplus food (such as rice) and distribute them in times of [[famine]] or poor harvest. Some important [[manufacturing]] sectors during this period include [[bronze]] making, which was integral in making [[weapon]]s and farming [[tool]]s. Again, these [[industry|industries]] were dominated by the nobility who direct the production of such materials.
 +
 
 
==Legacy==
 
==Legacy==
The Zhou dynasty left a rich legacy. It gave stability and a large measure of peace to a large area of China from the eleventh to the third centuries BCE. During this period, the people developed a culture and a way of life and a world-view that bound them togther within a common universe. This paved the way for the unification of China by the Qin king, Shih Hunag-ti in 221B.C.E.. Kung Fu Zi, who lived during the Zhou dynasty, laid the foundations of what became Confucian thought, much of which concerned the correct ordering of society. Much Chinese thought foucused less on individual issues of morality, although they were discussed than on social responsibility, on the duties of subjects and rulers. Morality and benevolence were key concerns. A fundamental concern was balance and harmony, within society, between the rulers and the ruled, heaven and earth, the human and natural worlds. At the heart of Kong Fu Zi's teaching was the concept of the (''chun-tzu'') (gentleman), who has cultivated wisdom (''chi''), love of humanity (''ren''), courage (''yung'') and righteousness (''yi''). Kung Fu Zi championed the idea that education can improve the individual and that if all people were educated, universal peace would become a reality. Kung Fu Zi was a ''shih'', a new type of civil servant whose appointment was based on ability, not birth.  [http://www.geocities.com/clintonbennett/Lectures/confucianism.html]. Lao Tzu also lived during this period, possibly born in 600B.C.E., from whose teaching Daoism or Taosim developed. Lao Tzu is famous for his concept of ''wuwei'', that is, ride nature, do not try to conquer it. By going with the flow, opposites can be rconciled and ethical conduct becomes natural. He taught that that reality is two-sided; Yin (feminine; dark, cool, moist) and Yang (masculine; hot, dry, bright). Both are necessary and equal and nothing is exclusively either (all are a blend of both). These (and all apparent opposites) need to be kept in balance and harmony to avoid chaos [http://www.geocities.com/clintonbennett/Lectures/Taoism.html].
+
The Zhou dynasty left a rich legacy. It gave stability and a large measure of peace to a large area of [[China]] from the eleventh to the third centuries B.C.E. During this period, the people developed a culture and a way of life and a world-view that bound them together within a common universe. This paved the way for the unification of China by the Qin king, Shih Hunag-ti in 221 B.C.E.
 +
 
 +
[[Confucius]], who lived during the Zhou dynasty, laid the foundations of what became [[Confucianism|Confucian]] thought, much of which concerned the correct ordering of [[society]]. Much Chinese thought focused less on individual issues of morality, although they were discussed than on social responsibility, on the duties of subjects and rulers. Morality and benevolence were key concerns. A fundamental concern was balance and harmony, within society, between the rulers and the ruled, heaven and earth, the human and natural worlds. At the heart of Confucius' teaching was the concept of the ''(chun-tzu)'' (gentleman), who has cultivated wisdom ''(chi)'', love of humanity ''(ren)'', courage ''(yung)'' and righteousness ''(yi)''. Confucius championed the idea that [[education]] can improve the individual and that if all people were educated, universal peace would become a reality. Confucius was a ''shih'', a new type of [[civil service|civil servant]] whose appointment was based on ability, not birth.
 +
   
 +
[[Laozi]] also lived during this period, possibly born in 600 B.C.E., from whose teaching [[Daoism]] developed. Laozi is famous for his concept of ''[[wu-wei]]''—that is, ride nature, do not try to conquer it. By going with the flow, opposites can be reconciled and ethical conduct becomes natural. He taught that that reality is two-sided; [[Yin and yang|yin]] (feminine; dark, cool, moist) and yang (masculine; hot, dry, bright). Both are necessary and equal and nothing is exclusively either (all are a blend of both). These (and all apparent opposites) need to be kept in balance and harmony to avoid chaos.
  
