Difference between revisions of "United States Korean expedition" - New World Encyclopedia
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==Background== | ==Background== | ||
===Korea and China=== | ===Korea and China=== | ||
| − | For several centuries leading up to the 19th, Korea had maintained a relationship of tribute with China. In exchange for annual payments of tribute by | + | For several centuries leading up to the 19th, Korea had maintained a relationship of tribute with China. In exchange for annual payments of tribute by Korea, China provided a buffer of protection, while still considering Korea an independent nation, and commerce was conducted between the two countries. As a result of this long-standing and effective relationship with China, Korea, a peninsular nation geographically separated from the rest of the world had not faced the necessity of conducting relations with any other outside countries. As Europe and the United States began to travel to Asia in search of trade relations and colonies, western ships began to make occasional visits to Korea. Korea was not eager to engage in communications with them, feeling that they had no need of relations with any outside peoples, other than China. China did its best to try to explain Korea's position to outside countries and vice versa, but only to the point that it did not threaten or interfere with the China - Korea relationship. |
===The General Sherman Incident=== | ===The General Sherman Incident=== | ||
| − | In 1866, a US merchant ship, the [[General Sherman Incident|''General Sherman'']], landed in Korea seeking trade opportunities. The ship was not welcomed; on the contrary, the crew was all killed or captured, and the ''General Sherman''was burned. The ''U.S.S. Wachusett'' (1867) and the ''U.S.S. Shenandoah'' (1868) traveled to Korea to confirm the fate of the General Sherman and try to rescue any survivors, but were not afforded any official meetings or information. From local residents near the Taedong River, they heard that the ''General Sherman'' had been destroyed by fire, and conflicting reports about survivors. | + | In 1866, a US merchant ship, the [[General Sherman Incident|''General Sherman'']], landed in Korea seeking trade opportunities. The ship was not welcomed; on the contrary, the crew was all killed or captured, and the ''General Sherman'' was burned. The ''U.S.S. Wachusett'' (1867) and the ''U.S.S. Shenandoah'' (1868) traveled to Korea to confirm the fate of the General Sherman and try to rescue any survivors, but were not afforded any official meetings or information. From local residents near the Taedong River, they heard that the ''General Sherman'' had been destroyed by fire, and conflicting reports about survivors. |
| − | Since single ships had been unable to obtain any clear information, the US State Department decided to send an official delegation of ships to Korea, following the recommendation of the American Consul in Shanghai, General George F. Seward. In addition to | + | Since single ships had been unable to obtain any clear information, the US State Department decided to send an official delegation of ships to Korea, following the recommendation of the American Consul in Shanghai, General George F. Seward. In addition to seeking official information about the ''General Sherman'', the delegation would negotiate a trade treaty similar to the treaties Korea had with China and Japan. The State Department stipulated that no military force should used in securing the treaty. About the same time, a US businessman in Shanghai, Frederick Jenkins, reported to Seward that Korea had sent a delegation to Shanghai to inquire about the most effective way to respond to the US regarding the [[''General Sherman'' Incident]]; whether it might be appropriate to send a delegation to Washington to report. It is not sure what conclusions they reached, but no such delegation ever arrived in Washington. |
===Attempts at liasson through China=== | ===Attempts at liasson through China=== | ||
As the American expedition, based in Shanghai, prepared for the trip to Korea, the US's main representive in China, Minister Frederic Low, prepared a diplomatic message to send to Korea through China's ''Zongli Yamen''(foreign office). The Chinese were reluctant to get involved, eager to maintain their neutrality and avoid jeopardizing their relations with Korea and the US. However, when it became clear that the Americans planned to travel to Korea whether of not China assisted them or approved of the mission, China finally agreed to forward Minister Low official letter to Korea. | As the American expedition, based in Shanghai, prepared for the trip to Korea, the US's main representive in China, Minister Frederic Low, prepared a diplomatic message to send to Korea through China's ''Zongli Yamen''(foreign office). The Chinese were reluctant to get involved, eager to maintain their neutrality and avoid jeopardizing their relations with Korea and the US. However, when it became clear that the Americans planned to travel to Korea whether of not China assisted them or approved of the mission, China finally agreed to forward Minister Low official letter to Korea. | ||
