Difference between revisions of "Varanasi" - New World Encyclopedia

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| population_as_of = 2001
 
| population_as_of = 2001
 
| population_total = 3147927
 
| population_total = 3147927
| population_total_cite =<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-1.htm|title = Ranking of Districts by Population Size in 1991 and 2001|publisher = Government of Uttar Pradesh|accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref>
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| population_total_cite = <ref> ''Government of Uttar Pradesh''. [http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-1.htm Ranking of Districts by Population Size in 1991 and 2001] Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref>
 
| population_density = 1995
 
| population_density = 1995
| population_density_cite =<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-3.htm|title = Ranking of Districts by Population Density|publisher = Government of Uttar Pradesh|accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref>
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| population_density_cite = <ref> ''Government of Uttar Pradesh''. [http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-3.htm Ranking of Districts by Population Density] Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref>
 
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The Indian city of '''Varanasi''', (also known as Benares, Banarasm Benaras, Kashi, or Kasi), considered one of the seven sacred cities within [[Hinduism|Hindu]] belief, is a constant attraction for devout pilgrims seeking the holy, healing, waters of the [[Ganges River]]. The Ganges cuts through Varanasi, providing the city with a large abundance of river access points. The large quantity of river front property contributed to the early development of Varanasi as an important religious city. It is not only one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in [[India]], but throughout the world as well.
  
 
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A major city of Hindu learning, Varanasi is commonly referred to as the the "''city of temples and learning''," a name which reflects the rich cultural heritage of the city. As a cultural nexus in northern [[India]], Varanasi has pioneered its own distinct style of [[music]], as well as having educated many distinguished intellectuals. It has remained a center of [[religion|religious]], [[education]]al, and [[art]]istic activities throughout its history.
The Indian city of Varanasi, also known as Benares, Banarasm Benaras, Kashi, or Kasi, is a contstant attraction for devout Hinus seeking the holy waters of the Ganges River. The Ganges River, considered holy in the Hindu religion, cuts through Varanasi, providing the city with a large abundance of river access points. The large quantity of river front property contributed to the early development of Varanasi as an important religious city. Possibly due to religious undertones, the city one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the entire country of India. <ref name=bsfw>{{cite book | last = Lannoy | first = Richard | title = Benares Seen from Within | publisher = [[University of Washington Press]] | pages = Back Flap | date = October 1999 | isbn = 029597835X | oclc = 42919796}}</ref>
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Hindu belief regards Varanasi as the site of the creation of man, as well as the city in which the god, [[Shiva]], spent much time. The city is also important to Buddhists, being only 8 miles from the site of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha's]] first lecture in [[Sarnath]]. Buddha is known to have traveled and taught in Varanasi as well.  
Varanasi is commonl refered to as the the "city of temples and learning", a name which reflects the rich cultural heritage of the city. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bhu.ac.in/varanasi.htm | title = Varanasi : The eternal city | publisher = [[Banaras Hindu University]] | accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref> As a cultural nexus in northern India, Varanasi has pioneered its own distict style of music, as well as educated many distinguished intellectuals. Currently, Varanasi hosts the Banaras Hindu University, an institution dedicated to continuing educational idealism in the region.  
 
  
 
==Geography==
 
==Geography==
[[Image:Babasteve-View of Varanasi from the Ganges.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Varanasi is closely associated with the [[Ganges]] and has many temples along its banks]]
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The most distinct feature of Varanasi is the [[Ganges River]], which draws pilgrims to its shores for its [[religion|religious]] qualities. Geographically, the [[Ganges River]] defines the borders of Varanasi through its flood plain. Due to the annual floods that plague the area, Varanasi is necessarily located on the high ground above the dangers of the roaring [[river]]s. On the opposite side of Varanasi from the Ganges lies the [[Varuna River]], which also defines the shape of the city by a flood plain. Despite the fact that Varanasi is located on relatively high ground for the area, the mean elevation only reaches 80.71 m.
 
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[[Image:Babasteve-View of Varanasi from the Ganges.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Varanasi is closely associated with the [[Ganges]] and has many temples along its banks]]
The most distinct feature of Varanasi is the Ganges River, which draws pilgrims to its shores for its religious qualities. Geographically, the Ganges River defines the borders of Varanasi through its flood plain. Due to the annual floods that plague the area, Varanasi is necessarily located on the high ground above the dangers of the roaring rivers. On the opposite side of Varanasi from the Ganges lies the Varuna river, which also defines the shape of the city by a flood plain. Despite the fact that Varanasi is located on relatively high ground for the area, the mean elevation only reaches 80.71&nbsp;[[metre|m]].<ref name=varanasiairtrip>{{cite web | url = http://www.atrip4india.com/india-cities/varanasi.htm | title = Varanasi | accessdate = 2006-08-18 | work = India-cities | publisher = Atrip4india.com}}</ref>
 
  
Because Varanasi has been continuously inhabited for such a long period, a debate rages about the borders of the ancient city in corrolation to the modern metropolis. The search to define the original Varanasi is further complicated by conflicting reports in ancient documents, sme of which sharply diverge when measuring natural features. Many ancient documents also refer to Varanasi as being situated between the Ganges, Varuna, and Assi rivers. This topic is particularly contentious as modern scholars have failed to locate remains of a river Assi notable enough to be cited by ancient historians.  
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Because Varanasi has been continuously inhabited for such a long period, a debate rages about the borders of the ancient city in correlation to the modern metropolis. The search to define the original Varanasi is further complicated by conflicting reports in ancient documents, some of which sharply diverge when measuring natural features. Many ancient documents also refer to Varanasi as being situated between the Ganges, Varuna, and [[Assi river]]s. This topic is particularly contentious as modern scholars have failed to locate remains of a river Assi notable enough to be cited by ancient historians.  
  