 
==Zhou dynasty kings==
 
==Zhou dynasty kings==
Line 34: Line 46:
 
! style="background:#efefef" width=160 | Name by which most commonly known
 
! style="background:#efefef" width=160 | Name by which most commonly known
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
| Ji Fa<br>
+
| Ji Fa<br/>
| Wuwang<br>
+
| Wuwang<br/>
| ''1046 BCE-1043 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
| ''1046 B.C.E.-1043 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
| Zhou Wuwang<br>(King Wu of Zhou)
+
| Zhou Wuwang<br/>(King Wu of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
| Ji Song<br>
+
| Ji Song<br/>
| Chengwang<br>
+
| Chengwang<br/>
| ''1042 BCE-1021 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
| ''1042 B.C.E.-1021 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
| Zhou Chengwang<br>(King Cheng of Zhou)
+
| Zhou Chengwang<br/>(King Cheng of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
| Ji Zhao<br>
+
| Ji Zhao<br/>
| Kangwang<br>
+
| Kangwang<br/>
| ''1020 BCE-996 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
| ''1020 B.C.E.-996 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
| Zhou Kangwang<br>(King Kang of Zhou)
+
| Zhou Kangwang<br/>(King Kang of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
| Ji Xia<br>
+
| Ji Xia<br/>
| Zhaowang<br>
+
| Zhaowang<br/>
| ''995 BCE-977 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
| ''995 B.C.E.-977 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
| Zhou Zhaowang<br>(King Zhao of Zhou)
+
| Zhou Zhaowang<br/>(King Zhao of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Man<br>
+
|Ji Man<br/>
|Muwang<br>
+
|Muwang<br/>
|''976 BCE-922 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
|''976 B.C.E.-922 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
|Zhou Muwang<br>(King Mu of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Muwang<br/>(King Mu of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Yihu<br>
+
|Ji Yihu<br/>
|Gongwang<br>
+
|Gongwang<br/>
|''922 BCE-900 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
|''922 B.C.E.-900 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
|Zhou Gongwang<br>(King Gong of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Gongwang<br/>(King Gong of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Jian<br>
+
|Ji Jian<br/>
|Yiwang<br>
+
|Yiwang<br/>
|''899 BCE-892 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
|''899 B.C.E.-892 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
|Zhou Yiwang<br>King Yi of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Yiwang<br/>King Yi of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Pifang<br>
+
|Ji Pifang<br/>
|Xiaowang<br>
+
|Xiaowang<br/>
|''891 BCE-886 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
|''891 B.C.E.-886 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
|Zhou Xiaowang<br>(King Xiao of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Xiaowang<br/>(King Xiao of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Xie<br>
+
|Ji Xie<br/>
|Yiwang<br>
+
|Yiwang<br/>
|''885 BCE-878 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
|''885 B.C.E.-878 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
|Zhou Yiwang<br>(King Yi of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Yiwang<br/>(King Yi of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Hu<br>
+
|Ji Hu<br/>
|Liwang<br>
+
|Liwang<br/>
|''877 BCE-841 BCE''<sup>1</sup>
+
|''877 B.C.E.-841 B.C.E.''<sup>1</sup>
|Zhou Liwang<br>(King Li of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Liwang<br/>(King Li of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
 
| 
 
| 
|Gonghe (''regency'')<br>
+
|Gonghe ''(regency)''<br/>
|841 BCE-828 BCE
+
|841 B.C.E.-828 B.C.E.
 
|Gonghe
 
|Gonghe
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Jing<br>
+
|Ji Jing<br/>
|Xuanwang<br>
+
|Xuanwang<br/>
|827 BCE-782 BCE
+
|827 B.C.E.-782 B.C.E.
|Zhou Xuanwang<br>(King Xuan of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Xuanwang<br/>(King Xuan of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Gongsheng<br>
+
|Ji Gongsheng<br/>
|Youwang<br>
+
|Youwang<br/>
|781 BCE-771 BCE
+
|781 B.C.E.-771 B.C.E.
|Zhou Youwang<br>(King You of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Youwang<br/>(King You of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
 
