Difference between revisions of "Tumulus" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Gamla uppsala.jpg|350px|thumb|The [[Royal mounds]] of [[Gamla Uppsala]] from the fifth and the sixth centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but owing to quarrying and agriculture only 250 remain.]]
  
A '''tumulus''' (plural '''tumuli''', from the Latin word for mound or small hill, from the root ''{{lang|la|tum-}}'' "to bulge, swell" also found in ''{{lang|la|[[tumor]]}}'') is a [[mound]] of [[Soil|earth]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s raised over a [[Grave (burial)|grave]] or graves. Tumuli are also known as '''barrows''', '''burial mounds''', or '''[[kurgan]]s''', and can be found throughout much of the [[world]]. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a [[cairn]].
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A '''tumulus''' (plural '''tumuli''') is a [[mound]] of [[Soil|earth]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s raised over a [[grave]] or graves. Tumuli are also known as '''barrows''', '''burial mounds''', or '''kurgans'''. When composed largely or entirely of stones they are usually referred to as [[cairn]]s. The phenomenon appears early in human history, during the [[Neolithic era]], and although used almost universally tumuli differ in size, structure, and usage with each [[culture]].
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In one aspect, the tumulus is a simple way to bury the [[death|dead]] and honor them with a memorial, for it requires little sophistication or [[technology]]. On the other hand, though, the size of many of these mounds is impressive by today's standards, and far more so considering the lack of technology available in ancient times. Their appearance throughout the world in unrelated cultures indicates a universal appreciation for the dead members of their society, and a desire to mark their [[life]] permanently in the physical world.
  
The method of inhumation may involve a [[cist]], a [[mortuary enclosure]], a [[mortuary house]] or a [[chamber tomb]]. Examples of barrows include [[Duggleby Howe]] and [[Maeshowe]]. [[Image:Gamla uppsala.jpg|350px|thumb|The [[Royal mounds]] of [[Gamla Uppsala]] from the 5th and the 6th centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but owing to quarrying and agriculture only 250 remain.]]
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==Etymology==
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The term '''tumulus''' derives from the [[Latin]] word for mound or small hill. It shares the root ''{{lang|la|tum-}}'' "to bulge, swell," with the word [[tumor]].<ref> ''Oxford English Dictionary.'' (Oxford Press, 1971, ISBN 019861117X)</ref>
  
 
==Description==
 
==Description==
A '''tumulus''' (plural '''tumuli''', from the Latin word for mound or small hill, from the root ''{{lang|la|tum-}}'' "to bulge, swell" also found in ''{{lang|la|[[tumor]]}}'') is a [[mound]] of [[Soil|earth]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s raised over a [[Grave (burial)|grave]] or graves. Tumuli are also known as '''barrows''', '''burial mounds''', or '''[[kurgan]]s''', and can be found throughout much of the [[world]]. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a [[cairn]].
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[[Image:Model of Tumulus of Midas.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Model of the inside wooden construction of the tumulus of Midas in Fordion with the reconstructed head of the man buried here]]
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Tumuli differ from one culture to another. The simple ones were [[grave]]s dug into the ground, where bodies were deposited and then a large amount of earth was piled on top, creating a mound. The more complex type were actual structures, either built on top or sunken slightly into the ground and then covered by earth. Sometimes, large existing hills were tunneled into and graves were carved from the interior.
  
==Britain==
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==Archaeology==
In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], early references to tumuli were made by [[William Camden]], [[John Aubrey]], and [[William Stukeley]]. During the 19th century in [[England]] the excavation of tumuli was a popular [[pastime]] amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes, who became known as "barrow-diggers." This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain but also resulted in untold damage to the sites. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late [[Neolithic]] until the end of the [[Bronze Age]], 2900-800B.C.E. [[Square barrows]] were occasionally used in the Iron Age (800B.C.E.-43C.E.) in the east of England. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] invasion ,as Scandinavian burial practice became popular 500-600C.E. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.
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[[Image:miamisburg_jqj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Miamisburg Mound, the largest conical mound in Ohio, is attributed to the [[Adena Culture]].]]
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Although people were aware of the existence of burial mounds for many years, they remained mysterious until the nineteenth century, when amateur [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] began using scientific techniques in regards to excavations. The first mounds excavated were in [[Peru]], at the site of the [[Huaca de Tantalluc]], but [[Thomas Jefferson]], before he became the third [[President of the United States]], was the first to receive widespread recognition for excavating tumuli.
  
==Bulgaria==
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By noting the [[stratigraphy]] of the soil and rock on a cross-section of the burial mound he excavated in the [[Mississippi Valley]], and the relative age difference between the [[skeleton]]s found in the lower sections compared to those remains closer to the surface, Jefferson was able to deduce that the mound had been revisited several times over the course of years, each time a new layer of sediment and human remains being added. While this did not end the debate over who had created the mounds, it did constitute a breakthrough in how archaeology could be used to examine the phenomenon.<ref>Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'' (Thames and Hudson, 2000, ISBN 0500281475) </ref>
[[Image:VarnaMemorial.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Memorial of the [[Battle of Varna]] of 1444 carved into an ancient [[Thracians|Thracian]] burial mound. The sign in front is for [[Władysław III of Poland]]]]
 
Hundreds of [[Thracian]] burial mounds are found throughout Bulgaria, including the [[Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak|Kazanlak]] and [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Sveshtari]] tombs, [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage]] sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of [[Seuthopolis]] (of the [[Odrysian kingdom]]) and Daosdava or Helis (of the [[Getae]]), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other tombs contained offerings such as the [[Panagyuriste treasure|Panagyurishte]] and [[Rogozen treasure|Rogozen]] treasures.
 