In modern times, the city of Varanasi serves as the district headquarters for the Varanasi district of India. According to the Indian political system, urban groupings called districts represnt the interests of their inhabitants and participate in minor legislative activites. The Varansai district, officially refered to as the Varanasi Urban Agglomeration due to the fact that it includes a variety of sub-units, covers approximately 43 square miles <ref name=heritageUNESCO>{{cite web | url = http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/46RanaSingh.pdf | title = Varanasi as Heritage City (India) on the scale the UNESCO World Heritage List: From Contestation to Conservation | accessdate = 2006-08-18 | last = Singh | first = Rana P.B. | format = [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] | work = EASAS papers | publisher = Swedish South Asian Studies Network}}</ref> and stretches between 82° 56’E - 83° 03’E and 25° 14’N - 25° 23.5’N.<ref name=heritageUNESCO/>  
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In modern times, the city of Varanasi serves as the district headquarters for the [[Varanasi district]] of [[India]]. According to the Indian political system, urban groupings called districts represent the interests of their inhabitants and participate in minor legislative activities. The Varanasi district, officially referred to as the [[Varanasi Urban Agglomeration]] due to the fact that it includes a variety of sub-units, covers approximately 43 square miles and stretches between 82° 56’E - 83° 03’E and 25° 14’N - 25° 23.5’N. <ref name=heritageUNESCO>Rana P.B Singh, [http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/46RanaSingh.pdf Varanasi as Heritage City (India) on the scale the UNESCO World ''Heritage List: From Contestation to Conservation''] Swedish South Asian Studies Network. Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref>  
  
 
===Climate===
 
===Climate===
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Varanasi, like much of India, experiences long hot summers and cool winters. Officially classified as a subtropical climate, India experiences extreme variation in [[temperature]] and weather conditions between seasons. [[Winter]]s in Varanasi, and surrounding areas, are remarkably cool, with temperatures often reaching the low 40s and 50s on the [[Fahrenheit]] scale. [[Summer]]s, however, are much warmer in the holy city, with temperatures often reaching 90-115° Fahrenheit. Summer warmth also brings along its own natural hazards, such as the challenging [[monsoon]] season that precedes summer annually, and the harsh dry winds called Loo that sweep across the subcontinent during the summer. During the summer, water levels become increasingly important to the survival of the city. In recent years pollution and dam construction have combined to lower the water table of the river, a fact which is made more threatening by the low annual rainfall of only 44 inches (1110 millimeters) <ref name=delhitourism> ''DelhiTourism.com''. [http://www.delhitourism.com/varanasi-tourism/ Varanasi tourism] Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref>.
  
Varansi, like much of India, experiences long hot summers and cool winters. Officially classified as a subtropical climate, India experiences extreme variation in tempature and weather conditions between seasons. Winters in Varansi, and surrounding areas, are remarkably cool, with tempatures often reaching the low 40s and 50s on the Farenheit scale. <ref name=varanasiairtrip/> Summers, however, are much warmer in the holy city, with tempatures often reachign 90-115° Farenheit. <ref name=varanasiairtrip/> Summer warmth also brings along its own natural hazards, such as the chalenging monsoon season that precedes summer annually, and the harsh dry winds called Loo that sweep across the subcontinent during the summer. During the summer, water levels become increasingly important to the survival of the city. In recent years pollution and dam construction have combined to lower the water table of the river, a fact which is made more threatening by the low annual rainfall of only 1110&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]] (44&nbsp;[[inch|in]]).<ref name=delhitourism>{{cite web | url = http://www.delhitourism.com/varanasi-tourism/ | title = Varanasi tourism | accessdate = 2006-08-18 | publisher = DelhiTourism.com}}</ref>.
 
  
 
==People and culture==
 
==People and culture==
[[Image:Varanasiganga.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Situated on the banks of river Ganga, Varanasi attracts thousands of Hindu piligrims every year.]]
 
  
 
===Religion===
 
===Religion===
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[[Image:Varanasiganga.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Situated on the banks of river Ganga, Varanasi attracts thousands of Hindu pilgrims every year.]]
  
The idea of Varanasi as a religious site traces back to the earliest creation myths of the region. One myth, that gained popularity with the rise of Hinduism, states that the Varuna and Assi rivers flowed out the first person when the world was created. Guided by this story, Varanasi ( the area between the two rivers) came to be regarded as the holiest area of land. The vision of varanasi as a religious center was further enhanced by the Hindu idea that the city was the site where the Hindu god Shiva spent their time. Devout Hindus who complete pilgrimages to the region believe, that by bathing in the rivers, Shiva will aid in wiping clean any mental or emotional impurities. It is also believed in the Hindu faith that by dying in the city of Varansi, a soul can effectively bypass the reincarnation process. The idea behind this concept is that Varansi is so holy, that any soul who leaves a body in its borders is naturally pure enough to enter the afterlife without the purification process of rebirth. Essentially the city is thought to endow its inhabitants, whether dead or alive, with the highest form of spiritual purity. Over a million pilgrims voyage to Varanasi annually to take part in the cleansing associated with the city.  
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The idea of Varanasi as a [[Religion|religious]] site traces back to the earliest creation myths of the region. One myth, that gained popularity with the rise of [[Hinduism]], states that the Varuna and Assi rivers flowed out the first person when the world was created. Guided by this story, Varanasi (the area between the two rivers) came to be regarded as the holiest area of land. The vision of Varanasi as a religious center was further enhanced by the Hindu idea that the city was the site where the Hindu god [[Shiva]] spent his time. Devout [[Hinduism|Hindus]] who complete pilgrimages to the region believe that by bathing in the rivers, Shiva will aid in wiping clean any mental or emotional impurities. It is also believed in the Hindu faith that by dying in the city of Varanasi, a soul can effectively bypass the [[reincarnation]] process. The idea behind this concept is that Varanasi is so holy, that any soul who leaves a body in its borders is naturally pure enough to enter the afterlife without the purification process of rebirth. Essentially the city is thought to endow its inhabitants, whether dead or alive, with the highest form of spiritual purity. Over a million pilgrims voyage to Varanasi annually to take part in the cleansing associated with the city.  
  