! colspan="4" | End of Western Zhou / Beginning of Eastern Zhou
 
! colspan="4" | End of Western Zhou / Beginning of Eastern Zhou
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Yijiu<br>
+
|Ji Yijiu<br/>
|Pingwang<br>
+
|Pingwang<br/>
|770 BCE-720 BCE
+
|770 B.C.E.-720 B.C.E.
|Zhou Pingwang<br>(King Ping of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Pingwang<br/>(King Ping of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Lin<br>
+
|Ji Lin<br/>
|Huanwang<br>
+
|Huanwang<br/>
|719 BCE-697 BCE
+
|719 B.C.E.-697 B.C.E.
|Zhou Huanwang<br>(King Huan of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Huanwang<br/>(King Huan of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Tuo<br>
+
|Ji Tuo<br/>
|Zhuangwang<br>
+
|Zhuangwang<br/>
|696 BCE-682 BCE
+
|696 B.C.E.-682 B.C.E.
|Zhou Zhuangwang<br>(King Zhuang of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Zhuangwang<br/>(King Zhuang of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Huqi<br>
+
|Ji Huqi<br/>
|Xiwang<br>
+
|Xiwang<br/>
|681 BCE-677 BCE
+
|681 B.C.E.-677 B.C.E.
|Zhou Xiwang<br>(King Xi of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Xiwang<br/>(King Xi of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Lang<br>
+
|Ji Lang<br/>
|Huiwang<br>
+
|Huiwang<br/>
|676 BCE-652 BCE
+
|676 B.C.E.-652 B.C.E.
|Zhou Huiwang<br>(King Hui of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Huiwang<br/>(King Hui of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Zheng<br>
+
|Ji Zheng<br/>
|Xiangwang<br>
+
|Xiangwang<br/>
|651 BCE-619 BCE
+
|651 B.C.E.-619 B.C.E.
|Zhou Xiangwang<br>(King Xiang of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Xiangwang<br/>(King Xiang of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Renchen<br>
+
|Ji Renchen<br/>
|Qingwang<br>
+
|Qingwang<br/>
|618 BCE-613 BCE
+
|618 B.C.E.-613 B.C.E.
|Zhou Qingwang<br>(King Qing of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Qingwang<br/>(King Qing of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Ban<br>
+
|Ji Ban<br/>
|Kuangwang<br>
+
|Kuangwang<br/>
|612 BCE-607 BCE
+
|612 B.C.E.-607 B.C.E.
|Zhou Kuangwang<br>(King Kuang of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Kuangwang<br/>(King Kuang of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Yu<br>
+
|Ji Yu<br/>
|Dingwang<br>
+
|Dingwang<br/>
|606 BCE-586 BCE
+
|606 B.C.E.-586 B.C.E.
|Zhou Dingwang<br>(King Ding of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Dingwang<br/>(King Ding of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Yi<br>
+
|Ji Yi<br/>
|Jianwang<br>
+
|Jianwang<br/>
|585 BCE-572 BCE
+
|585 B.C.E.-572 B.C.E.
|Zhou Jianwang<br>(King Jian of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Jianwang<br/>(King Jian of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Xiexin<br>
+
|Ji Xiexin<br/>
|Lingwang<br>
+
|Lingwang<br/>
|571 BCE-545 BCE
+
|571 B.C.E.-545 B.C.E.
|Zhou Lingwang<br>(King Ling of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Lingwang<br/>(King Ling of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Gui<br>
+
|Ji Gui<br/>
|Jingwang<br>
+
|Jingwang<br/>
|544 BCE-521 BCE
+
|544 B.C.E.-521 B.C.E.
|Zhou Jingwang<br>(King Jing of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Jingwang<br/>(King Jing of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Meng<br>