| − | On receiving the letter, the Korean government faced a dilemma: they wanted to firmly convey to the Americans firmly that they were not welcome and should not come; on the other hand, any letter of response to the US would in and of itself be considered as the beginning of a relationship of communication, something Korea also did not want. They drafted a response designed to satisfy both of these stances. They | + | On receiving the letter, the Korean government faced a dilemma: they wanted to firmly convey to the Americans firmly that they were not welcome and should not come; on the other hand, any letter of response to the US would in and of itself be considered as the beginning of a relationship of communication, something Korea also did not want. They drafted a response designed to satisfy both of these stances. They wrote a response asking China to tell the US that they could not meet with the US delegation and that there was nothing to discuss about the 'General Sherman', since the fate of the 'General Sherman' was brought upon it by the hostile actions of its crew. Unfortunately, the reply reached China too late; the American squadron had already set sail for Korea. |
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==Initial Contact== | ==Initial Contact== | ||
Revision as of 15:38, 22 July 2007
| United States Korean expedition | ||||||||
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 Koreans who died in Gwangseong Garrison. Albumen silver print by Felice Beato, 1871. | ||||||||
| Korean name | ||||||||
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The United States expedition to Korea in 1871 came to be known in Korea as Sinmiyangyo (Korean: 신미양요 ,Western Disturbance of the Year Sinmi) was intended to be a diplomatic mission. During the period of the US Civil War, England, France and other European nations had expanded their foreign trade relations with Asian countries, particularly China and Japan. Now that the Civil War was over, the United States wanted to catch up, and to that end they sought to make a trade agreement with the Joseon Kingdom, as Korea was known at that time. Unfortunately the culture gap between the United States and Korea was insurmountable, and the mutual misunderstanding led to a military conflict which ultimately yielded no useful results for either side.
Background
Korea and China
For several centuries leading up to the 19th, Korea had maintained a relationship of tribute with China. In exchange for annual payments of tribute by Korea, China provided a buffer of protection, while still considering Korea an independent nation, and commerce was conducted between the two countries. As a result of this long-standing and effective relationship with China, Korea, a peninsular nation geographically separated from the rest of the world had not faced the necessity of conducting relations with any other outside countries. As Europe and the United States began to travel to Asia in search of trade relations and colonies, western ships began to make occasional visits to Korea. Korea was not eager to engage in communications with them, feeling that they had no need of relations with any outside peoples, other than China. China did its best to try to explain Korea's position to outside countries and vice versa, but only to the point that it did not threaten or interfere with the China - Korea relationship.
The General Sherman Incident
In 1866, a US merchant ship, the General Sherman, landed in Korea seeking trade opportunities. The ship was not welcomed; on the contrary, the crew was all killed or captured, and the General Sherman was burned. The U.S.S. Wachusett (1867) and the U.S.S. Shenandoah (1868) traveled to Korea to confirm the fate of the General Sherman and try to rescue any survivors, but were not afforded any official meetings or information. From local residents near the Taedong River, they heard that the General Sherman had been destroyed by fire, and conflicting reports about survivors.
Since single ships had been unable to obtain any clear information, the US State Department decided to send an official delegation of ships to Korea, following the recommendation of the American Consul in Shanghai, General George F. Seward. In addition to seeking official information about the General Sherman, the delegation would negotiate a trade treaty similar to the treaties Korea had with China and Japan. The State Department stipulated that no military force should used in securing the treaty. About the same time, a US businessman in Shanghai, Frederick Jenkins, reported to Seward that Korea had sent a delegation to Shanghai to inquire about the most effective way to respond to the US regarding the ''General Sherman'' Incident; whether it might be appropriate to send a delegation to Washington to report. It is not sure what conclusions they reached, but no such delegation ever arrived in Washington.