While Varanasi is predominately associated with Hinduism, strong ties to the Budhist and Jainist community also exist in the area. A large park, called Sarnath, which lies on the fringes of the city is thought to be the original site for the inception of Budhism. It is thought, by followers of the philosophy, that Sarnath is the site where Gautama Buddha gave his first lecture about the guiding tenets of Budhism. After delineating the goals of the philosophy, Gautama Buddha declared the park as a pilgrimage site. Following this announcement, Budhist pilgrims flock annually to the area, in hopes of fulfilling their religious duties to the greatest degree possible. Other pilgrimage sites announced with Varansi include: [[Kushinagar]], [[Bodh Gaya]], and [[Lumbini]]. To commerate the original lecture of Gautama Budha, Budhists in the area preserve the Chaukhadi Stupa at the spot where he was believed to have stood during the original sermon. For Jainists, the historical significance of the region draws from the belief that it is the birthplace of Parshvanatha, an important figure in the religion. A lesser felt cultural influence in the area is Islam, that while visible, is not often considered a prominent religion in the area.  
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While Varanasi is predominately associated with Hinduism, strong ties to [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] also exist in the area. A large park, called [[Sarnath]], which lies on the fringes of the city is thought to be the original site for the inception of Buddhism. It is thought, by followers of the philosophy, that Sarnath is the site where [[Gautama Buddha]] gave his first lecture on the guiding tenets of Buddhism. After delineating the goals of the philosophy, Gautama Buddha declared the park as a [[pilgrimage]] site. Following this announcement, Buddhist pilgrims flock annually to the area, in hopes of fulfilling their religious duties to the greatest degree possible. Other pilgrimage sites announced with Varanasi include: [[Kushinagar]], [[Bodh Gaya]], and [[Lumbini]]. To commemorate the original lecture of Gautama Buddha, Buddhists in the area preserve the [[Chaukhadi Stupa]] at the spot where he was believed to have stood during the original sermon. For Jainists, the historical significance of the region draws from the belief that it is the birthplace of [[Parshvanatha]], an important figure in the religion. A lesser felt cultural influence in the area is [[Islam]], that while visible, is not often considered a prominent religion in the area.  
 
   
 
   
[[Image:Ganges ceremony.jpg|thumb|250px|right|People performing Hindu ceremony at one of the ghats of Varanasi]]  .
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====Major Temples====
 
 
====Temples====
 
Varanasi is a city of temples. Almost every road crossing has a nearby temple. Such small temples form the basis of daily local prayers and other rituals. But there are many large temples too, erected at different times through out the history of Varanasi.
 
 
 
[[Vishwanath Temple|Kashi Vishwanath Temple]], also called Golden Temple, which in its present shape was built in 1780 by Maharani [[Ahilyabai Holkar]] of [[Indore]], is located on the outskirts of the Ganga. This temple makes Varanasi a place of great religious importance to the Hindus, as Vishweshwara or Vishwanatha, the aforementioned Jyotirlinga of the Lord Shiva is enshrined here. It is said that a single view of Vishwanatha Jyotirlinga is considered to merit more than that of other jyotirlingas. A [[Naubatkhana]] was built up in front of the Temple by the collector Mohammed Ibrahim Khan at the instance of Governor General [[Warren Hastings]] in 1785. In 1839, Punjab Kesari, the Sikh Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the ruler of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] donated gold to cover the two domes of the temple. On [[January 28]], [[1983]] the Temple was taken over by the government of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and its management was transferred to a trust with Late Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh, then Kashi Naresh, as president and an executive committee with Divisional Commissioner as chairman.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://varanasi.nic.in/temple/KASHI.html | title = Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir Varanasi | publisher = National Informatics Centre, Government of India | accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref>. The official website of the Shri Kashi Vishwanath temple[[http://www.shrikashivishwanath.org Kashi Vishwanath]] was launched on 23rd Jul 2007 and gives details about temple activities as well as facilities for online booking of various sevas and pujas.
 
 
 
The temple was once destroyed by Aurangzeb who built a mosque on it. It was later resurrected at a location near the mosque, and is many times a cause of local strain among Hindus and Muslims.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98dec06/head1.htm | title = Countrywide alert on Masjid demolition anniversary | publisher = [[The Tribune]] | date = [[1998]]-[[12-06]] | accessdate = 2007-02-05]]}}</ref>
 
  
[[Image:Monkey Temple Varanasi.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Durga]] Temple or Monkey Temple]]
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As a religious center, Varanasi is dotted with a wide variety of temples and other places of worship. While there are many smaller temples that have importance to their congregation, many of the temples of Varanasi have gained significance on a worldwide scale for their alleged holy properties. Perhaps the most famous of all the temples of Varanasi, [[the Golden Temple]] (Vishwanath temple) attracts large gatherings of devout Hindus. According to Hindu belief, the Golden Temple is the resting place of the Jyotirlinga of lord [[Shiva]]. The relic is thought to have healing properties and be able to elevate the spiritual level of all who see the remains.  
Durga Temple, also called Monkey temple, was built at some point of time in 18th century by a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] [[Maharani]]. The temple got its name as 'Monkey temple' because of the presence of large number of monkeys in the temple. According to legends, the present statue of Goddess Durga was not made by man but appeared on its own in the temple. Thousands of Hindu devotees visit the [[Durga]] temple during [[Navratri]] and other auspicious occasions. Non-Hindus can enter the courtyard of the Durga temple but not the inner sanctum.
 
  
The architecture is of Nagara Style, which is typical of North India. The temple is accompanied by a rectangular tank of water called Durga Kund. The temple has multi-tiered spires and is stained red with ochre, signifying the red colour of Durga. The Kund was earlier connected to the river itself thus refreshing the water. This tunnel was later closed, leading to locked water which is replenished only by rain or drainage from the Temple. Every year on the occasion of [[Nag panchami]], the act of depicting Lord [[Vishnu]] reclining on the coiled-up [[Shesha]] is repeated in the Kund.
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The Golden Temple, made famous for religious reasons, also gains attention for its unique [[architecture]] and historical importance. The structure on the banks of the Ganges was an early focus of rivalry between Hindu and [[Muslim]] worshipers. According to historical sources, an early temple was destroyed in a religious struggle between the two religions, and a Muslim [[mosque]] was built over the remains of the Hindu temple. In response, a Hindu temple was built nearby its original location. The contention over the space continues to be a cause of tension between the religions. <ref>''The Tribune''. December 6, 1998. [http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98dec06/head1.htm Countrywide alert on Masjid demolition anniversary] Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref> In another possibly contentious move, the management of the temple was assumed by the [[Uttar Pradesh]] government in 1983. Due to the government's actions, all current and future decisions about the temple rest within the authority of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh. <ref>''National Informatics Centre, Government of India''. [http://varanasi.nic.in/temple/KASHI.html Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir Varanasi] Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref> Many hope that a centralized authority will ease tensions regarding the temple.  
  