  
==Canada==
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With the advancement of scientific approaches in regard to archaeological techniques in the twentieth century came the realization of just how much information could be ascertained from tumuli: settlement patterns, religious beliefs, new dating techniques, and evidence of [[human evolution]] were just some of the few items of information that careful study of tumuli could reveal. However, with this realization came an [[ethics|ethical]] question which archaeology has had to deal with in all cases of human [[burial]]s. To excavate a tumulus means to destroy it and remove remains specifically laid to rest in the ground. Even if the information yielded is immensely beneficial, does it justify such a violation is something archaeologists now take into consideration, especially if the descendants of the deceased are still alive (such as the [[Native Americans]] of [[North America]]).  
[[Image:Mound001.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The 7,500-year-old, rock-covered burial mound of a Maritime Archaic boy at L'Anse Amour, Newfoundland and Labrador.]]Human settlement in [[L'Anse Amour, Newfoundland and Labrador|L'anse Amour]] dates back at least 7,500 years as evidenced by the burial mound of a Maritime Archaic boy here. His body was wrapped in a shroud of bark or hide and placed face down with his head pointed to the west. The site was first excavated in the 1970s.
 
  
The Augustine Mound is an important [[Mi'kmaq]] burial site in New Brunswick.
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Since the first excavations, many burial mounds have been completely desecrated and remains divided up amongst the academic institutions of the world. In contemporary times, great care is taken to leave certain tumuli un-excavated, but with the use of digital imagery techniques and sight observation, burial mounds that are not excavated continue to be studied.
  
==Czech Republic==
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==Theories==
During the early [[Middle Ages]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribesmen inhabiting what is now the Czech Republic used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice has been widespread in southern and eastern [[Bohemia]] and some neighboring regions, like [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lusatia]], which at that time have been also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around [[Prague]]), neither they are found in [[Moravia]]. This has led some of the archaeologists to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which have colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).
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[[Image:Trizna 1899.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Burial of [[Oleg of Novgorod]] in a tumulus in 912. Painting by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]].]]
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The process of creating tumuli is one that has fascinated [[archaeology|archaeologists]] for some time, if for no other reason than that it is one of the few human activities that appear to be universal and not cultural diffused. The act of human burial has long been viewed as an outgrowth of proto-religious belief; how the body is cared for after someone has died affects that person in the [[afterlife]]. Burial mounds appear to be no different. Some have argued that tumuli started as burial sites for people of importance and significance, the visible mounds paying tribute to these persons of importance, much the same way that the [[pyramid]]s were both [[tomb]]s and tributes to the [[Pharaoh]]s of [[ancient Egypt]]. Others have argued against this claim, suggesting that burial mounds were completely random phenomena with no special thought going into their creation and construction.<ref>Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology and The Trustees of Indiana University, 1996, [http://www.gbl.indiana.edu/abstracts/adena/mounds.html"Burial Mounds"] Retrieved August 20, 2007</ref>
  
At places where barrows have been constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. Only a few of them have been studied scientifically so far; in them, both burials by fire (with burnt ashes) and unburnt skeletons have been found, even on the same site. It seems that builders of the barrows have at some time switched from burials by fire to burying of unburnt corpses; however, the reason for such change is unknown. The barrows date too far back in history (700 C.E. to 800 C.E.) to contain any [[Christian]] influences - it is almost certain that all people buried in them were [[pagans]].
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==Europe==
  
As Czech barrows usually served for burials of poor villagers, only a few objects are found in them except for cheap pottery. Only one Slavic barrow is known to have contained gold.
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===Austria===
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The '''Burgstallkogel''' (458 m; also known as '''Grillkogel''') is situated near the confluence of the [[Sulm (Austrian river)|Sulm]] and the Saggau river valleys in Southern [[Styria]], about 30 km south of [[Graz]] between [[Gleinstätten]] and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest [[iron age]] hill grave [[necropolis|necropolises]] that exists in continental Europe. It was originally composed of at least 2,000 tumuli.
  
Most of the Czech burial barrows have been damaged or destroyed by intense [[agriculture]] in the densely populated region. Those which remain are usually located in forests, especially at hilltops in remote places. Therefore there is no general knowledge about burial barrows in the Czech population.
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[[Image:Burgstallkogel Sulm valley.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg]]
  
The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to [[Vitín]], a small village close to [[České Budějovice]]. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as 2 meters high.
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In contrast to the grave mounds in the Western Hallstatt zone where the deceased were mostly buried intact, all Burgstallkogel dead were [[cremation|cremated]], frequently together with some of their personal articles, before the remains were deposited in the stone grave chamber and earth was piled on it to erect the tumulus.
  
There are also some [[prehistoric]] burial barrows in Czechia, built by unknown people. Unlike Slavic barrows, they can be found all across the country, though they are scarce. Distinguishing them from Slavic ones is not an easy task for the unskilled eye.
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The "common citizen" tumuli of the Sulm valley [[necropolis]] (believed to have numbered in excess of 2,000 before agriculture destroyed most of them) surrounded the Burgstallkogel settlement on all sides, and originally they covered much of the hill range between [[Gleinstätten]] and the village of Kleinklein, where a small area had been set aside for the much larger tumuli of the chieftains. The oldest grave mounds in the necropolis correspond to the youngest surviving settlement strata of the Burgstallkogel settlement, while two later (Hallstatt B3/C1) burial phases can only be inferred from secondary deposits. Besides it being larger than most other necropolises in the Eastern Hallstatt area, the fact that the Sulm valley necropolis is set apart by the fact that preserved non-aristocratic burials far outnumber chieftains' graves.
  