+
|Ji Meng<br/>
|Daowang<br>
+
|Daowang<br/>
|520 BCE
+
|520 B.C.E.
|Zhou Daowang<br>(King Dao of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Daowang<br/>(King Dao of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Gai<br>
+
|Ji Gai<br/>
|Jingwang<br>
+
|Jingwang<br/>
|519 BCE-476 BCE
+
|519 B.C.E.-476 B.C.E.
|Zhou Jingwang<br>(King Jing of Zhou (Ji Gai))
+
|Zhou Jingwang<br/>(King Jing of Zhou (Ji Gai))
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Ren<br>
+
|Ji Ren<br/>
|Yuanwang<br>
+
|Yuanwang<br/>
|475 BCE-469 BCE
+
|475 B.C.E.-469 B.C.E.
|Zhou Yuanwang<br>(King Yuan of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Yuanwang<br/>(King Yuan of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Jie<br>
+
|Ji Jie<br/>
|Zhendingwang<br>
+
|Zhendingwang<br/>
|468 BCE-442 BCE
+
|468 B.C.E.-442 B.C.E.
|Zhou Zhendingwang<br>(King Zhending of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Zhendingwang<br/>(King Zhending of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Quji<br>
+
|Ji Quji<br/>
|Aiwang<br>
+
|Aiwang<br/>
|441 BCE
+
|441 B.C.E.
|Zhou Aiwang<br>(King Ai of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Aiwang<br/>(King Ai of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Shu<br>
+
|Ji Shu<br/>
|Siwang<br>
+
|Siwang<br/>
|441 BCE
+
|441 B.C.E.
|Zhou Siwang<br>(King Si of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Siwang<br/>(King Si of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Wei<br>
+
|Ji Wei<br/>
|Kaowang<br>
+
|Kaowang<br/>
|440 BCE-426 BCE
+
|440 B.C.E.-426 B.C.E.
|Zhou Kaowang<br>(King Kao of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Kaowang<br/>(King Kao of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Wu<br>
+
|Ji Wu<br/>
|Weiliewang<br>
+
|Weiliewang<br/>
|425 BCE-402 BCE
+
|425 B.C.E.-402 B.C.E.
|Zhou Weiliewang<br>(King Weilie of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Weiliewang<br/>(King Weilie of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Jiao<br>
+
|Ji Jiao<br/>
|Anwang<br>
+
|Anwang<br/>
|401 BCE-376 BCE
+
|401 B.C.E.-376 B.C.E.
|Zhou Anwang<br>(King An of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Anwang<br/>(King An of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Xi<br>
+
|Ji Xi<br/>
|Liewang<br>
+
|Liewang<br/>
|375 BCE-369 BCE
+
|375 B.C.E.-369 B.C.E.
|Zhou Liewang<br>(King Lie of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Liewang<br/>(King Lie of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Bian<br>
+
|Ji Bian<br/>
|Xianwang<br>
+
|Xianwang<br/>
|368 BCE-321 BCE
+
|368 B.C.E.-321 B.C.E.
|Zhou Xianwang<br>(King Xian of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Xianwang<br/>(King Xian of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Ding<br>
+
|Ji Ding<br/>
|Shenjingwang<br>
+
|Shenjingwang<br/>
|320 BCE-315 BCE
+
|320 B.C.E.-315 B.C.E.
|Zhou Shenjingwang<br>(King Shenjing of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Shenjingwang<br/>(King Shenjing of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
|Ji Yan<br>
+
|Ji Yan<br/>
|Nanwang<br>
+
|Nanwang<br/>
|314 BCE-256 BCE
+
|314 B.C.E.-256 B.C.E.
|Zhou Nanwang<br>(King Nan of Zhou)
+
|Zhou Nanwang<br/>(King Nan of Zhou)
 