[[Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple (Varanasi)|Sankat Mochan Temple]] is dedicated to Lord [[Hanuman]] and is very popular with the local citizens. It is a place for many yearly religious as well as cultural festivals.On 7 March 2006, one of the three explosions carried out by Islamic militants hit the temple, while the aarti, in which numerous worshippers and wedding attendees participated,was in progress.  
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Another significant temple in Varanasi is the [[Durga Temple]], also referred to as the Monkey Temple. While the Golden Temple attracts Hindu and non-Hindu tourists alike for its rich architecture and unique beauty, the Monkey Temple is not often included on touring itineraries for non-Hindus. In this temple, non-Hindus are not allowed to enter the inner sanctum, and must be content to enjoy the beauty of the outer courtyard only.  
  
The new Vishwanath Temple, called Birla Mandir, mainly funded by Raja Birla of the [[Birla family|Birla family of industrialists]], was built as a replica of the old Kashi Vishwanath Temple.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indnav.com/servlet/Browse?mt=goToName&name=Birla+Temple+(new+Vishwanath+Temple) | title = Birla Temple (new Vishwanath Temple) | accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref> Planned by [[Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya]], the temple is part of the Banaras Hindu University, and stands for national revival. The temple is open to people of all castes and religions.
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Visitors to the Monkey Temple also immediately recognize the root of its unique name: Monkey Temple derives from the large number of [[monkey]]s that are visible in the decorations of the temple. Monkey depictions are not the only unique feature of the temple, as the architecture of the temple is also distinct. Following the traditional Nagara style of architecture, the temple is distinguished by spires and a bright red color. According to Hindu ideology, the color red is representative of the Hindu goddess [[Durga]]. Visitors who wish to view a representation of Durga need look no farther that the large central statue of the goddess. According to legend, the central Durga statue of the temple was not made by human hands, but appeared due to celestial intervention.
[[Kadar Temple ]] is also dedicated to Lord Shiva. this is very popular because it is called [[svyambu Ling]] of Shiva .it is near [[Harischandra Ghat]].it has two part one Shiva and seacond is Parvati.some pandit says one is visnu(Hari) seacond part is Shive(Har).
 
  
 
====Ghats====
 
====Ghats====
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[[Image:Ganges ceremony.jpg|thumb|275px|People performing Hindu ceremony at one of the ghats of Varanasi]] 
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The tern ghat has significance as both a noun representing a place for spiritual cleansing, and a verb describing the actual cleansing process. Due to the religious significance of the [[Ganges River]] and Varanasi itself, the area is marked by a large proliferation of ghats for spiritual reasons. Over 100 cleansing gnats exist in Varanasi on the river's edge, and pilgrims who bathe in the Ganges expect that spiritual rebirth will occur as a result. Some of the ghats on the Ganges, however, serve as [[cremation]] sites for devout Hindus, who believe that souls can better reach the afterlife near the Ganges. The trend for cremation on the Ganges can be traced back to early Hindu histories, where it is said that [[Lord Brahma]] sacrificed ten horses. Other traditions state that the Hindu Goddess [[Parvati]] hid one of her earrings on the banks of the Ganges, and  the Hindu lord Shiva spent eternity looking for the lost adornment. Myths like this reinforce the idea that the Hindu gods are present on the banks of the Ganges and are able to intervene on behalf of pilgrims.
  
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Ghats have always been a significant part of life in Varanasi, serving to dictate religious life as well as secular life. In regards to secular life, housing prices in the city are dictated by their distance from the ghats. Due to the smoke from cremation and large amount of pilgrims at busy ghats, housing near the ghats is seen as less desirable. Middle to Upper class housing is located much farther away from the busy river's edge.
  
Regions near the banks of river Ganga are extremely crowded and house several Hindu temples, narrow winding lanes and road-side shops. The main residential areas of Varanasi (especially for the middle and upper classes) are situated in regions far from the [[ghats]]; they are more spacious and less polluted. Such a place in an Indian city is called a housing colony. Varanasi has nearly 100 ghats, most of which are bathing ghats, while some others are for cremation. According to Hindu belief, dying at Kasi ensures release from the eternal cycle of birth and rebirth. Many of these ghats were built when the Marathas controlled the city and the [[Scindias]], the [[Peshwas]], [[Holkars]] and [[Bhonsles]] stand out as patrons of present day Varanasi. Even today many of the ghats are privately owned. ''Shivala'' or ''Kali'' ghat is still owned by the former [[Maharaja]] of Kasi.
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===Art===
  
Various legends are associated with the ghats and it is believed that ''Dasaswamedh Ghat'' is where Lord [[Brahma]] sacrificed 10 horses in a [[yajna]]. ''Manikarnika Ghat'' is the place where Lord [[Vishnu]] dug a pit with his Chakra and while performing various penances filled it with perspiration. As Lord Shiva watched him, his earring (''Manik'') fell into the pit, hence the name. According to another legend, in order to keep Lord Shiva moving around with his devotees, Goddess Parvati asked him to find her earrings, which she hid, lost on the bank of Ganga and make Lord Shiva stay at the place and search forever. It is said that when the body is cremated at Mani Karnika Ghat Lord Shiva asks every soul whether they have seen the earring (Mani Karnika). Other interesting ghats are ''Man Mandir Ghat'' built in 1770 C.E. by Jai Singh of [[Jaipur]], the intrepid astronomer who built his observatories here, ''Mansarover Ghat'' built by [[Man Singh]] of [[Amber]]. ''Bachraj'' is used by Jain devotees for it has three river bank Jain temples. ''Tulsi Ghat'' is where [[Tulsidas]] wrote [[Ramcharitmanas]]. ''Lalita Ghat'' was built by late [[Nepalese monarchy|King of Nepal.]]
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Due to the wide variety of [[culture]]s that intersect in the religious city, Varanasi has long been considered a center for cultural development and artistic expression. Most notably, the [[art]] of the city represents the diversity of its inhabitants, ranging from traditional handicrafts like woodcarving to modern expressions of cultural diversity. The area is particularly noted for its eminence in [[wood crafts]], [[metallurgy]], ornamental pieces, and [[toy making]].  
  