== Hungary ==
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[[Image:Hallstatt tumulus pottery.jpg|thumb|left|Bulls' head pottery from the Sulm valley necropolis]]
There are many tumuli in the [[Great Hungarian Plain]], the highest is near of the settlement of [[Békésszentandrás]], in [[Békés county]].[http://www.bekesszentandras.hu/turizmus_seta.htm# (see the picture of "Gödény-halom")]
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The rulers and their [[aristocracy]], which prided itself of military leadership, had the easternmost part of the necropolis to themselves. Naturally, their tumuli (of which four are known - Hartnermichelkogel I and II, Pommerkogel and Kröllkogel) were the largest and richest ones, containing significant amounts of bronze vessels and iron armament in addition to pottery. It is assumed that the chieftains' tumuli were modeled on [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] tombs. The cremation places have not been found, but are supposed to have been either near the grave site or near the hilltop.
  
== Italy ==
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===Bulgaria===
Some big tumulus tombs can be found especially in the Etruscan culture. Smaller barrows are dated to the Villanova period (9th - 8th centrury B.C.E..) but the biggest were used in the following centuries (from the 7th century afterwards) by the etruscan aristocracy.
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[[Image:VarnaMemorial.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Memorial of the [[Battle of Varna]] of 1444 carved into an ancient [[Thracians|Thracian]] burial mound. The sign in front is for [[Władysław III of Poland]]]]
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Hundreds of [[Thracian]] burial mounds are found throughout [[Bulgaria]], including the [[Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak|Kazanlak]] and [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Sveshtari]] tombs, [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage]] sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of [[Seuthopolis]] (of the [[Odrysian kingdom]]) and Daosdava or Helis (of the [[Getae]]), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other tombs contained offerings such as the [[Panagyuriste treasure|Panagyurishte]] and [[Rogozen treasure|Rogozen]] treasures.<ref> Evgeni I. Paunov, [http://www.athenapub.com/thrace1.htm "Ancient Treasures from Thracian Tombs"] ''Athena Review'', Vol.1, no. 4 (1998). Retrieved August 20, 2007</ref>
The Etruscan tumuli were normally family tombs that were used for many generation of the same noble family, and the deceased were buried with many precious objects that had to be the "grave goods" or the furnishings for these "houses" in the Afterlife.
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[[Image:Sveshtari Thracian tomb Bulgaria IFB.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Inside view of the [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari]], Bulgaria]]
Many tombs also hold paintings, that in many cases represent the funeral or scenes of real life.
 
The most important graveyards (necropolises) with tumulus tombs are Veio, Cerveteri, Vetulonia, Populonia. Many isolated big barrows can be found in the whole etruscan territory (mostly in Central Italy).
 
  
==Israel==  
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===Czech Republic===
[[Image:JerusalemTumulus2.jpg|thumb|200px|Jerusalem Tumulus #2 in 2004.]] Near the western city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]] in [[Israel]], 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958).  Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by [[William Foxwell Albright]], and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by [[Gabriel Barkay]] in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in Jerusalem during the [[Israelite]] monarchy from [[David]] to [[Zedekiah]] (who was conquered and humiliated by the [[Chaldea]]n king, [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded).  See [[2 Chronicles]] 16:14, 21:19 (which states that King [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]] was not given this honor), 32:33, the [[book of Jeremiah]] 34:5 (a conditional promise for Zedekiah that he did not earn), and [[Biblical archaeology]].  Gabriel Barkay popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in [[Cyprus]].
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During the early [[Middle Ages]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribesmen inhabiting what is now the [[Czech Republic]] used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice was widespread in southern and eastern [[Bohemia]] and some neighboring regions, like [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lusatia]], which at that time were also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around [[Prague]]), neither they are found in [[Moravia]]. This has led [[archaeology|archaeologists]] to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).
  
*More than half of these ancient Israeli structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation. The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two [[LMLK seal]] impressions and two other handles with associated Concentric Circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King [[Hezekiah]] (Barkay, 2003, p. 68) or his son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]] (Grena, 2004, p. 326).
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At places where barrows were constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to [[Vitín]], a small village close to [[České Budějovice]]. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as two meters high.
  
*When comparing the number of these tumuli to the total number of Israelite kings (northern and southern), note that [[Saul the King|Saul]] never ruled in [[Jerusalem]], and [[Athaliah]] was never crowned. She took the throne by force ([[Books of Kings|2Kings]] 11:1-3), and would certainly not have been honored with a tumulus ceremony following her brutal assassination.
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===Macedonia (Greece)===
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[[Image:Vergina Tombs Entrance.jpg|thumb|250 px|The entrance to the "Great Tumulus" at Vergina]]
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Some of the world's most prominent tumuli, the [[Macedonia]]n tombs and a cist-grave at [[Vergina]], tomb of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] (359-336 B.C.E.) of Macedonia and father of [[Alexander the Great]] (336-323). Speculation that the other grave found there is that of [[Alexander IV]] is controversial. His corpse was allegedly buried in Memphis during the turmoil of the Diadochi after his death in 323 B.C.E..<ref> Jona Lendering, 2007, [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_iv.html"Alexander VI"] Retrieved August 20, 2007 </ref>
  
*The northern kings did not reign over the southern kingdom, and they would certainly not have been honored with a tumulus ceremony in [[Jerusalem]]; if any ceremonies were held for them, they would have transpired in the north (near [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], [[Tirzah]], or [[Samaria]]).
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Excavations were first undertaken at this site in the nineteenth century. [[L. Heuzy]] of France and [[K. Rhomaios]] of Greece began but were stalled by the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars. In the 1960s, [[M. Andronicos]] was director of the excavations and the cemetery of the tumuli was investigated. The Palace of Philip II was excavated by a team from [[Thessaloniki University]] along with part of the necropolis being investigated by the Ministry of Culture. 1977 was the pivotal date that M. Andronicos brought to the attention of the world, the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus of Vergina, (ΜεγάΛα) tomb. However, the townspeople of Vergina put a halt to any more excavations, under the auspices of preserving their beautiful surroundings and heritage.<ref>The Museum of Macedonia, 2007, [http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Museums/Archaeological_and_Byzantine/Arx_Bas_Tafoi_Berginas.html"Royal Tombs—Vergina"] Retrieved August 20, 2007</ref>
  
