Difference between revisions of "Twice-born" - New World Encyclopedia

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The "stages of life for a twice-born man" or [[Ashrama]] are discussed in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] ''[[Manusmriti]]''. This concept says that a member of the Dvija (''twice-born'') [[caste]]s ([[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]], and [[Vaishya]]) are to undergo [[Vedic ashram system|four periods of life]]: first, as a student [[Brahmacharya]]; then, as a householder [[Grihastha]]; then, he shall live in retirement [[Vanaprastha]]; and finally, as an ascetic [[Sanyasi]]. The ''Manusmriti'' goes into some detail, regarding what is expected of an individual during each stage.
 
The "stages of life for a twice-born man" or [[Ashrama]] are discussed in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] ''[[Manusmriti]]''. This concept says that a member of the Dvija (''twice-born'') [[caste]]s ([[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]], and [[Vaishya]]) are to undergo [[Vedic ashram system|four periods of life]]: first, as a student [[Brahmacharya]]; then, as a householder [[Grihastha]]; then, he shall live in retirement [[Vanaprastha]]; and finally, as an ascetic [[Sanyasi]]. The ''Manusmriti'' goes into some detail, regarding what is expected of an individual during each stage.
  
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==Referencces==
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==Varna System==
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'''Varna''' is a [[Sanskrit]] term derived from the root {{IAST2|''vrn''}} meaning "to choose (from a group)." Literally translated, "Varna" means colour.
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[[Hinduism]] categorizes [[human]] society into four "Varnas" according to the body part of the divinity [[Purusha]] from which each group was created, and these categories define the group's social standing in marital and occupational matters.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6050408.stm "Low-caste Hindus adopt new faith"], BBC News; Last accessed 15 October 2006</ref> Therefore, Varna means "arrangement" in the context of [[social hierarchy|social hierarchies]].
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== Background of The Varna Systems==
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When humans first settled into [[Agriculture|agrarian]] and trading societies, many changes occurred in social relationships with this greater [[Division of labour|specialisation of labour]]. People were organized into civilized structures that could be stable and accommodate diverse individuals in diverse occupations. Societies are organic wholes self-sustained by diverse groups with differing occupations that optimize that society's well-being and growth.
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Many kingdoms (e.g. [[Satavahana]]) were built on hierarchies and various roles and responsibilities were assigned to various groups of people in the society. These roles and responsibilities were hereditary for years.
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Kingdoms descended from empire and faded away after few generations. Mainly Brahmins possessed the mythical, religious superiority. However this is not to say that Hinduism has never seen very important [[Backward-caste Hindu Saints|lower class figures]]. For example, [[Vyasa]] (born as a fisher) is credited to have compiled the [[Vedas]] and the [[Puranas]] and the [[Mahabharata]] texts.
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The varna of a newborn child is determined by Indian astrological definition. These varna are not hereditary; they are random and determined by astrological coordinates. A Sudra child shall be born in the "Brahmin" varna. Varnas of a child born in Africa or the U.S.A. can be determined by this astrological definition. Also, one should not confuse the genetic characters with the varna.
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Varna is [[Functionalism (sociology)|functional hierarchy system]] proposed by the Brahmin texts to describe their society. It is an ideal system that did not exist anywhere in reality, as the Indian society was organised according to [[Jatis]], since time immemorial. The oldest mention of the varna system is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda 10.90 which claims "Brahmana is the mouth of the purusha, rajanya his arms, vaishya is his thighs and shudra arose from his feet" - an obvious reference to the organic (''purusha'') nature of the society, sustained by the harmonious integration of functional groups (organs) working in unison. One should note here that, the Purusha sukta verse of Rigveda should not be taken literally, as it is rendered in a poetical way to compare God to a human with 1000 arms and legs to portray his immense strength and valor. As some try to convolute this concept by saying shudras arose out of feet and hence they are lower in the society, one should not overlook the fact that according to Purusha sukta everyone that arose from God and Gods leg is not inferior to his mouth and vice versa and also the point that God himself is formless.
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In such organic hierarchies, it is recognised that proper functioning of each part is necessary for the stability of the whole. This led to the importance given to ''kartavya'' or "duties" ([[deontology]]). Each one is obligated to perform their duties relevant to their position in the system. Proper functioning is of utmost necessity for the stability of the whole structure.
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'''Varnashrama dharma''' ([[IAST]]:{{IAST|Varṇāśrama dharma}}, [[Devanagari]]: वर्णाश्रम धर्म) refers to the [[Indian caste system|system of classes]] of social life and stages of individual life in [[Hinduism]]. ''Varna'' refers to the belief that most humans were created from different parts of the body of the divinity [[Purusha]].
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The  classes of society described in the [[Hindu scriptures]] are as follows:
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* [[Brahmin]] - "scholarly community," including teachers, doctors, and other scholars.
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* [[Kshatriya]] - "warriors and rulers or politicians community"
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* [[Vaishya]] - "mercantile and artisan community"
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* [[Shudra]] - "service-providing community"
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* [[Dalit]] - "untouchables, those without varna"