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While physical artistic production is a vital part of the Varanasi culture, the city also receives attention for its literary legacy. Varanasi has played host to a wide variety of famous Indian writers, including: [[Kabir]], [[Ravi Das]], [[Tulsidas]], [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]], [[Jayshankar Prasad]], [[Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla]], [[Munshi Prem Chand]], [[Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar]], [[Devaki Nandan Khatri]], [[Hazari Prasad Dwivedi]], [[Tegh Ali]], [[Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya]], [[Vagish Shastri]], [[Baldev Upadhyaya]], [[Vidya Niwas Mishra]], [[Kashi Nath Singh]], [[Namvar Singh]], [[Rudra Kashikeya]], and [[Nirgun]]. Much of the [[literature]] of the area is a result of the multitude of [[University|universities]] and [[college]]s in the region. As shown in the literature produced, a major focus of education in the region is the traditional epic form, the root of most Hindu legends.
  
===Art===
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[[Music]] is also a cultural arena for Varanasi, with many of artists of the region choosing to express themselves auditorily. As is also seen in the literary scene, traditional forms are highly visible. In many cases the folk music and traditional methods of [[dancing]] continue to be popular, gaining an audience over more modern techniques.
A holy city, Varanasi does not take a backseat when it comes to fine arts and literature. Great Indian writers have lived in this city from [[Kabir]], Ravi Das, and Tulsidas to [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]], [[Jayshankar Prasad]], [[Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla]], Munshi Prem Chand, Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar, Devaki Nandan Khatri, [[Hazari Prasad Dwivedi]], Tegh Ali, [[Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya]], [[Vagish Shastri]], [[Baldev Upadhyaya]], [[Vidya Niwas Mishra]], [[Kashi Nath Singh]], Namvar Singh, Rudra Kashikeya, Nirgun among many other notables.
 
[[Image:Wall paintings, Varanasi, 1974.JPG|thumb|220 px|Wall paintings, Varanasi, 1973]]
 
  
Art lovers and historians like Rai Krishnadas, his son Prof. [[Anand Krishna]], musicians like Pt. [[Omkarnath Thakur]],P t. Ravi Shankar, Ustad [[Bismillah Khan]], [[Siddheshwari Devi]], Dr. [[Lalmani Misra]] and his son Dr. [[Gopal Shankar Misra]], Dr. N. [[Rajam]], Dr.Rajbhan Singh, Pt. [[Anokhelal]], Pt. [[Samta Prasad]], [[Kanthe Maharaj]], Pt. M. V. Kalvint, Sitara Devi, Gopi Krishna, Pt. Kishan Maharaj, Rajan and Sajan, Mahadev Mishra, Girija Devi and numerous others have kept the city alive to the spiritual aspect of fine arts apart from their ability to entertain. Numerous festivals are celebrated that preserve traditional styles of classical and folk culture. All night, open music concerts like ones organised at Sankat Mochan Temple, [[Hori]], [[Kajri]] and [[Chaiti]] Mela, [[Budwa Mangal]], are annual features that draw connoisseurs from all over.
 
  
 
==Economy==
 
==Economy==
Varanasi has several small cottage industries, including [[Silk]] [[sari]] making, the production of textiles such as hand-woven carpets, and handicrafts. The ''Banarasi Pan'' (betel leaves) and ''Banarasi Khoa'' (a milk product, somewhat similar to cheese) are popular, and the related small-scale industries employ many people. [[Indian Railways]] runs a major diesel locomotive factory in Varanasi, [[Diesel Locomotive Works]] (DLW). According to Macaulay, Varanasi was the "city which, in wealth, population, dignity and sanctity was among the foremost in Asia". He described the commercial importance saying "from the looms of Benaras went forth the most delicate silks that adorned the halls of St. James and of Vesailles."<ref name=leaflet2/><ref>{{cite web | title = Varanasi | url = http://www.freeindia.org/dynamic/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=165&page=2 | accessdate = 2007-03-07 | year = 2003 | work = Tourism of India | pages = 2 | quote = all along the shore lay great fleets of vessels laden with rich merchandise. From the looms of Benaras went forth the most delicate silks, that adorned the halls of St. James and of Versailles, and in the bazaars, the muslins of Bengal and sabres of Oude were mingled with the jewels of Golconda and the shawls of Cashmere | publisher = HinduNet Inc.}}</ref>
+
[[Image:Bangladeshi style Rickshaw.jpg|thumbnail|275px|right|A typical rickshaw]]
 +
Traditionally the [[Economics|economy]] of Varanasi is export based, with the culturally rich city providing luxury goods to [[Europe]]an metropolises. It is recorded that fleets of vessels laden with rich merchandise covered the shores of the city bound for destinations such as Versailles and Bengal. Lord Macaulay was to describe Varanasi as a "city which, in wealth, population, dignity and sanctity was among the foremost in Asia." <ref>''Tourism of India''. 2003. [http://www.freeindia.org/dynamic/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=165&page=2 Varanasi] Retrieved December 16, 2007. </ref>  
  
 +
Prominent among the goods available to western markets was luxury [[silk]], handmade in the traditional way to be worn in [[sari]]s. While western nations did not desire the silk in order to make saris, the intricate weaving of Varanasi silk was recognized globally as a forerunner in the [[textile]] market.
  