|- align="center"
 
|- align="center"
 
| 
 
| 
|Huiwang<br>
+
|Huiwang<br/>
|255 BCE-249 BCE
+
|255 B.C.E.-249 B.C.E.
|Zhou Huiwang<sup>2</sup><br>(King Hui of Eastern Zhou)
+
|Zhou Huiwang<sup>2</sup><br/>(King Hui of Eastern Zhou)
 
|-
 
|-
| colspan="4" style="background-color: #EFEFEF"| <small>'''1''' The first generally accepted date in Chinese history is 841 BCE, the beginning of the Gonghe<br>regency. All dates prior to this are the subject of often vigorous dispute. The dates provided here<br>are those put forward by ''The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project'', the work of scholars<br>sponsored by the Chinese government which reported in 2000. They are given only as a guide.</small>
+
| colspan="4" style="background-color: #EFEFEF"| <small>'''1''' The first generally accepted date in Chinese history is 841 B.C.E., the beginning of the Gonghe<br/>regency. All dates prior to this are the subject of often vigorous dispute. The dates provided here<br/>are those put forward by ''The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project'', the work of scholars<br/>sponsored by the Chinese government which reported in 2000. They are given only as a guide.</small>
 
|-
 
|-
| colspan="4" style="background-color: #EFEFEF"| <small>'''2''' Nobles of the Ji family proclaimed King Hui as King Nan's successor after their capital, Luoyang,<br>fell to Qin forces in 256 BC. However Zhou resistance did not last long in the face of the Qin<br>advance and so King Nan is widely considered to have been the last emperor of the Zhou dynasty.</small>
+
| colspan="4" style="background-color: #EFEFEF"| <small>'''2''' Nobles of the Ji family proclaimed King Hui as King Nan's successor after their capital, Luoyang,<br/>fell to Qin forces in 256 B.C.E. However Zhou resistance did not last long in the face of the Qin<br/>advance and so King Nan is widely considered to have been the last emperor of the Zhou dynasty.</small>
 
|}
 
|}
  
==External links==  
+
==References==
 
+
* Gernet, Jacques. ''A History of Chinese Civilization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0521497817
 
+
* Hucker, Charles O. ''China to 1850: A Short History''. Stanford< CA: Stanford University Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0804709583
The official site of the Chou Dynasty genealogy by Lester D.K. Chow, president, Chou Clansmen Association of America, P.O. Box 4604, Honolulu, Hawaii 96812  Translated from Chinese text to English.
+
* Li, Xueqin. ''Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0300032864
http://www.geocities.com/zhouclan/chia_pu.html
+
* Shaughnessy, Edward L. ''Sources of Western Zhou History: Inscribed Bronze Vessels''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0520070288
 
+
* Schirokauer, Conrad, and Miranda Brown. ''A Brief History of Chinese Civilization''. Florence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing, 2006.  
  
  
[[Category:History and biography]]
 
[[Category:History]]
 
  
 +
[[Category:History of China]]
  
 
{{credit|64343996}}
 
{{credit|64343996}}

Latest revision as of 02:50, 6 October 2019


Boundaries of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1050–771 B.C.E.) in China

The Zhou Dynasty (Chinese: 周朝; Pinyin: Zhōu Cháo; Wade-Giles: Chou Ch`ao) (1022 B.C.E. to 256 B.C.E.) followed the Shang (Yin) dynasty and preceded the Qin dynasty in China. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other in Chinese history, and the use of iron was introduced to China during this time. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the ancient stage as seen in early Western Zhou bronze inscriptions, to the beginnings of the modern stage, in the form of the archaic clerical script of the late Warring States period.

The Zhou introduced the notion of the Mandate of Heaven, that is, that the king or emperor reigned as the direct representative of the gods. The belief developed that the earthly bureaucracy mirrors the heavenly, with the earth as the yang (masculine) aspect and heaven as the yin (feminine) aspect. It was essential to maintain harmony and balance between the two spheres, and what happens on earth influences heaven, and vice-versa. The ideal is to live life in harmony with forces of the universe, to flow with, not against, the natural rhythms of life and of nature (wu-wei). Thus, at a very early period, the Chinese developed an empathetic relationship with the natural world, which respected nature.

The long-lasting Zhou dynasty gave stability to a large area of China for almost a millennium, allowing people to develop a sense of mutual responsibility and a shared view of life. Family responsibilities and duties towards the state were stressed. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven has something in common with the European doctrine of the divine right of kings, except that as that developed in medieval Europe (almost two thousand years later) it saw rebellion against the king as an unthinkable sin. The Chinese dogma recognized from the outset that the ruler could forfeit the Mandate, if his rule did not benefit the people. This was also emphasized by the great teacher, Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.), who lived during the Zhou dynasty at Lu, where he advised the government. He advocated humane co-operation, politeness and virtuous living (Ren, ethics, humaneness). Instead of coercing his subjects, the ruler should love them and lead by setting a virtuous example. Confucius taught that a polite, well ordered society in which everyone had a prescribed role, would banish hatred and war.