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''[[Vedic ashram system|Asrama]]'' refers to the four stages of individual life prescribed for all [[Hindu]]s. The life assuming maximum of hundred years was divided into four stages. [[Brahmacharya]] ("student life") for 25 years, [[Grihastha]] ("householder life") after marriage for another 25 years, [[Vanaprastha]] or age of retirement for another 25 years ("anchorite life") and if after that somebody lives, [[Sannyasa]] ("renunciate life") or permanent seclusion from all human activities for the rest of life.
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The Hindu tradition holds this system as a [[dharma]] ("sacred law") sanctioned by the scriptures. While the above is the general belief and interpretation by some, there is no mention except at one place in [[Purusha Sukta]] (Rigveda), of various Varnas or castes or classes, either natural or created, in any of the Vedas.
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There are views held by some that even the stanza which talks about the four Varnas originating from Face, Hands, Torso and Feet of the [[Hindu deities|Hindu deity]] Purusha appears different from other ''[[sloka]]s'' and could have been interpolated at some later stages, because truly the Rigveda is a collection of sukthas recited by various Rishis to please gods, to plead gods and to pay the gods.
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One of the foremost Rishi in Rigveda is [[Vishwamitra]], who was a King and [[Kshatriya]] by birth. Vyasa was of mixed birth between Parasara, a Brahmin and Sathyavathi (a ''Soodra'', fisher woman). Maharishi [[Matanga]] was from the Matanga Bhil tribe but was raised as a Brahmana. Hence to attribute inherited class system to Hindu scriptures is without substance. Only [[Manu Smriti]] talks clearly about the classes and their duties.
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The first three varnas are seen as 'twice born'. They are allowed to study the Vedas. In India and Nepal the sub-communities within a Varna are called Jat or Jati (The varna is also used instead of Jat). Traditionally, each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati members. People are born into their Jati and normally it cannot be changed, though there were some exceptions in Hindu Scriptures. For example, sage [[Vishwamitra]] was born as a [[Kshatriya]] (ruling class) and by deep meditation ('''tapas''') became a venerable Brahmin '''rishi''' (saint). Once someone is born to certain sub-community or Jati he or she cannot normally change their Jati, although some groups throughout history have risen or fallen according to their deeds. Community is a permanent attribute in Indian societies.
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The occupations of the Vaishya are those connected with [[trade]], the [[cultivation of the land]] and the breeding of [[cattle]]; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the people, administering [[justice]], and the duties, of the [[military]] profession generally and ruling and expounding  all [[Dharma]]. Both share with the Brahmin the privilege of reading the Vedas. To the Brahmin  belongs the right of teaching and expounding the sacred texts Vedas.
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Shudras were the [[serf]]s, and performed agricultural labour. Muluki Ain has incorporated the entire ethnic group of Nepal into the social hierarchy.
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Orthodox Brahmins may classify them as Shudras, because they do not have a tradition of undergoing through the thread ceremony, that would make them [[dvija]] द्विज .
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==Instances in Hindu texts and tradition==
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The [[Rig-Veda]] refers in the Purusha Sukta to the four principal varnas described in [[Manusmriti|Manu's code]], viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The term Varna is not associated with Brahmins or Kshatriyas in the Rig Veda, and the term Varna does not occur in the Purusha Sukta. It affirmed that varnashram dharma needs to be strictly followed as every soul has been given a specific duty by God. A soul is born into a varna as punishment/reward for its [[Karma|karmic]] influences&mdash;actions in past lives (Hindus believe in reincarnation).
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The ''Purusha Sukta' hymn (Rig Veda 10:90) mentions the varnas and compares them to the body of the "primordial man": "The Brâhmana was his mouth, of both his arms was the Râjanya made.  His thighs became the Vaishya, from his feet the Sûdra was produced." (RV 10:90:12) In the Purusha Sukta hymn the word Varna is not used, and it is the only hymn of the Rig Veda where the words [[Vaishya]] and [[Sudra]] are used. The Purusha Sukta hymn is considered to be one of the youngest parts of the [[Rig Veda]].
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There is an Upanishadic story of a boy who went to a [[guru]] to study the various holy Hindu scriptures. His guru asked him what his varna was. Consulting his mother, who was actually a [[prostitute]] who didn't really know what her varna was, the boy returned to the guru and told him that he was all the varnas. He worshipped the Gods, thus fulfilling the duties that are ordinarily a Brahmin's, he earned his keep like a Vaishya, took care of cleaning the house, like a Shudra, and protected his family's interest like a Kshatriya. The guru was pleased and told the boy he was fit to be taught and initiated into the Brahmin's life.
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The [[Dharmashastra]]s (a collection of collections of Hindu codes and laws) say that varna is not just determined by birth, but by action in [[life]] according to the dharma of [[varna-ashram]] as well.
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The Brahmins (priests), The Kshatriyas (warriors, [[nobility]]), the Vaishyas (the craftsmen and men of commerce), and the Shudras ([[agriculture worker]]s; menial workers) were the four varnas. A person of each varna was said to possess certain set of characteristics: the Shudras, they believed, were of the ''tamasic'' nature; the Vaishyas were either ''tamasic'' or ''rajasic''; the Kshatriyas were believed to be noble, learned and selfless, his or her duty being the administration of the people and fighting of [[battle]]s against intruders, often very spiritually inclined; and that the Brahmins were religious, pure, Society's bank of knowledge and wisdom for their memory of holy scriptures, the performers of rituals.  However, there is a dispute as to which varna holds the greatest spiritual purity.  Brahmins are associated with the evil [[Daksha]], an arrogant Brahmin that received the head of a goat, and according to scriptures caused all Brahmins to be cursed by [[Nandi]] to never attain the greatest spiritual heights in Hinduism as Daksha insulted [[Shiva]].