==Transport==
+
In more modern times many of the exports from Varanasi are traded on a much smaller scale. Instead of reaching into the far markets of western [[Europe]], dairy product exports and [[betel]] leaves reach closer markets. The trend towards local trading is beginning to change, however, as the [[Indian Railway]] has selected Varanasi to serve as a major factory center. Many hope that the Indian Railway will be helpful in transitioning the economy from cottage industry to large scale production.
[[Image:Bangladeshi style Rickshaw.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|A typical rickshaw]]
 
[[Auto Rickshaw]] and [[Rickshaw]] are the most widely available [[public transport]] within Varanasi. In outer regions of the city, mini-buses are common. Small boats and small [[Steamboat|steamers]] are used to cross the river Ganga.
 
  
Varanasi is well connected by air, rail and buses with all the important places of India. Its distance from [[Delhi]] is 776&nbsp;km. The Babatpur airport is about 25 [[Kilometre|km]] from the city center and it is well connected to Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, and Nepal. All the famous Airlines like Jet Airways, Kingfisher Airlines, Indian, Spicejet, and Alliance Air operate from here.
+
As more of the world becomes aware of the cultural and religious significance of Varanasi, the economy is expected to be bolstered by returns from the [[tourism]] industry. The tourism industry is already beginning to form a large part of the Varanasi income, but hopes continue that this particular part of the economy will boom as more and more western nations become aware of the riches that Varanasi has to offer.
 
 
One of the major factors for sustainment of Varanasi for such a long time as an inhabited city, is its effective transport between different cities. From ancient times the city was connected to cities like [[Taxila]], [[Gazipur]], [[Patna|Pataliputra]], [[Vaishali]], [[Ayodhya]], [[Gorakhpur]], [[Agra]] etc.
 
 
 
The city was connected through a single road from Taxila going through Pataliputra during [[Mauryan empire]]. This road was later renovated and extended by [[Sher Shah Suri]] during 16th century, which was later to be known as the famous [[Grand Trunk Road]].
 
 
 
 
 
==Tourism==
 
Probably due to its unique culture, Varanasi is a major tourist destination for foreign tourists in India. A number of 3, 4 and 5 [[Star (classification)|star]] hotels are present in the city. All sort of cuisines are available mostly as street food due to rich and hospitable culture of Varanasi.
 
 
 
Varanasi is a noted centre for silk weaving and brassware. Fine silks and brocaded fabrics, exquisite saris, brassware, jewellery, woodcraft, carpets, wall hangings, lamp shades and masks of Hindu and Buddhist deities are some of Varanasi's shopping attractions. The main shopping areas include the Chowk, Godaulia, Vishwanath Lane, Lahurabir and Thatheri Bazaar. [[www.discovervaranasi.org]]<ref name=leaflet2/>b
 
  
 +
A major concern for Varanasi in the face of increased tourism and industrialization are the transportation problems that plague the area. While the city itself is connected to other major metropolises through air transport, travel within the city limits still proves problematic. [[Rickshaw]]s and Auto Rickshaws are still a common site of Varanasi streets, and while these modes of transportation are picturesque, they contribute to traffic jams and slow movement on city streets.
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 109: Line 91:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
* Singh, Rana P.B. [http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/46RanaSingh.pdf Varanasi as Heritage City (India) on the scale the UNESCO World Heritage List: From Contestation to Conservation.] ''Swedish South Asian Studies Network''. Retrieved November 3, 2007.
+
* Gutschow, Niels. 2006. ''Benares the sacred landscape of Vārāṇasī''. Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges. ISBN 9783936681048
 +
* Lewis, Brenda Ralph. 2002. ''Great Civilizations''. Bath: Parragon Publishing. ISBN 0752561413
 +
* Singh, Rana P. B. [http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/46RanaSingh.pdf Varanasi as Heritage City (India) on the scale the UNESCO World Heritage List: From Contestation to Conservation.] ''Swedish South Asian Studies Network''. Retrieved November 3, 2007.
 
* Singh, Rana P. B., and Pravin S. Rana. 2002. Banaras region a spiritual & cultural guide. Pilgrimage & cosmology series, 1. Varanasi: Indica Books. ISBN 9788186569245
 
* Singh, Rana P. B., and Pravin S. Rana. 2002. Banaras region a spiritual & cultural guide. Pilgrimage & cosmology series, 1. Varanasi: Indica Books. ISBN 9788186569245
* Gutschow, Niels. 2006. ''Benares the sacred landscape of Vārāṇasī''. Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges. ISBN 9783936681048
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Varanasi}}
+
All links retrieved May 3, 2023.
* [http://varanasi.nic.in/ District Varanasi Official Website] - Official website of Varanasi District and City
+
* [http://varanasi.nic.in/ District Varanasi Official Website] - Official website of Varanasi District and City Retrieved December 13, 2007.
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/Uttar_Pradesh/Localities/Varanasi}}
 
* {{wikitravel}}
 
  
  

Latest revision as of 14:36, 3 May 2023


  Varanasi
Uttar Pradesh • India
Map indicating the location of Varanasi
Location of Varanasi
Coordinates: 25°19′60″N 83°00′00″E / 25.3333, 83
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area
Elevation
1,550 km² (598 sq mi)
• 80.71 m (265 ft)
District(s) Varanasi
Population
• Density
3,147,927[1] (2001)
• 1,995 /km² (5,167 /sq mi)[2]
Mayor kaushalendra singh
Codes
• Pincode
• Telephone
• Vehicle

• 221 001
• +0542
• UP-65

Coordinates: 25°19′60″N 83°00′00″E / 25.3333, 83 The Indian city of Varanasi, (also known as Benares, Banarasm Benaras, Kashi, or Kasi), considered one of the seven sacred cities within Hindu belief, is a constant attraction for devout pilgrims seeking the holy, healing, waters of the Ganges River. The Ganges cuts through Varanasi, providing the city with a large abundance of river access points. The large quantity of river front property contributed to the early development of Varanasi as an important religious city. It is not only one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in India, but throughout the world as well.