Contemporary governments too often allow vested interests to dominate their agendas and to influence their policies for the benefit of these interests rather than of the electorate. The radical idea that rulers should love their subject, and work for their welfare, was alive and well in China during the Zhou dynasty. Those who understand history from a providential point of view could well conclude that the length of the Zhou dynasty's reign was a consequence of their enjoying the Mandate of Heaven.

Mandate of Heaven

Did you know?
The Mandate of Heaven, requiring rulers to rule justly, was introduced by the Zhou Dynasty of China

In the Chinese historical tradition, the rulers of the Zhou displaced the Shang and legitimized their rule by invoking the Mandate of Heaven, the notion that the ruler (the "son of heaven") governed by divine right (granted by the Supreme God of Heaven) but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate. The doctrine explained and justified the demise of the Xia and Shang dynasties and at the same time supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers. The Zhou dynasty was founded by the Ji family and had its capital at Hào (near the present-day city of Xi'an). Sharing the language and culture of the Shang (Yin), the early Zhou rulers, through conquest and colonization, gradually extended Shang (Yin) culture through much of China Proper north of the Yangtze River.

According to the Zhou, the Shang had ruled unethically, squandering the resources of the kingdom. The mandate required rulers to rule justly. Each succeeding generation had to justify the dynasty's continued claim to hold the mandate. Negligence and abuse could revoke the mandate. The will of the people, ultimately, sanctioned the king's rule.

Fēngjiàn (封建)

Western Zhou dynasty vase with glass inlays, fourth-third century B.C.E., British Museum

In the West, the Zhou period is often described as feudal because the Zhou's early rule invites comparison with medieval rule in Europe. However, historians debate the meaning of the term feudal; the more appropriate term for the Zhou Dynasty's political arrangement would be from the Chinese language itself: the Fēngjiàn (封建) system. The Zhou amalgam of city-states became progressively centralized and established increasingly impersonal political and economic institutions. These developments, which probably occurred in the later Zhou period, were manifested in greater central control over local governments and a more routinized agrarian taxation.

Western and Eastern Zhou

Initially the Ji family was able to control the country firmly. In 771 B.C.E., after King You of Zhou had replaced his queen with a concubine, the capital was sacked by the joint force of the queen's father, who was the powerful Marquess of Shen, and a nomadic tribe. The queen's son, King Ping of Zhou, was proclaimed the new king by the nobles from the states of Zheng, Lü, Qin and the Marquess of Shen. The capital was moved eastward in 722 B.C.E. to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province.

Because of this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into the Western Zhou (Xī Zhōu), lasting up until 771 B.C.E., and the Eastern Zhou (Dōng Zhōu) from 770 up to 256 B.C.E. The beginning year of the Western Zhou has been disputed—1122 B.C.E., 1027 B.C.E. and other years within the hundred years from late twelfth century B.C.E. to late eleventh century B.C.E. have been proposed. Chinese historians take 841 B.C.E. as the first year of consecutive annual dating of the history of China, based on the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. The Eastern Zhou corresponds roughly to two sub-periods. The first, from 722 to 481 B.C.E., is called the Spring and Autumn Period, after a famous historical chronicle of the time; the second, which extends slightly past the 256 B.C.E. end date of the Eastern Zhou, is known as the Warring States period (480 to 221 B.C.E.). This discrepancy is due to the fact that the last Zhou king's reign ended in 256, 35 years before the beginning of the Qin dynasty which ended the Warring States period.

Decline

With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually diminished; the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. From Ping Wang onwards, the Zhou kings ruled in name only, with true power lying in the hands of powerful nobles. Towards the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the nobles did not even bother to acknowledge the Ji family symbolically and declared themselves to be kings. They wanted to be the king of the kings. Finally, the dynasty was obliterated by Qin Shi Huang's unification of China in 221 B.C.E. The Zhou had always had a concern for unity but in the end they could not sustain the unity of their empire, and lost the mandate of heaven.