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Hindu tantrics are a part of Hinduism whose scriptural texts, the Agamic texts known collectively as the [[Tantra]]s, assert their descent from the [[Veda]]s, especially the [[Atharva-Veda]]. Claiming that the Vedic rituals no longer necessary in [[Kali Yuga]], that the fourth and final epoch of humanity in Hinduism shall see morality ebb to complete dissolution until the end of the earth, the Tantrics see themselves as natural continuations of the Vedas through Hindu [[Yoga|yogic]] practices—and not of any particular caste, yet ''not'' Untouchables.
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Many Hindu yogis and sages have, over the centuries, constantly commented about inheriting social status. [[Chaitanya|Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] ([[15th century]]), the powerful [[bhakti]] of [[Krishna]] also denounced inheriting social status. He famously distributed the [[Hare Krishna]] mantra to non-brahmins all around India, claiming this was the True path to moksha.
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[[Kanakadasa]] of the [[15th century]] also denounced inherited social status. He believed that Life in every human being is Divine, and that only the ignorant wrought injustice against their own brethren by this practice. [[Basavanna]] of the 12th century is said to have denounced inherited social status and tried to unify all communities under the Linga (form of Shiva).
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===Rigveda and Manu Smriti===
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In Sanskrit, '''Varna''' means color, as in quality (just as the term "Shaguna Brahman.") One of the hymns of the [[Rig Veda]], one of the holiest Hindu scriptures, gives the following enumeration in the famous '''Purusha Sukta''' (RV 10.90):
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:मुखं किमस्य कौ बाहू का ऊरू पादा उच्येते ॥
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:ब्राह्मणो अस्य मुखमासीद बाहू राजन्यः कर्तः ।
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:ऊरूतदस्य यद वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ॥
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Its rough translation is : "What became of his (the Cosmic Spirit's) face or mouth? What became of his two arms? What became of His two thighs? What were (the products of) the two feet called? From His face (or the mouth) came the '''brahmanas'''. From His two arms came the '''rajanya''' (the '''kshatriyas'''). From His two thighs came the '''vaishyas'''. From His two feet came the '''shudras'''."
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In the Purusha Sukta hymn the word Varna is not used, and it is the only hymn of the Rig Veda where the words [[Vaishya]] and [[Sudra]] are used. The Purusha Sukta hymn is considered to be one of the youngest parts of the [[Rig Veda]].
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[[Manu Smriti]] is often quoted in reference to the Varna system as an inherited social class system. The Manu Smriti is a later work that does not form a part of Hindu Scriptures, so it is of questionable relevance. Use of the Manu Smriti by the British colonialists has been used by politicians and sociologists to denigrate those of the Hindu faith.[http://vepa.us/dir8/madhu.htm ].
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The [[Manu Smriti]] claims that by the time it was written, Hindu society included another class (untouchables) of people without a position in any of the four Varnas and therefore associated with the lowest of the jobs. The upper classes, who were supposed to maintain ritual and corporal purity, came to regard them as untouchables. The people of this "fifth varna" are now called [[Dalits]] (''the oppressed'') or [[Harijans]]; they were formerly known as "untouchables" or "[[Pariah (people)|pariahs]]". However, this last addition social strata is not a part of the religion of Hinduism. Hinduism only categorizes occupations in to four categories.
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'''It is very clear that in the early Vedic times, the Varna system (if at all it existed) meant classes with free mobility of jobs and intermarriage. One hymn of the [[Rig Veda]] states:'''
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:कारुरहं ततो भिषगुपलप्रक्षिणी नना । (RV 9.112.3)
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:"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......"
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While intermarriage between Brahmana bridegrooms and Kshatriya princesses was extremely common (even sanctioned by the later Manu Smriti), in many instances, marriages between Kshatriya princes and Brahmana brides was also observed (severely condemned by Manu Smriti). One of such instances is marriage of Yayati, a Kshatriya King, with Devayani, a daughter of the sage [[Shukracharya]].
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In later times, with the elaboration of ritualism, class status became hereditary (the historians disagree as to when) and the Shudras were not even allowed to hear the sacred word of the Vedas.
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<!--A stark contrast to this is a mantra from the White Yajur Veda itself:
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:यथेमां वाचं कल्याणीमावदानि जनेभ्यः ।
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:ब्रह्मराजन्याभ्याँ शूद्राय चार्याय च स्वाय चारणाय ।
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:प्रियो देवानां दक्षिणायै दातुरिह भूयासमयं मे कामः समृध्यतामुप मादो नमतु ॥ (White Yajur Veda 26.2)
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:"I do hereby address this salutary (Vedic) speech for the benefit of humanity – for the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Shudras, the Vaishas, the kinsfolk and the men of lowest position in society. May I be dear to the learned in this world."—>
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=== Opposition within Hinduism ===
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Critics point that the effect of communities (jatis) inheriting varna was to bind certain communities to sources of influence, power and economy while locking out others and thus create more affluence for jatis in higher classes and severe poverty for jatis in lower classes and the outcast Dalit.  In the last 150 years Indian movements arose to throw off the economic and political yoke of an inherited class system that emerged over time, and replace it with true Varnashrama dharma, described in the Vedas.