*The association of these tumuli with the Judean kings who ruled [[Jerusalem]] does not substantiate Biblical history since it is mere speculation. No inscriptions naming any specific Judean king have been excavated from a tumulus.
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===Great Britain===
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In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], early references to tumuli were made by [[William Camden]], [[John Aubrey]], and [[William Stukeley]]. During the nineteenth century in [[England]] the excavation of tumuli was a popular [[pastime]] amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes, who became known as "barrow-diggers." This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain but also resulted in untold damage to the sites. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late [[Neolithic]] until the end of the [[Bronze Age]], 2900-800 B.C.E.. [[Square barrows]] were occasionally used in the Iron Age (800 B.C.E. - 43 C.E.) in the east of England. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasion, as Scandinavian burial practice became popular 500-600 C.E. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.
  
==Japan==
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===Scandinavia===
[[Image:KofunTumulus.JPG|thumb|200px|Noge-Ōtsuka [[Kofun]] tumulus, [[Tokyo]], early 5th century.]] In [[Japan]], powerful leaders built tumuli known as ''kofun''. The Kofun period of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds. The largest is over 400&nbsp;meters in length. In addition to other shapes, kofun include a keyhole shape.
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Burial mounds were in use until the eleventh century in [[Scandinavia]]. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by [[plow]]ing or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.
  
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By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to [[Valhalla]] by the consuming force of the [[fire]]. The remains were covered with [[cobblestone]]s and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf. As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship. Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga ([[Old Norse]] name: ''Haug'') near [[Uppsala]].
  
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===Ukraine and Russia===
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[[Image:LYablonskyFilipovkaKurganR1.jpg|thumb|right|250px| [[Sarmatian]] Kurgan fourth c. BC, Fillipovka, S. Urals, [[Russian Federation]]. Archaeological dig lead by [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] Archeology Institute Prof. L.Yablonsky, Summer of 2006. First known kurgan to be completely destroyed and then rebuilt to its original appearance.]]
  
[[Image:NintokuTomb.jpg|thumb|[[Daisen Kofun]], the tomb of [[Emperor Nintoku]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]]<Br>[[5th century]]]]
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'''Kurgan''' ({{lang-ru|курга́н}}) is the [[Russian language|Russian]] word for a tumulus, a type of burial mound or barrow, heaped over a burial chamber, often of wood.<ref>[http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com kurgan] Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002. Retrieved October 14, 2006. </ref> Kurgan type barrows were characteristic of [[Bronze Age]] peoples, from the [[Altay Mountains]] to the [[Caucasus]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Sometimes, they were quite complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, members of the elite were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. A circular burial mound constructed over a pit grave and often containing grave vessels, weapons, and the bodies of horses as well as a single human body; originally in use in the Russian Steppes but later spreading into eastern, central, and northern [[Europe]] in the third millennium B.C.E..
  
{{nihongo|'''Kofun'''|古墳}} are megalithic [[Tomb|tombs]] or [[tumulus|tumuli]] in [[Japan]], constructed between early 3rd century and early 7th century. They gave their name to the [[Yamato Period#Kofun Period|Kofun period]] (middle 3rd century - late 6th century). Most of the Kofun have the Keyhole-shaped mount ({{nihongo|''zenpo-koenfun''|前方後円墳}}), which was unique to the ancient Japan.
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The tradition of kurgan burials touched not only the peoples who buried most of all of their deceased in kurgan structures, but also neighboring peoples who are known as not having a kurgan burial tradition among general population. The most obvious [[archaeology|archaeological]] remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mound (kurgans), some over 20 meters high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in many great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watershed. It is from them that most has been learned about Scythian life and art.<ref>John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. ''The Cambridge Ancient History'' (Cambridge University Press, 1990, ISBN 0521234468)</ref>
  
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==Americas==
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[[Image:Serpent mound 8438.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Serpent Mound]] – an ancient [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ceremonial structure in Ohio.]]
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Mound building was a central feature of the public [[architecture]] of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures from [[Chile]] to [[Minnesota]]. Thousands of mounds in the United States have been destroyed as a result of [[farming]], pot-hunting, amateur and professional [[archaeology]], road-building, and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]], and [[Ohio River|Ohio]] Rivers.
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[[Image:AncientCherokeeGorget.png|thumb|left|200px|Many engraved [[conch shell]] artifacts, such as this one from a mound in Tennessee, have been found.]]
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[[Effigy mound]]s were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared [[cosmology]], and to unite and demarcate community. Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, [[platform mound]]s, and animal [[effigy]] mounds, but there are many variations. Mound building in the United States is believed to date back to at least 1200 B.C.E. in the southeast. The [[Adena culture|Adena]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of [[Mexico]] is [[Cahokia]], a vast [[World Heritage Site]] located just east of [[St. Louis, Missouri]]. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. The largest conical burial mound can be found in [[Moundsville, West Virginia]]. Other sites in the United States include [[Indian Mounds Park, Wisconsin]], [[Indian Mounds Park (Saint Paul, Minnesota)]], and [[Indian Mound Park, Alabama]].
  