Attempts at liasson through China
As the American expedition, based in Shanghai, prepared for the trip to Korea, the US's main representive in China, Minister Frederic Low, prepared a diplomatic message to send to Korea through China's Zongli Yamen(foreign office). The Chinese were reluctant to get involved, eager to maintain their neutrality and avoid jeopardizing their relations with Korea and the US. However, when it became clear that the Americans planned to travel to Korea whether of not China assisted them or approved of the mission, China finally agreed to forward Minister Low official letter to Korea.
On receiving the letter, the Korean government faced a dilemma: they wanted to firmly convey to the Americans firmly that they were not welcome and should not come; on the other hand, any letter of response to the US would in and of itself be considered as the beginning of a relationship of communication, something Korea also did not want. They drafted a response designed to satisfy both of these stances. They wrote a response asking China to tell the US that they could not meet with the US delegation and that there was nothing to discuss about the 'General Sherman', since the fate of the 'General Sherman' was brought upon it by the hostile actions of its crew. Unfortunately, the reply reached China too late; the American squadron had already set sail for Korea.
Initial Contact
US Fleet arrives, Inquiries about General Sherman
The expedition consisted of about 650 men (over 500 sailors and 100 Marines) and five ships[1]: USS Colorado, USS Alaska, USS Palos, USS Monocacy, and USS Benicia. On board the Colorado, Rear Admiral John Rodgers' flag ship, was Frederick F. Low, the United States Ambassador to China.[2][3] The Korean forces, known as "Tiger Hunters," were led by general Eo Je-yeon (Korean: 어재연 Hanja: 魚在淵).
The Americans safely made contact with the Korean inhabitants, described as people wearing white clothes, and, when they inquired them about the General Sherman incident, the Koreans were initially reluctant to discuss the topic, so that they may avoid in paying any recompense. The Americans consequently let the Koreans know that their fleet would be exploring the area, and that they meant no harm. As this friendly gesture was misunderstood, and the Korean policy at the time allowed no safe passage for foreign ships into the Han River, for the river led directly to the Korean capital Hanyang (modern Seoul), on June 1 the Korean fortress fired at the fleet upon entrance. The cannons were outdated, poorly positioned and in disrepair such that the Koreans could not lower their aim, and most of the shots sailed over the ships. When, in their judgement, no satisfactory explanation for this action was offered to them, the Americans planned a punitive assault.[3]
Request Permission to Explore the Coast
US asks permission to search for landing spots Korea does not refuse - to the US this means OK, to the Koreans it means 'no go'
Permission Denied
US proceeds up the river with what they think is tacit permission Korea responds with gunfire to what they consider unauthorized intrusion
The armed confict
some days of fighting, several hundred Koreans killed, and a handful of americans.
On June 10th 1871, the Americans attacked Choji Garrison on Ganghwa and met nearly no opposition; they camped nearby overnight. The next morning, they finished destroying the fort and its guns. This same fort had previously been destroyed and rebuilt following the French incursions of 1866, and was later shelled again by the Japanese in 1876 in the events leading to the Treaty of Ganghwa. The Korean forces banded together as guerilla units but, armed with only matchlocks, and being kept in check by American 12 pound howitzers, they could not get within effective firing range. The US troops moved on toward the next objective, Deokjin Garrison (Fort Monocacy).
The Korean forces had abandoned Deokjin and chose to mass together further north. The Marines quickly dismantled this fortress in the same fashion as they did for the Choji garrison. American forces continued to Gwangseong Garrison (the Citadel). By that time, Korean forces had regrouped there en masse. Along the way, some Korean units tried to flank the US forces; they were checked, again, by the strategic placement of artillery on two hills near the Citadel.
Artillery from both ground and USS Monocacy and the other 4 ships offshore pounded the Citadel and the hill directly west of it, in preparation for an assault by US forces. The US troops of nine companies of sailors and one company of Marines, grouped on the facing hill, keeping cover and returning fire.