Agriculture

Agriculture in Zhou dynasty was intensive and in many cases directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles, who then gave their land to their serfs, similar to European feudalism. For example, a piece of land was divided into nine squares in the shape of the character for "water well," jing (井), with the grain from the middle square taken by the government and that of surrounding squares kept by individual farmers. This way, the government was able to store surplus food (such as rice) and distribute them in times of famine or poor harvest. Some important manufacturing sectors during this period include bronze making, which was integral in making weapons and farming tools. Again, these industries were dominated by the nobility who direct the production of such materials.

Legacy

The Zhou dynasty left a rich legacy. It gave stability and a large measure of peace to a large area of China from the eleventh to the third centuries B.C.E. During this period, the people developed a culture and a way of life and a world-view that bound them together within a common universe. This paved the way for the unification of China by the Qin king, Shih Hunag-ti in 221 B.C.E.

Confucius, who lived during the Zhou dynasty, laid the foundations of what became Confucian thought, much of which concerned the correct ordering of society. Much Chinese thought focused less on individual issues of morality, although they were discussed than on social responsibility, on the duties of subjects and rulers. Morality and benevolence were key concerns. A fundamental concern was balance and harmony, within society, between the rulers and the ruled, heaven and earth, the human and natural worlds. At the heart of Confucius' teaching was the concept of the (chun-tzu) (gentleman), who has cultivated wisdom (chi), love of humanity (ren), courage (yung) and righteousness (yi). Confucius championed the idea that education can improve the individual and that if all people were educated, universal peace would become a reality. Confucius was a shih, a new type of civil servant whose appointment was based on ability, not birth.

Laozi also lived during this period, possibly born in 600 B.C.E., from whose teaching Daoism developed. Laozi is famous for his concept of wu-wei—that is, ride nature, do not try to conquer it. By going with the flow, opposites can be reconciled and ethical conduct becomes natural. He taught that that reality is two-sided; yin (feminine; dark, cool, moist) and yang (masculine; hot, dry, bright). Both are necessary and equal and nothing is exclusively either (all are a blend of both). These (and all apparent opposites) need to be kept in balance and harmony to avoid chaos.