The kofun tumuli have taken various shapes through history. The most common one is a keyhole shape, having one square end and one circular end; there are also circular kofun ({{nihongo|''enpun''|円墳}}), rectangular ones  (''zempō-kōhō''), and square ones ({{nihongo|''hōfun''|方墳}}). Orientation of kofun is not specified. For example, in the Saki Kofun group, all of circular parts are looking toward the north, but there is no such formation in the Yanagimoto kofun group. [[Haniwa]], [[terra cotta]] figures were arrayed above and in the surroundings to delimit and protect the sacred area.
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==Middle East==
  
Kofun range in size from several [[metre|meters]] to over 400m in length. The largest kofun is [[Daisen kofun]], the tomb of the [[Emperor Nintoku]], and the largest tomb by area in the world.
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===Israel===
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[[Image:JerusalemTumulus2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Jerusalem Tumulus #2 in 2004.]]
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Near the western city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]] in [[Israel]], 19 tumuli have been documented. Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by [[William Foxwell Albright]], and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by [[Gabriel Barkay]] in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in Jerusalem during the [[Israelite]] [[monarchy]] from [[David]] to [[Zedekiah]] (who was conquered and humiliated by the [[Chaldea]]n king, [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded). Gabriel Barkay popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in [[Cyprus]].
  
The funeral chamber was located beneath the round part and consisted of a group of megaliths. In 1972 unlooted [[Takamatsuzuka Tomb]] was found in [[Asuka]] and some details were revealed. Inside the tightly assembled rocks, whilte [[lime]] [[cement]] plasters were pasted and drawn colored pictures depicting the court or constellations. Stone coffin was placed in the chamber and accessories, swords and bronze mirrors were laid inside and outside of the coffin.
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===Turkey===
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On the [[Anatolia]]n peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the largest specimens of these artificial mounds in the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other [[Lydian]] mounds of the Aegean inland), [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] mounds in [[Gordium]] (Central Anatolia), and the famous [[Commagene]] tumulus on the Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] (Southeastern Anatolia).
[[Image:IshibutaiWithFigureSmallVersion2.jpg|thumb|Ishibutai kofun, the tomb of the [[Soga no Umako]], [[Asuka]]<br/>7th century]]
 
The oldest Japanese kofun is said to be Hokenoyama Kofun located in [[Sakurai, Nara]], which dates to later 3rd century. In Makimuku district of Sakurai, earlier keyhole kofun (Hashihaka Kofun, Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around early 4th century. The trend of keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where gigantic kofun as Daisen Kofun of Emperor Nintoku are built), and then throughout the country (except for the [[Tōhoku region]]) in 5th century. Later that century, keyhole kofun were also built in [[Gaya confederacy]] in Southern part of Korean peninsula.
 
  
The spreading of keyhole kofun is generally assumed to be an evidence of Yamato court's expansion in this age. However, some argues that it simply shows the spreading of culture based on progresses in distribution, and has little to do with political breakthrough. Whether keyhole kofun in Gaya was for local chieftains influenced by Japanese culture or for Japanese aristocrat is also argued. Some Korean scholars deny Japanese influences over Gaya, but most of archeologists recognize these keyhole-shaped kofun in Korea as the evidence of the cultural flow from Japan.
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Bin Tepeler (a thousand mounds in Turkish) is in the northwest of [[Salihli]] district of [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] province. It is a [[Lydian]] [[necropolis]] which dates back to seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E.. The mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1,115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by [[Herodotus]], this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King [[Alyattes II]] who ruled between 619-560 B.C.E.. There is also another mound belonging to King [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]]. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around [[Eşme]] district of [[Uşak Province|Uşak]] province.  
  
Keyhole-shaped kofun were disappeared in late 6th century, probably because of the drastic reformation taken place in Yamato court, where ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' records the introduction of [[Buddhism]] at this era.
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[[Gordium]] was the capital of the [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] Kingdom. Its ruined site contains approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, [[Persia]]n, and [[Hellenism|Hellenistic]] periods. The mounds were built between the eighth century B.C.E. and third or second century B.C.E.. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King [[Midas]]. This mound was excavated in 1957 and several [[bronze]] artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber.  
  
==Korea==
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On the peak of Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] in the east of the [[Adıyaman]] province of [[Turkey]] is situation a tumulus which dates back to the first century B.C.E.. It belongs to the [[Commagene]] King [[Antiochus I Theos of Commagene]] who ruled between 69-40 B.C.E.. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]].
[[Image:Burial-Mounds-at-GyeongJu.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea.]]
 
The first burial mounds in Korea were [[dolmen]]s which contained the material culture of the first millennium CE, such as bronze-ware, pottery, and other symbols of the elite of society.
 
  
The most famous tumulii in Korea, dating around 300 C.E., are those left behind by the Korean [[Baekje]], [[Goguryeo]], [[Silla]], and [[Gaya]] states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Jian]], and [[Gwangju]]. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at [[Anak Tomb No.3]] which depict the culture and artistry of the people.  The base of the tomb of King [[Gwanggaeto]] is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521407834&id=sANORB_MSRUC&vq=korean+tombs&dq=korean+tombs&lpg=PA214&pg=PA213&sig=1H5DNJ77lxjt8wlBxZCUKJcw7yY] Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the [[Silk Road]].
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==Asia==
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===Japan===
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[[Image:KofunTumulus.JPG|thumb|250px|Noge-Ōtsuka [[Kofun]] tumulus, [[Tokyo]], early fifth century.]]  
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'''Kofun''' are megalithic or tumuli in [[Japan]], constructed between early third century and early seventh century. They gave their name to the [[Yamato Period#Kofun Period|Kofun period]] (middle third century—late sixth century).  
  