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In the religious scripture [[Mahabharata]], [[Yudhisthira]], is questioned by [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]] in the form of a Yaksha, about what makes one a Brahmin. Yudhisthira, without hesitation, said that it is conduct alone that makes one a Brahmin.
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[[Ramananda]], an ascetic of the Sri [[Ramanuja]]'s [[Sri Vaishnava sampradaya]], accepted all varna as his disciples.  [[Mirabai]], the 15th century mystical poet and Queen of Chittor is known to have ignored varna distinctions and elected the cobbler, Sant Rohidas, as her [[guru]].  [[Annamacharya]], a 15th century [[Telugu people|telugu]] poet's famous ''Bramhamokkada'' song, preaches equality of all in the eyes of God and condemns inheriting social status as un-Vedic.  And proposed a return to traditional varnashrama dharma. Which promoted equality and stressed the importance of all varnas.  [[Ramakrishna Paramahamsa]], the 19th century Hindu religious leader, also did not recognise varna distinctions and took his first alms as a [[twice-born]] [[Brahmin]] from a Shudra woman.
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==References==
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{{Reflist}}
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==Further reading==
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*Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) [[Who were the Shudras?]]
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*Alain Danielou (1976). ''Les Quatre Sens de la Vie'', Paris
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*[[Sri Aurobindo]] (1970), The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, War and Self-Determination, (Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust), ISBN 81-7058-281-4 (hardcover), ISBN 81-7058-014-5 (paperback)
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*[[Ravi Batra]], "The Downfall of Communism and Communism: a New Study of History", Macmillan, New York, NY, USA, 1978
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*[[Sohail Inayatullah]], Understanding P. R. Sarkar: The Indian Episteme, Macrohistory and Transformative Knowledge, Brill Academic Publishers, 2002, ISBN 9004128425.
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* [[Koenraad Elst|Elst, Koenraad]] [[Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate]]. 1999. ISBN 81-86471-77-4 [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/ait/index.htm]
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*[[Pandurang Vaman Kane|Kane, Pandurang Vaman]]: ''History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law)'' — Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
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* "Brahmanotpatti-martanda" Harikrishna Shastri, (Sanskrit), 1871
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* Jati Bhaskar", Jwalaprasd Mishra, (Hindi),  published by Khemaraj Shrikrishnadas,1914.
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*G.S. Ghurye (1961). ''Caste, Class and Occupation''. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
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*G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
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*[[Prabhat Rainjan Sarkar]] (1967) Human Society-2, Ananda Marga Publications, Anandanagar, P.O.Baglata,Dist. Purulia, West Bengal, India.
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* Ghanshyam Shah,  Caste and Democratic Politics in India, 2004
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*[http://sulekha.com/blogs/blogdisplay.aspx?cid=3252#up2 Credo, Quia Occidentale]
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*Welzer, Albrecht. 1994. Credo, Quia Occidentale: A Note on Sanskrit varna and its Misinterpretation in Literature on Mamamsa and Vyakarana. In: Studies in Mamamsa: Dr Mandan Mishra Felicitation Volume edited by R.C. Dwivedi. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
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== External links ==
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{{wiktionarypar|varna}}
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*[http://www.maanojrakhit.com/e_book11_varn_system_text.htm Maanoj Rakhit on the Varna system]
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* [http://atributetohinduism.com/Caste_System.htm Jati system in India]
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* [http://www.indiatogether.org/society/caste.htm India Together on Caste]
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*[http://www.murnis.com/culture/articlenamestitlesandcaste.htm Murni's in Bali: Names, Titles and Castes]
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*''Annihilation of Caste with a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi'' [http://wcar.alrc.net/mainfile2.php/Documents/76/ Part I] & [http://wcar.alrc.net/mainfile2.php/Documents/77/ Part II] by ''[[Babasaheb Ambedkar|Dr.B.R.Ambedkar]]''
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*[http://www.dr-ambedkar.com/writings-link.htm Writings by Dr Ambedkar about Caste] Online texts
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*[http://www.hindu-international.org/books/articles/varna_jaati_or_caste.pdf Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)]
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*''Articles on Caste by [[Koenraad Elst]]:'' [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch1.htm#16a Caste in India], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch11.htm#49a Buddhism and Caste], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch9.htm#78a Indian tribals and Caste], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ch49.htm Physical anthropology and Caste], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ch48.htm#68a Etymology of Varna]
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*[http://www.epw.org.in/showArticles.php?root=2003&leaf=11&filename=6474&filetype=html Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?]
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*[http://kamakoti.org/newlayout/template/hindudharma.html/3/1/hindu/The+Vedic+Religion+And+Varna+Dharma link title] Authentic Caste System by Monk of The Century:Shankaracharya Shri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Maharaj
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* [http://www.associationofdevotees.com Association of Devotees]
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: religion]]
 