A major city of Hindu learning, Varanasi is commonly referred to as the the "city of temples and learning," a name which reflects the rich cultural heritage of the city. As a cultural nexus in northern India, Varanasi has pioneered its own distinct style of music, as well as having educated many distinguished intellectuals. It has remained a center of religious, educational, and artistic activities throughout its history.

Hindu belief regards Varanasi as the site of the creation of man, as well as the city in which the god, Shiva, spent much time. The city is also important to Buddhists, being only 8 miles from the site of Buddha's first lecture in Sarnath. Buddha is known to have traveled and taught in Varanasi as well.

Geography

The most distinct feature of Varanasi is the Ganges River, which draws pilgrims to its shores for its religious qualities. Geographically, the Ganges River defines the borders of Varanasi through its flood plain. Due to the annual floods that plague the area, Varanasi is necessarily located on the high ground above the dangers of the roaring rivers. On the opposite side of Varanasi from the Ganges lies the Varuna River, which also defines the shape of the city by a flood plain. Despite the fact that Varanasi is located on relatively high ground for the area, the mean elevation only reaches 80.71 m.

Varanasi is closely associated with the Ganges and has many temples along its banks

Because Varanasi has been continuously inhabited for such a long period, a debate rages about the borders of the ancient city in correlation to the modern metropolis. The search to define the original Varanasi is further complicated by conflicting reports in ancient documents, some of which sharply diverge when measuring natural features. Many ancient documents also refer to Varanasi as being situated between the Ganges, Varuna, and Assi rivers. This topic is particularly contentious as modern scholars have failed to locate remains of a river Assi notable enough to be cited by ancient historians.

In modern times, the city of Varanasi serves as the district headquarters for the Varanasi district of India. According to the Indian political system, urban groupings called districts represent the interests of their inhabitants and participate in minor legislative activities. The Varanasi district, officially referred to as the Varanasi Urban Agglomeration due to the fact that it includes a variety of sub-units, covers approximately 43 square miles and stretches between 82° 56’E - 83° 03’E and 25° 14’N - 25° 23.5’N. [3]

Climate

Varanasi, like much of India, experiences long hot summers and cool winters. Officially classified as a subtropical climate, India experiences extreme variation in temperature and weather conditions between seasons. Winters in Varanasi, and surrounding areas, are remarkably cool, with temperatures often reaching the low 40s and 50s on the Fahrenheit scale. Summers, however, are much warmer in the holy city, with temperatures often reaching 90-115° Fahrenheit. Summer warmth also brings along its own natural hazards, such as the challenging monsoon season that precedes summer annually, and the harsh dry winds called Loo that sweep across the subcontinent during the summer. During the summer, water levels become increasingly important to the survival of the city. In recent years pollution and dam construction have combined to lower the water table of the river, a fact which is made more threatening by the low annual rainfall of only 44 inches (1110 millimeters) [4].


People and culture

Religion

Situated on the banks of river Ganga, Varanasi attracts thousands of Hindu pilgrims every year.

The idea of Varanasi as a religious site traces back to the earliest creation myths of the region. One myth, that gained popularity with the rise of Hinduism, states that the Varuna and Assi rivers flowed out the first person when the world was created. Guided by this story, Varanasi (the area between the two rivers) came to be regarded as the holiest area of land. The vision of Varanasi as a religious center was further enhanced by the Hindu idea that the city was the site where the Hindu god Shiva spent his time. Devout Hindus who complete pilgrimages to the region believe that by bathing in the rivers, Shiva will aid in wiping clean any mental or emotional impurities. It is also believed in the Hindu faith that by dying in the city of Varanasi, a soul can effectively bypass the reincarnation process. The idea behind this concept is that Varanasi is so holy, that any soul who leaves a body in its borders is naturally pure enough to enter the afterlife without the purification process of rebirth. Essentially the city is thought to endow its inhabitants, whether dead or alive, with the highest form of spiritual purity. Over a million pilgrims voyage to Varanasi annually to take part in the cleansing associated with the city.

While Varanasi is predominately associated with Hinduism, strong ties to Buddhism and Jainism also exist in the area. A large park, called Sarnath, which lies on the fringes of the city is thought to be the original site for the inception of Buddhism. It is thought, by followers of the philosophy, that Sarnath is the site where Gautama Buddha gave his first lecture on the guiding tenets of Buddhism. After delineating the goals of the philosophy, Gautama Buddha declared the park as a pilgrimage site. Following this announcement, Buddhist pilgrims flock annually to the area, in hopes of fulfilling their religious duties to the greatest degree possible. Other pilgrimage sites announced with Varanasi include: Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, and Lumbini. To commemorate the original lecture of Gautama Buddha, Buddhists in the area preserve the Chaukhadi Stupa at the spot where he was believed to have stood during the original sermon. For Jainists, the historical significance of the region draws from the belief that it is the birthplace of Parshvanatha, an important figure in the religion. A lesser felt cultural influence in the area is Islam, that while visible, is not often considered a prominent religion in the area.

Major Temples

As a religious center, Varanasi is dotted with a wide variety of temples and other places of worship. While there are many smaller temples that have importance to their congregation, many of the temples of Varanasi have gained significance on a worldwide scale for their alleged holy properties. Perhaps the most famous of all the temples of Varanasi, the Golden Temple (Vishwanath temple) attracts large gatherings of devout Hindus. According to Hindu belief, the Golden Temple is the resting place of the Jyotirlinga of lord Shiva. The relic is thought to have healing properties and be able to elevate the spiritual level of all who see the remains.

The Golden Temple, made famous for religious reasons, also gains attention for its unique architecture and historical importance. The structure on the banks of the Ganges was an early focus of rivalry between Hindu and Muslim worshipers. According to historical sources, an early temple was destroyed in a religious struggle between the two religions, and a Muslim mosque was built over the remains of the Hindu temple. In response, a Hindu temple was built nearby its original location. The contention over the space continues to be a cause of tension between the religions. [5] In another possibly contentious move, the management of the temple was assumed by the Uttar Pradesh government in 1983. Due to the government's actions, all current and future decisions about the temple rest within the authority of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh. [6] Many hope that a centralized authority will ease tensions regarding the temple.