Korean tombs exhibit many styles borrowed by and from the Chinese, such as the styles of how the tombs were built and the use of the four guardian beasts, such as [[Ssu Ling]].  Additionally,  many indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted, along with Chinese culture, to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as horsetrappings, bronze mirrors, paintings and iron-ware.
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[[Image:NintokuTomb.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Daisen Kofun]], the tomb of [[Emperor Nintoku]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]]<Br>[[fifth century]]]]
  
==China ==
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Most of the Kofun have the Keyhole-shaped mount ''zenpo-koenfun'', which was unique to ancient Japan. There are also circular ''enpun'', rectangular ''zempō-kōhō'', and square ''hōfun''.
Tumulus structures date back to Neolithic times in China. Examples includs the 65-foot-tall neolithic tomb mound at the [[Sidun]] site of the [[Liangzhu culture]] <ref>[http://bruceowen.com/emciv/341-06f-18-ChinaLungshan.pdf, Owen, B., ''China: Lungshan Horizon'', 2006]</ref>, and the mound tombs of the [[Hongshan culture]] <ref>[http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-06222006-134541/unrestricted/christian_e_peterson_etd_2006.pdf, Petersen, C., ''"Crafting" Hongshan Communities?'', 2006]</ref>. More recent examples include the stone tumuli of the [[Western Xia]] dynasty <ref>[http://english.cri.cn/725/2005/11/02/202@28335.htm, CRIENGLISH.COM: ''Western Xia Tombs'']</ref>.
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Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length. The largest kofun is [[Daisen kofun]], the tomb of the [[Emperor Nintoku]]; the largest tomb by area in the world.
  
==Macedonia(Greek)==
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The oldest Japanese kofun is said to be Hokenoyama Kofun located in [[Sakurai, Nara]], which dates to the later third century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, earlier keyhole kofun (Hashihaka Kofun, Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around the early fourth century. The trend of keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where gigantic kofun such as Daisen Kofun of Emperor Nintoku are built), and then throughout the country (except for the [[Tōhoku region]]) in the fifth century.
  
Some of the world's most prominent Tumuli, the Macedonian tombs and a cist-grave at [[Vergina]], tomb of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] (359-336 B.C.E.) of Macedonia and father of [[Alexander the Great]] (336-323). Speculation that the other grave found there is that of [[Alexander IV]] is controversial. His corpse was allegedly buried in Memphis during the turmoil of the Diadochi after his death in 323 B.C.E.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
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===Korea===
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[[Image:Burial-Mounds-at-GyeongJu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea.]]
  
[[Aigai]] is the ancient capital of Macedonia{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, homeland of Phillip II. During the 19th century, the tomb of Philip II was discovered in Vergina, northern Greece. The Monumental Palace is lavishly decorated with painted stuccoes and mosaics accompanying a burial ground with as many as 300 tumuli. Some tumuli date from the 11th century B.C.E. However, the most renowned is the royal tomb of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, who manage to unite by force many Greek cities, architect of the Hellenistic expansion.
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The most famous tumuli in [[Korea]], dating around 300 C.E., are those left behind by the Korean [[Baekje]], [[Goguryeo]], [[Silla]], and [[Gaya]] states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Jian]], and [[Gwangju]]. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at [[Anak Tomb No.3]] which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King [[Gwanggaeto]] is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.<ref> Sarah Milledge Nelson, ''The Archaeology of Korea'' (Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0521407834)</ref> Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the [[Silk Road]].  
 
This city lies on the northern slopes of the Pierian Mountains; Aigai has been identified as the capital of the Kingdom of Lower Macedonia{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The site was inhabited continuously form the Bronze Age. By the 11th – 8th century B.C.E. it was a densely populated and rich centre. The 7th-6th centuries B.C.E. saw the premium point of its prosperity and popularity; this continued into the 5th century B.C.E. Traditional sanctuaries were established, as were the seats of the Macedonian Kings. Royal tombs were known in antiquity to be opulent.
 
[[Image:Trizna 1899.jpg|thumb|200px|Burial of [[Oleg of Novgorod]] in a tumulus in 912. Painting by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]].]]
 
Excavations were first undertaken at this site by 19th century. Archaeologists [[L. Heuzy]] of France and [[K. Rhomaios]] of Greece began but were stalled by the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars and excavations were not resumed until approximately 1952{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. In the 1960s [[M. Andronicos]] was director of the excavations and the cemetery of the tumuli was investigated. The Palace of Philip II was excavated by a team from [[Thessaloniki University]] along with part of the necropolis being investigated by the Ministry of Culture. 1977 was the pivotal date that M. Andronicos brought to the attention of the world, the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus of Vergina, (ΜεγάΛα) tomb. Unfortunately, the townspeople of Vergina have put a halt to any more excavations for the time being, under the auspices of preserving their beautiful surroundings and heritage{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
 
 
 
==Turkey==
 
On the [[Anatolian]] peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the biggest specimens of these artificial mounds throughout the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other [[Lydian]] mounds of the Aegean inland), [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] mounds in [[Gordium]] (Central Anatolia) and the famous [[Commagene]] tumulus on the Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] (Southeastern Anatolia).
 
 
 
===Bin Tepeler and other Lydian tumulus sites===
 
This is the most important of the enumerated sites with the number of specimens it has and with the dimensions of certain among them. It is in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] inland of Turkey. The site is called "Bin Tepeler" (a thousand mounds in Turkish) and it is in the northwest of [[Salihli]] district of [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] province. The site is very close to the southern shoreline of [[Lake Marmara]] (Lake Gyges or Gygaea). Bin Tepeler is a [[Lydian]] [[necropolis]] which dates back to 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E. These mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by [[Herodotus]], this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King [[Alyattes II]] who ruled between 619-560 B.C.E. There is also another mound belonging to King [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]]. The Gyges mound was excavated but the burial chamber hasn't been found yet. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around [[Eşme]] district of [[Uşak Province|Uşak]] province. Certain mounds in these sites had been plundered by raiders in the late 1960s and the Lydian treasures found in their burial chambers had been smuggled to United States which later had to cede them to Turkish authorities after a series of negotiations. These artifacts are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Uşak.
 