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Revision as of 02:25, 13 December 2007

Dvija (sanskrit) means one who is twice born. The term refers to one of the members of the first three varnas in Hindu Dharma. Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas are included in Dvija, although in many Shastras, Dvija usually refers to Brahmin.

One born in these castes is assumed to be born another time at the time of Upanayanam, when he is initiated into the ultimate pursuit of life Brahmopadesam (Preaching/Advising in the matter of the nature of Brahman - the ultimate reality). Dvija, is the second stage in the stages of a Vedic follower (also known as Brahmin) goes through. A Dvija is governed by his Karma ( to be taken in this context as disciplined actions). His conduct is a cultured conduct. His life is governed by Dharma-Adharma (right and wrong), Karya-Akaryam (good and bad deeds) and Vidhi-Nisheda (Prescribed and Proscribed actions) as determined by Sastra Pramana. A Dvija does what he ought to do rather than what he wants to do. He does not avoid what he dislikes rather he avoids what ought to be avoided.

Stages of life

The "stages of life for a twice-born man" or Ashrama are discussed in the Hindu Manusmriti. This concept says that a member of the Dvija (twice-born) castes (Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya) are to undergo four periods of life: first, as a student Brahmacharya; then, as a householder Grihastha; then, he shall live in retirement Vanaprastha; and finally, as an ascetic Sanyasi. The Manusmriti goes into some detail, regarding what is expected of an individual during each stage.

Varna System

Varna is a Sanskrit term derived from the root vrn meaning "to choose (from a group)." Literally translated, "Varna" means colour. Hinduism categorizes human society into four "Varnas" according to the body part of the divinity Purusha from which each group was created, and these categories define the group's social standing in marital and occupational matters.[1] Therefore, Varna means "arrangement" in the context of social hierarchies.

Background of The Varna Systems

When humans first settled into agrarian and trading societies, many changes occurred in social relationships with this greater specialisation of labour. People were organized into civilized structures that could be stable and accommodate diverse individuals in diverse occupations. Societies are organic wholes self-sustained by diverse groups with differing occupations that optimize that society's well-being and growth.

Many kingdoms (e.g. Satavahana) were built on hierarchies and various roles and responsibilities were assigned to various groups of people in the society. These roles and responsibilities were hereditary for years.