Another significant temple in Varanasi is the Durga Temple, also referred to as the Monkey Temple. While the Golden Temple attracts Hindu and non-Hindu tourists alike for its rich architecture and unique beauty, the Monkey Temple is not often included on touring itineraries for non-Hindus. In this temple, non-Hindus are not allowed to enter the inner sanctum, and must be content to enjoy the beauty of the outer courtyard only.

Visitors to the Monkey Temple also immediately recognize the root of its unique name: Monkey Temple derives from the large number of monkeys that are visible in the decorations of the temple. Monkey depictions are not the only unique feature of the temple, as the architecture of the temple is also distinct. Following the traditional Nagara style of architecture, the temple is distinguished by spires and a bright red color. According to Hindu ideology, the color red is representative of the Hindu goddess Durga. Visitors who wish to view a representation of Durga need look no farther that the large central statue of the goddess. According to legend, the central Durga statue of the temple was not made by human hands, but appeared due to celestial intervention.

Ghats

People performing Hindu ceremony at one of the ghats of Varanasi

The tern ghat has significance as both a noun representing a place for spiritual cleansing, and a verb describing the actual cleansing process. Due to the religious significance of the Ganges River and Varanasi itself, the area is marked by a large proliferation of ghats for spiritual reasons. Over 100 cleansing gnats exist in Varanasi on the river's edge, and pilgrims who bathe in the Ganges expect that spiritual rebirth will occur as a result. Some of the ghats on the Ganges, however, serve as cremation sites for devout Hindus, who believe that souls can better reach the afterlife near the Ganges. The trend for cremation on the Ganges can be traced back to early Hindu histories, where it is said that Lord Brahma sacrificed ten horses. Other traditions state that the Hindu Goddess Parvati hid one of her earrings on the banks of the Ganges, and the Hindu lord Shiva spent eternity looking for the lost adornment. Myths like this reinforce the idea that the Hindu gods are present on the banks of the Ganges and are able to intervene on behalf of pilgrims.

Ghats have always been a significant part of life in Varanasi, serving to dictate religious life as well as secular life. In regards to secular life, housing prices in the city are dictated by their distance from the ghats. Due to the smoke from cremation and large amount of pilgrims at busy ghats, housing near the ghats is seen as less desirable. Middle to Upper class housing is located much farther away from the busy river's edge.

Art

Due to the wide variety of cultures that intersect in the religious city, Varanasi has long been considered a center for cultural development and artistic expression. Most notably, the art of the city represents the diversity of its inhabitants, ranging from traditional handicrafts like woodcarving to modern expressions of cultural diversity. The area is particularly noted for its eminence in wood crafts, metallurgy, ornamental pieces, and toy making.

While physical artistic production is a vital part of the Varanasi culture, the city also receives attention for its literary legacy. Varanasi has played host to a wide variety of famous Indian writers, including: Kabir, Ravi Das, Tulsidas, Bharatendu Harishchandra, Jayshankar Prasad, Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla, Munshi Prem Chand, Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar, Devaki Nandan Khatri, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Tegh Ali, Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya, Vagish Shastri, Baldev Upadhyaya, Vidya Niwas Mishra, Kashi Nath Singh, Namvar Singh, Rudra Kashikeya, and Nirgun. Much of the literature of the area is a result of the multitude of universities and colleges in the region. As shown in the literature produced, a major focus of education in the region is the traditional epic form, the root of most Hindu legends.

Music is also a cultural arena for Varanasi, with many of artists of the region choosing to express themselves auditorily. As is also seen in the literary scene, traditional forms are highly visible. In many cases the folk music and traditional methods of dancing continue to be popular, gaining an audience over more modern techniques.


Economy

A typical rickshaw

Traditionally the economy of Varanasi is export based, with the culturally rich city providing luxury goods to European metropolises. It is recorded that fleets of vessels laden with rich merchandise covered the shores of the city bound for destinations such as Versailles and Bengal. Lord Macaulay was to describe Varanasi as a "city which, in wealth, population, dignity and sanctity was among the foremost in Asia." [7]

Prominent among the goods available to western markets was luxury silk, handmade in the traditional way to be worn in saris. While western nations did not desire the silk in order to make saris, the intricate weaving of Varanasi silk was recognized globally as a forerunner in the textile market.

In more modern times many of the exports from Varanasi are traded on a much smaller scale. Instead of reaching into the far markets of western Europe, dairy product exports and betel leaves reach closer markets. The trend towards local trading is beginning to change, however, as the Indian Railway has selected Varanasi to serve as a major factory center. Many hope that the Indian Railway will be helpful in transitioning the economy from cottage industry to large scale production.

As more of the world becomes aware of the cultural and religious significance of Varanasi, the economy is expected to be bolstered by returns from the tourism industry. The tourism industry is already beginning to form a large part of the Varanasi income, but hopes continue that this particular part of the economy will boom as more and more western nations become aware of the riches that Varanasi has to offer.

A major concern for Varanasi in the face of increased tourism and industrialization are the transportation problems that plague the area. While the city itself is connected to other major metropolises through air transport, travel within the city limits still proves problematic. Rickshaws and Auto Rickshaws are still a common site of Varanasi streets, and while these modes of transportation are picturesque, they contribute to traffic jams and slow movement on city streets.

Notes

  1. Government of Uttar Pradesh. Ranking of Districts by Population Size in 1991 and 2001 Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  2. Government of Uttar Pradesh. Ranking of Districts by Population Density Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  3. Rana P.B Singh, Varanasi as Heritage City (India) on the scale the UNESCO World Heritage List: From Contestation to Conservation Swedish South Asian Studies Network. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  4. DelhiTourism.com. Varanasi tourism Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  5. The Tribune. December 6, 1998. Countrywide alert on Masjid demolition anniversary Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  6. National Informatics Centre, Government of India. Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir Varanasi Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  7. Tourism of India. 2003. Varanasi Retrieved December 16, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

External links

All links retrieved May 3, 2023.


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