Zhou dynasty kings

Personal name Posthumous name Reign years1 Name by which most commonly known
Ji Fa
Wuwang
1046 B.C.E.-1043 B.C.E.1 Zhou Wuwang
(King Wu of Zhou)
Ji Song
Chengwang
1042 B.C.E.-1021 B.C.E.1 Zhou Chengwang
(King Cheng of Zhou)
Ji Zhao
Kangwang
1020 B.C.E.-996 B.C.E.1 Zhou Kangwang
(King Kang of Zhou)
Ji Xia
Zhaowang
995 B.C.E.-977 B.C.E.1 Zhou Zhaowang
(King Zhao of Zhou)
Ji Man
Muwang
976 B.C.E.-922 B.C.E.1 Zhou Muwang
(King Mu of Zhou)
Ji Yihu
Gongwang
922 B.C.E.-900 B.C.E.1 Zhou Gongwang
(King Gong of Zhou)
Ji Jian
Yiwang
899 B.C.E.-892 B.C.E.1 Zhou Yiwang
King Yi of Zhou)
Ji Pifang
Xiaowang
891 B.C.E.-886 B.C.E.1 Zhou Xiaowang
(King Xiao of Zhou)
Ji Xie
Yiwang
885 B.C.E.-878 B.C.E.1 Zhou Yiwang
(King Yi of Zhou)
Ji Hu
Liwang
877 B.C.E.-841 B.C.E.1 Zhou Liwang
(King Li of Zhou)
  Gonghe (regency)
841 B.C.E.-828 B.C.E. Gonghe
Ji Jing
Xuanwang
827 B.C.E.-782 B.C.E. Zhou Xuanwang
(King Xuan of Zhou)
Ji Gongsheng
Youwang
781 B.C.E.-771 B.C.E. Zhou Youwang
(King You of Zhou)
End of Western Zhou / Beginning of Eastern Zhou
Ji Yijiu
Pingwang
770 B.C.E.-720 B.C.E. Zhou Pingwang
(King Ping of Zhou)
Ji Lin
Huanwang
719 B.C.E.-697 B.C.E. Zhou Huanwang
(King Huan of Zhou)
Ji Tuo
Zhuangwang
696 B.C.E.-682 B.C.E. Zhou Zhuangwang
(King Zhuang of Zhou)
Ji Huqi
Xiwang
681 B.C.E.-677 B.C.E. Zhou Xiwang
(King Xi of Zhou)
Ji Lang
Huiwang
676 B.C.E.-652 B.C.E. Zhou Huiwang
(King Hui of Zhou)
Ji Zheng
Xiangwang
651 B.C.E.-619 B.C.E. Zhou Xiangwang
(King Xiang of Zhou)
Ji Renchen
Qingwang
618 B.C.E.-613 B.C.E. Zhou Qingwang
(King Qing of Zhou)
Ji Ban
Kuangwang
612 B.C.E.-607 B.C.E. Zhou Kuangwang
(King Kuang of Zhou)
Ji Yu
Dingwang
606 B.C.E.-586 B.C.E. Zhou Dingwang
(King Ding of Zhou)
Ji Yi
Jianwang
585 B.C.E.-572 B.C.E. Zhou Jianwang
(King Jian of Zhou)
Ji Xiexin
Lingwang
571 B.C.E.-545 B.C.E. Zhou Lingwang
(King Ling of Zhou)
Ji Gui
Jingwang
544 B.C.E.-521 B.C.E. Zhou Jingwang
(King Jing of Zhou)
Ji Meng
Daowang
520 B.C.E. Zhou Daowang
(King Dao of Zhou)
Ji Gai
Jingwang
519 B.C.E.-476 B.C.E. Zhou Jingwang
(King Jing of Zhou (Ji Gai))
Ji Ren
Yuanwang
475 B.C.E.-469 B.C.E. Zhou Yuanwang
(King Yuan of Zhou)
Ji Jie
Zhendingwang
468 B.C.E.-442 B.C.E. Zhou Zhendingwang
(King Zhending of Zhou)
Ji Quji
Aiwang
441 B.C.E. Zhou Aiwang
(King Ai of Zhou)
Ji Shu
Siwang
441 B.C.E. Zhou Siwang
(King Si of Zhou)
Ji Wei
Kaowang
440 B.C.E.-426 B.C.E. Zhou Kaowang
(King Kao of Zhou)
Ji Wu
Weiliewang
425 B.C.E.-402 B.C.E. Zhou Weiliewang
(King Weilie of Zhou)
Ji Jiao
Anwang
401 B.C.E.-376 B.C.E. Zhou Anwang
(King An of Zhou)
Ji Xi
Liewang
375 B.C.E.-369 B.C.E. Zhou Liewang
(King Lie of Zhou)
Ji Bian
Xianwang
368 B.C.E.-321 B.C.E. Zhou Xianwang
(King Xian of Zhou)
Ji Ding
Shenjingwang
320 B.C.E.-315 B.C.E. Zhou Shenjingwang
(King Shenjing of Zhou)
Ji Yan
Nanwang
314 B.C.E.-256 B.C.E. Zhou Nanwang
(King Nan of Zhou)
  Huiwang
255 B.C.E.-249 B.C.E. Zhou Huiwang2
(King Hui of Eastern Zhou)
1 The first generally accepted date in Chinese history is 841 B.C.E., the beginning of the Gonghe
regency. All dates prior to this are the subject of often vigorous dispute. The dates provided here
are those put forward by The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project, the work of scholars
sponsored by the Chinese government which reported in 2000. They are given only as a guide.
2 Nobles of the Ji family proclaimed King Hui as King Nan's successor after their capital, Luoyang,
fell to Qin forces in 256 B.C.E. However Zhou resistance did not last long in the face of the Qin
advance and so King Nan is widely considered to have been the last emperor of the Zhou dynasty.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0521497817
  • Hucker, Charles O. China to 1850: A Short History. Stanford< CA: Stanford University Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0804709583
  • Li, Xueqin. Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0300032864
  • Shaughnessy, Edward L. Sources of Western Zhou History: Inscribed Bronze Vessels. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0520070288
  • Schirokauer, Conrad, and Miranda Brown. A Brief History of Chinese Civilization. Florence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing, 2006.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.