Kingdoms descended from empire and faded away after few generations. Mainly Brahmins possessed the mythical, religious superiority. However this is not to say that Hinduism has never seen very important lower class figures. For example, Vyasa (born as a fisher) is credited to have compiled the Vedas and the Puranas and the Mahabharata texts.

The varna of a newborn child is determined by Indian astrological definition. These varna are not hereditary; they are random and determined by astrological coordinates. A Sudra child shall be born in the "Brahmin" varna. Varnas of a child born in Africa or the U.S.A. can be determined by this astrological definition. Also, one should not confuse the genetic characters with the varna.

Varna is functional hierarchy system proposed by the Brahmin texts to describe their society. It is an ideal system that did not exist anywhere in reality, as the Indian society was organised according to Jatis, since time immemorial. The oldest mention of the varna system is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda 10.90 which claims "Brahmana is the mouth of the purusha, rajanya his arms, vaishya is his thighs and shudra arose from his feet" - an obvious reference to the organic (purusha) nature of the society, sustained by the harmonious integration of functional groups (organs) working in unison. One should note here that, the Purusha sukta verse of Rigveda should not be taken literally, as it is rendered in a poetical way to compare God to a human with 1000 arms and legs to portray his immense strength and valor. As some try to convolute this concept by saying shudras arose out of feet and hence they are lower in the society, one should not overlook the fact that according to Purusha sukta everyone that arose from God and Gods leg is not inferior to his mouth and vice versa and also the point that God himself is formless.

In such organic hierarchies, it is recognised that proper functioning of each part is necessary for the stability of the whole. This led to the importance given to kartavya or "duties" (deontology). Each one is obligated to perform their duties relevant to their position in the system. Proper functioning is of utmost necessity for the stability of the whole structure.

Varnashrama dharma (IAST:Varṇāśrama dharma, Devanagari: वर्णाश्रम धर्म) refers to the system of classes of social life and stages of individual life in Hinduism. Varna refers to the belief that most humans were created from different parts of the body of the divinity Purusha.

The classes of society described in the Hindu scriptures are as follows:

  • Brahmin - "scholarly community," including teachers, doctors, and other scholars.
  • Kshatriya - "warriors and rulers or politicians community"
  • Vaishya - "mercantile and artisan community"
  • Shudra - "service-providing community"
  • Dalit - "untouchables, those without varna"

Asrama refers to the four stages of individual life prescribed for all Hindus. The life assuming maximum of hundred years was divided into four stages. Brahmacharya ("student life") for 25 years, Grihastha ("householder life") after marriage for another 25 years, Vanaprastha or age of retirement for another 25 years ("anchorite life") and if after that somebody lives, Sannyasa ("renunciate life") or permanent seclusion from all human activities for the rest of life.

The Hindu tradition holds this system as a dharma ("sacred law") sanctioned by the scriptures. While the above is the general belief and interpretation by some, there is no mention except at one place in Purusha Sukta (Rigveda), of various Varnas or castes or classes, either natural or created, in any of the Vedas.

There are views held by some that even the stanza which talks about the four Varnas originating from Face, Hands, Torso and Feet of the Hindu deity Purusha appears different from other slokas and could have been interpolated at some later stages, because truly the Rigveda is a collection of sukthas recited by various Rishis to please gods, to plead gods and to pay the gods.

One of the foremost Rishi in Rigveda is Vishwamitra, who was a King and Kshatriya by birth. Vyasa was of mixed birth between Parasara, a Brahmin and Sathyavathi (a Soodra, fisher woman). Maharishi Matanga was from the Matanga Bhil tribe but was raised as a Brahmana. Hence to attribute inherited class system to Hindu scriptures is without substance. Only Manu Smriti talks clearly about the classes and their duties.

The first three varnas are seen as 'twice born'. They are allowed to study the Vedas. In India and Nepal the sub-communities within a Varna are called Jat or Jati (The varna is also used instead of Jat). Traditionally, each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati members. People are born into their Jati and normally it cannot be changed, though there were some exceptions in Hindu Scriptures. For example, sage Vishwamitra was born as a Kshatriya (ruling class) and by deep meditation (tapas) became a venerable Brahmin rishi (saint). Once someone is born to certain sub-community or Jati he or she cannot normally change their Jati, although some groups throughout history have risen or fallen according to their deeds. Community is a permanent attribute in Indian societies.

The occupations of the Vaishya are those connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the people, administering justice, and the duties, of the military profession generally and ruling and expounding all Dharma. Both share with the Brahmin the privilege of reading the Vedas. To the Brahmin belongs the right of teaching and expounding the sacred texts Vedas. Shudras were the serfs, and performed agricultural labour. Muluki Ain has incorporated the entire ethnic group of Nepal into the social hierarchy.