 
 
===Gordium and Phrygian tumuli===
 
[[Gordium]] is the capital of the [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] Kingdom. Its ruins are in the immediate vicinity of [[Polatlı]] district of the Turkish capital [[Ankara]]. In this site, there are approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, [[History of Persia|Persian]] and [[Hellenistic]] periods. Only 35 tumuli were excavated so far. The mounds had been built between 8th century B.C.E. and 3rd or 2nd century B.C.E. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King [[Midas]]. This mound had been excavated in 1957 and several [[bronze]] artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber. Among these artifacts, "omphalos bowls" and famous "Phrygian [[fibula]]e" (hooked needles which were used by the Phryigians to bond the clothes they wore) are especially important.
 
 
 
===Commagene Tumulus on Mount Nemrut===
 
The Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] is 86 km in the east of [[Adıyaman]] province of [[Turkey]]. It is very close to [[Kahta]] district of the same province. The mountain has, at its peak, 3050 meters of height above the sea level. A tumulus which dates back to the 1st century B.C.E. is situated at the peak of the mountain. This artificial mound has 150 meters of diameter and a height of 50 meters which was originally 55 meters. It belongs to the [[Commagene]] King [[Antiochus I Theos of Commagene]] who ruled between 69-40 B.C.E. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders the excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] where divine figures used to embody the [[Persian mythology|Persian]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] perceptions together.
 
 
 
==Scandinavia==
 
[[Image:180px-Ottar03.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Ohthere]]'s mound'' in [[Vendel]], [[Sweden]] from the early 6th century.]]
 
Burial mounds were in use until the 11th century in Scandinavia. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by [[ploughing]] or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.
 
 
 
By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to [[Valhalla]] by the consuming force of the fire. The fire could reach temperatures of 1500 °C. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf.
 
<blockquote>Thus he ([[Odin]]) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth.  Thus, said he, every one will come to Valhalla with the riches he had with him upon the pile; and he would also enjoy whatever he himself had buried in the earth. For men of consequence a mound should be raised to their memory, and for all other warriors who had been distinguished for manhood a standing stone; which custom remained long after Odin's time. [...] It was their faith that the higher the smoke arose in the air, the higher he would be raised whose pile it was; and the richer he would be, the more property that was consumed with him. ([[Ynglinga saga]])</blockquote>
 
 
 
[[Image:Hågahögen.jpg|thumb|left|200px|King Björn's barrow in Håga.]]
 
As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship.
 
 
 
Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga ([[Old Norse]] name: ''Haug'') near [[Uppsala]]. This location has a very strong connection with [[Björn at Haugi]]. First, the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] barrow gave its name to the location ''Håga'' ("the barrow"), which became part of the cognomen of the king, ''at Haugi'' ("at the barrow"), and interestingly, the mound was later named after the king.
 
 
 
In [[Norse mythology]], the [[draugr]] was an undead creature that haunted burial mounds.
 
 
 
==Ukraine, Russia and Central Asia ==
 
 
 
The word [[kurgan]] is of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] origin borrowed from [[Russian language]]. In Ukraine and Russia, there are royal kurgans of [[Varangian]] chieftains, such as the [[Black Grave]] in Ukrainian [[Chernihiv]] (excavated in the 19th century), [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]]'s Grave in Russian [[Staraya Ladoga]], and vast, intricate [[Rurik]]'s Hill near Russian [[Novgorod|Rurikovo gorodische]]. Other important kurgans are found in Ukraine and South Russia and are associated with much more ancient [[steppe]] peoples, notably the [[Scythian]]s (e.g.,Chortomlyk, [[Pazyryk]]) and [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] (e.g., [[Ipatovo]]) The steppe cultures found in Ukraine and South Russia naturally continue into [[Central Asia]], in particular [[Kazakhstan]].
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[[Image:LYablonskyFilipovkaKurganR1.jpg|thumb|right|300px| [[Sarmatian]] Kurgan 4th c. BC, Fillipovka, S.Urals, [[Russian Federation]]. Archeological dig lead by [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] Archeology Institute Prof. L.Yablonsky, Summer of 2006. First known kurgan to be completely destroyed and then rebuilt to its original appearance.]]
 
 
 
'''Kurgan''' ({{lang-ru|курга́н}}) is the [[Russian language|Russian]] word (of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] origin<ref>specifically of [[Tatar language|Tatar]] original according to the [[OED]]. [[Turkish Language Association|TDK]] Dictionary : Kurgan [http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/SozBul.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF05A79F75456518CA&Kelime=kurgan]; The word kurgan ‘funerary mound’, is not only diffused in Russia, but throughout South-Eastern Europe (Ru. kurgán, ORu. kurganu, Ukr. kurhán, BRu. kurhan, Pol. kurhan, kurchan, kuran ‘mound’; Rumanian gurgan, dial. Hung. korhány), from Tatar, Tat., Osm., Kum. ''kurgan'', [[Old Turkic]] ''kurgan'' "fortification," , Kirg. and Jagat. ''korgan'', Karakirg. ''korgon'', all from Turkotat. ''kurgamak'' "fortify," ''kurmak'' "erect".{{Fact|date=June 2007}}</ref>) for a [[tumulus]], a type of burial mound or barrow, heaped over a burial chamber, often of wood.<ref>"kurgan." Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002. http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com (14 Oct. 2006). </ref>
 
The distribution of such tumuli in Eastern Europe corresponds closely to the  area of the [[Pit Grave]] or [[Kurgan Culture]] in [[South-Eastern Europe]].<ref>[[Mario Alinei]] 'Interdisciplinary and linguistic evidence for Paleolithic continuity of Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic populations in Eurasia', 2003</ref>
 
 
Kurgans were built in the [[Eneolithic]], [[Bronze age|Bronze]], [[Iron age|Iron]], [[Antiquity]] and [[Middle Age]], with old traditions still smoldering in Southern [[Siberia]] and [[Central Asia]]. In time and space Kurgan Cultures are divided into a multitude of archeological cultures, most famous among them are [[Srubna culture|Timber Grave]], [[Pit Grave]], [[Scythian]], [[Sarmatian]], [[Hunnish]] and [[Kuman]]-[[Kipchak]] cultures.
 