When a signal was given, the bombardments stopped and the Americans made a charge against the Citadel, with Lt. Hugh McKee in the lead. The slow reload time of the Korean matchlock rifles allowed the Americans, who were armed with superior bolt action rifles, to overwhelm the walls; the Koreans even ended up throwing rocks at the attackers. Lt. McKee, the first to make it into the Citadel, was shot in the groin and speared by the side. After him came Commander Schley, avenging his comrade[4].
The fighting lasted fifteen minutes. To those who saw defeat as inevitable, including General Eo, took their lives by the river. In the end, about 350 Koreans and 3 Americans died (Lt. McKee, Ordinary Seaman Seth Allen, and USMC Pvt. Dennis Hannahan[5]), 9 Americans were wounded, and 20 wounded Koreans were captured.[6] The Korean deputy commander was among the wounded who were captured.[7] The US hoped to use the captives as a bargaining chip to meet with Korean officials, but the Koreans refused, calling the captives cowards and telling the Americans they could keep them as chattel.[citation needed] The Americans met stiff resistance when they made second attempt to continue up the Han River toward Hanyang, and headed to China on July 3rd.[8]
Who are the civilized, Who are not?
Gojong's advisors tell him the US is a primitive collection of small settlements / contrast to Koreans 4000 years of civilized history
US headlines describe the affair as the Little War with the Heathens
Aftermath
US concludes further conflict will get them nowhere, they withdraw Korea concludes they have successfully driven off the Americans Strengthens Koreas resolve for isolationism
The US diplomatically was not able achieve its objectives, as the Koreans refused to open up the country to them (and the US forces did not have the authority or strength to press further). In fact, these events led the regent Daewon-gun to strengthen his policy of isolation and issue a national proclamation against appeasing the barbarians.[9] However, in 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on Seoul. Treaties with European countries and the US soon followed.
The next US military presence in Korea took place at the end of WWII, in 1945; and the next military conflict in Korea, also involving the US, was the 1950-53 Korean War.
The Jemulpo treaty
From April to May 1882 Korea and the United States negotiated and approved a 14 article treaty, which established mutual friendship and defense in case of attack, the ability of Koreans to emigrate to the US, most favored nation trade status, extraterritorial rights for American citizens in Korea, and non-interference of Christian missionaries proselytizing in Korea.
The treaty remained in effect until the annexation of Korea in 1910 by Japan, which maintained control over Korea until the end of World War II.
Notes
- ↑ The number of ships is confirmed by Lee (1984), p. 264.
- ↑ Lee (1984), loc. cit.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Colorado Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
- ↑ Lexington Morning Herald November 28th, 1897
- ↑ Dispatch from Commodore John Rodgers to the Secretary of the Navy, Corea, June 23, 1871
- ↑ Nahm (1996), p. 149.
- ↑ "The Corean War," New York Times, Vol. 20, No. 6215, August 22, 1871
- ↑ Nahm (1996), p. 149.
- ↑ Nahm (1986), p. 149-150; Lee (1984), p. 266.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Lee, Ki-baek, tr. by E.W. Wagner & E.J. Shultz (1984). A new history of Korea (rev. ed.). Seoul: Ilchogak. ISBN 89-337-0204-0.
- Nahm, Andrew C. (1996). Korea: A history of the Korean people (2nd ed.). Seoul: Hollym. ISBN 1-56591-070-2.
See also
- History of Korea
- Military history of Korea
- Joseon Dynasty
- List of Korea-related topics
- Medal of Honor
- List of Medal of Honor recipients#Korean Expedition
- French Campaign against Korea, 1866
- Ganghwa Island incident
- Black Ships
External links
- US Naval Historical Center on 1871 US Korean campaign
- [medal of Honor Link {1871} reference only]
- 1871 US Korea Campaign
- The early US-Korea relations - Excerpt from "A Brief History of the US-Korea Relations Prior to 1945"
- Gateway to Shimiyangyo
- My Ganghwa dot com, a Korean site dedicated to the Ganghwa Isle
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