Orthodox Brahmins may classify them as Shudras, because they do not have a tradition of undergoing through the thread ceremony, that would make them dvija द्विज .

Instances in Hindu texts and tradition

The Rig-Veda refers in the Purusha Sukta to the four principal varnas described in Manu's code, viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The term Varna is not associated with Brahmins or Kshatriyas in the Rig Veda, and the term Varna does not occur in the Purusha Sukta. It affirmed that varnashram dharma needs to be strictly followed as every soul has been given a specific duty by God. A soul is born into a varna as punishment/reward for its karmic influences—actions in past lives (Hindus believe in reincarnation).

The Purusha Sukta' hymn (Rig Veda 10:90) mentions the varnas and compares them to the body of the "primordial man": "The Brâhmana was his mouth, of both his arms was the Râjanya made. His thighs became the Vaishya, from his feet the Sûdra was produced." (RV 10:90:12) In the Purusha Sukta hymn the word Varna is not used, and it is the only hymn of the Rig Veda where the words Vaishya and Sudra are used. The Purusha Sukta hymn is considered to be one of the youngest parts of the Rig Veda.

There is an Upanishadic story of a boy who went to a guru to study the various holy Hindu scriptures. His guru asked him what his varna was. Consulting his mother, who was actually a prostitute who didn't really know what her varna was, the boy returned to the guru and told him that he was all the varnas. He worshipped the Gods, thus fulfilling the duties that are ordinarily a Brahmin's, he earned his keep like a Vaishya, took care of cleaning the house, like a Shudra, and protected his family's interest like a Kshatriya. The guru was pleased and told the boy he was fit to be taught and initiated into the Brahmin's life.

The Dharmashastras (a collection of collections of Hindu codes and laws) say that varna is not just determined by birth, but by action in life according to the dharma of varna-ashram as well.

The Brahmins (priests), The Kshatriyas (warriors, nobility), the Vaishyas (the craftsmen and men of commerce), and the Shudras (agriculture workers; menial workers) were the four varnas. A person of each varna was said to possess certain set of characteristics: the Shudras, they believed, were of the tamasic nature; the Vaishyas were either tamasic or rajasic; the Kshatriyas were believed to be noble, learned and selfless, his or her duty being the administration of the people and fighting of battles against intruders, often very spiritually inclined; and that the Brahmins were religious, pure, Society's bank of knowledge and wisdom for their memory of holy scriptures, the performers of rituals. However, there is a dispute as to which varna holds the greatest spiritual purity. Brahmins are associated with the evil Daksha, an arrogant Brahmin that received the head of a goat, and according to scriptures caused all Brahmins to be cursed by Nandi to never attain the greatest spiritual heights in Hinduism as Daksha insulted Shiva.

Hindu tantrics are a part of Hinduism whose scriptural texts, the Agamic texts known collectively as the Tantras, assert their descent from the Vedas, especially the Atharva-Veda. Claiming that the Vedic rituals no longer necessary in Kali Yuga, that the fourth and final epoch of humanity in Hinduism shall see morality ebb to complete dissolution until the end of the earth, the Tantrics see themselves as natural continuations of the Vedas through Hindu yogic practices—and not of any particular caste, yet not Untouchables.

Many Hindu yogis and sages have, over the centuries, constantly commented about inheriting social status. Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th century), the powerful bhakti of Krishna also denounced inheriting social status. He famously distributed the Hare Krishna mantra to non-brahmins all around India, claiming this was the True path to moksha.

Kanakadasa of the 15th century also denounced inherited social status. He believed that Life in every human being is Divine, and that only the ignorant wrought injustice against their own brethren by this practice. Basavanna of the 12th century is said to have denounced inherited social status and tried to unify all communities under the Linga (form of Shiva).

Rigveda and Manu Smriti

In Sanskrit, Varna means color, as in quality (just as the term "Shaguna Brahman.") One of the hymns of the Rig Veda, one of the holiest Hindu scriptures, gives the following enumeration in the famous Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90):

मुखं किमस्य कौ बाहू का ऊरू पादा उच्येते ॥
ब्राह्मणो अस्य मुखमासीद बाहू राजन्यः कर्तः ।
ऊरूतदस्य यद वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ॥

Its rough translation is : "What became of his (the Cosmic Spirit's) face or mouth? What became of his two arms? What became of His two thighs? What were (the products of) the two feet called? From His face (or the mouth) came the brahmanas. From His two arms came the rajanya (the kshatriyas). From His two thighs came the vaishyas. From His two feet came the shudras."

In the Purusha Sukta hymn the word Varna is not used, and it is the only hymn of the Rig Veda where the words Vaishya and Sudra are used. The Purusha Sukta hymn is considered to be one of the youngest parts of the Rig Veda.

Manu Smriti is often quoted in reference to the Varna system as an inherited social class system. The Manu Smriti is a later work that does not form a part of Hindu Scriptures, so it is of questionable relevance. Use of the Manu Smriti by the British colonialists has been used by politicians and sociologists to denigrate those of the Hindu faith.[1].

The Manu Smriti claims that by the time it was written, Hindu society included another class (untouchables) of people without a position in any of the four Varnas and therefore associated with the lowest of the jobs. The upper classes, who were supposed to maintain ritual and corporal purity, came to regard them as untouchables. The people of this "fifth varna" are now called Dalits (the oppressed) or Harijans; they were formerly known as "untouchables" or "pariahs". However, this last addition social strata is not a part of the religion of Hinduism. Hinduism only categorizes occupations in to four categories.

It is very clear that in the early Vedic times, the Varna system (if at all it existed) meant classes with free mobility of jobs and intermarriage. One hymn of the Rig Veda states:

कारुरहं ततो भिषगुपलप्रक्षिणी नना । (RV 9.112.3)
"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......"

While intermarriage between Brahmana bridegrooms and Kshatriya princesses was extremely common (even sanctioned by the later Manu Smriti), in many instances, marriages between Kshatriya princes and Brahmana brides was also observed (severely condemned by Manu Smriti). One of such instances is marriage of Yayati, a Kshatriya King, with Devayani, a daughter of the sage Shukracharya.

In later times, with the elaboration of ritualism, class status became hereditary (the historians disagree as to when) and the Shudras were not even allowed to hear the sacred word of the Vedas.


Opposition within Hinduism

Critics point that the effect of communities (jatis) inheriting varna was to bind certain communities to sources of influence, power and economy while locking out others and thus create more affluence for jatis in higher classes and severe poverty for jatis in lower classes and the outcast Dalit. In the last 150 years Indian movements arose to throw off the economic and political yoke of an inherited class system that emerged over time, and replace it with true Varnashrama dharma, described in the Vedas.

In the religious scripture Mahabharata, Yudhisthira, is questioned by Yama in the form of a Yaksha, about what makes one a Brahmin. Yudhisthira, without hesitation, said that it is conduct alone that makes one a Brahmin.

Ramananda, an ascetic of the Sri Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnava sampradaya, accepted all varna as his disciples. Mirabai, the 15th century mystical poet and Queen of Chittor is known to have ignored varna distinctions and elected the cobbler, Sant Rohidas, as her guru. Annamacharya, a 15th century telugu poet's famous Bramhamokkada song, preaches equality of all in the eyes of God and condemns inheriting social status as un-Vedic. And proposed a return to traditional varnashrama dharma. Which promoted equality and stressed the importance of all varnas. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the 19th century Hindu religious leader, also did not recognise varna distinctions and took his first alms as a twice-born Brahmin from a Shudra woman.

References
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  1. ↑ "Low-caste Hindus adopt new faith", BBC News; Last accessed 15 October 2006

Further reading

  • Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) Who were the Shudras?
  • Alain Danielou (1976). Les Quatre Sens de la Vie, Paris
  • Sri Aurobindo (1970), The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, War and Self-Determination, (Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust), ISBN 81-7058-281-4 (hardcover), ISBN 81-7058-014-5 (paperback)
  • Ravi Batra, "The Downfall of Communism and Communism: a New Study of History", Macmillan, New York, NY, USA, 1978
  • Sohail Inayatullah, Understanding P. R. Sarkar: The Indian Episteme, Macrohistory and Transformative Knowledge, Brill Academic Publishers, 2002, ISBN 9004128425.
  • Elst, Koenraad Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. 1999. ISBN 81-86471-77-4 [2]
  • Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
  • "Brahmanotpatti-martanda" Harikrishna Shastri, (Sanskrit), 1871
  • Jati Bhaskar", Jwalaprasd Mishra, (Hindi), published by Khemaraj Shrikrishnadas,1914.
  • G.S. Ghurye (1961). Caste, Class and Occupation. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
  • G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
  • Prabhat Rainjan Sarkar (1967) Human Society-2, Ananda Marga Publications, Anandanagar, P.O.Baglata,Dist. Purulia, West Bengal, India.
  • Ghanshyam Shah, Caste and Democratic Politics in India, 2004
  • Credo, Quia Occidentale
  • Welzer, Albrecht. 1994. Credo, Quia Occidentale: A Note on Sanskrit varna and its Misinterpretation in Literature on Mamamsa and Vyakarana. In: Studies in Mamamsa: Dr Mandan Mishra Felicitation Volume edited by R.C. Dwivedi. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.

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