 
 
A plethora of placenames that include the word "kurgan" spread from [[Lake Baikal]] to the [[Black Sea]].
 
 
 
===Archaeology===
 
 
 
Kurgan type barrows were characteristic of [[Bronze Age]] peoples, from the [[Altay Mountains]] to the [[Caucasus]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Sometimes, burial mounds are quite complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, members of the elite were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots.  A circular burial mound constructed over a pit grave and often containing grave vessels, weapons, and the bodies of horses as well as a single human body; originally in use in the Russian Steppes but later spreading into eastern, central, and northern [[Europe]] in the third millennium B.C.E.
 
 
 
[[Image:Cmentarzysko Jacwingow, Suwalszczyzna, Aug 2004 B.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Sudovians|Sudovian]] kurgan near [[Suwałki]], [[Poland]]]]
 
 
 
Frequently the monuments of these cultures are grouped territorially and coincide with the zone of [[Scythian]]-[[Saka]]-[[Siberian]] [[monuments]]. For Scythian-Saka-Sibirian monuments they are preceding cultures, have a number of the common features, and sometimes common genetic roots.<ref>Akishev K.A., Kushaev G.A., 'Ancient culture of Sakas and Usuns in the valley of river Ili', Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences publication, 1963 (pp 121 - 136)</ref> The [[Pazyryk]],  an ancient people who lived  in the [[Altai Mountains]] lying in Siberian [[Russia]] on the [[Ukok Plateau]], near the borders with [[China]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Mongolia]] have also be associated with these spectacular burial mounds.<ref name="nova">{{cite web
 
|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html
 
|title=Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden
 
|publisher=PBS - NOVA
 
|accessdate=2007-07-31
 
}}
 
</ref> The archaeological site on the Ukok Plateau associated with the [[Pazyryk culture]] is included in the [[Golden Mountains of Altai]] [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web
 
|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/768
 
|title=Golden Mountains of Altai
 
|publisher=UNESCO
 
|accessdate=2007-07-31
 
}}
 
</ref>
 
 
 
Scythian-Saka-Sibirian classification include monuments from 8th c. BC to the 3rd c. BC. This period is called Early or Ancient [[Nomads]] epoch. 
 
   
 
"[[Hunnic]]" monuments are dated from the 3rd c. BC to the 6th century AD, and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ones from the 6th century AD to the 13th century AD, leading up to the [[Mongolian]] epoch. 
 
 
 
In all periods, in the development of the kurgan structure tradition in the various ethnocultural zones, can be distinguished a presence of common components or typical features in the construction of the monuments. They are: funeral chamber, tomb, surface and underground constructions of different configurations, mound of earth, stone, with entrance or without, funeral, ritual, and other traits, a presence of altar in the chamber, stone fence, moat, bulwark, location of sacrificial site on embankments, inside the mound, inside moat, inside embankments, and in their their links, entryways, around kurgan), the presence of an entryway into the chamber, into the tomb, into the fence, into kurgan, location of fire pit in the chamber, over wooden roof under kurgan, at the top of the kurgan, around kurgan, location of stone statue, columns, poles and other objects, bypass passages inside kurgan, inside tombs, around kurgan, and funeral paths from the moat or bulwark. 
 
   
 
Depending on combination of elements between the common components, each historical and cultural nomadic zone has its architectural peculiarities. The structures of the earlier Neolithic period from 4th - 3rd millenniums B.C.E., and Bronze Epoch until the 1st millennium B.C.E. in comparison with the Early Iron Age from the 8th c. BC to the 3rd c. BC display continuity of the archaic forming methods driven by the common ritually-mythological ideas.
 
 
[[Image:Sveshtari Thracian tomb Bulgaria IFB.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Inside view of the [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari]], Bulgaria]]
 
 
 
Pre-Scythian-Saka-Sibirian kurgans are of the following types: kurgans with surface and underground wooden or stone tombs constructed on the surface or underground and then covered with kurgan. The kurgans of Bronze culture, practically across all the Europe and Asia had to be analogous with the housing. The methods of house construction applied in the construction of the tombs.<ref>Margulan A.N., "Architecture of the ancient period" in the "Architecture of Kazakhstan," 1956, Alma-Ata, (pp 9-95)</ref> Kurgan ''Ak-su - Aüly'' (12th - 11th cc. BC) with a tomb covered by a pyramidal timber roof under kurgan has space surrounded by double walls serving as a bypass corridor. This design has analogies with the following kurgans: Begazy; Sanguyr, Begasar, Dandybay, under-kurgan cysts construction.<ref>Margulan A.N., "Architecture of the ancient period" in the "Architecture of Kazakhstan," 1956, Alma-Ata, (pp 9-95)</ref> These building traditions survived into the early Middle Ages, to the 8th-10th cc. AD. The Bronze Pre-Scythian-Saka-Sibirian culture developed in close similarity with the cultures of [[Yenisei]], [[Altai]], [[Kazakhstan]], southern and southeast [[Amur]] regions. In the 2nd millennium B.C.E. appeared so-called "kurgans-maidans." On a prepared platform were made earthen images of a swan, a turtle, a snake, etc., with and without burials. Similar structures were found in Ukraine, in [[South America]], and in [[India]].   
 
 
 
Some kurgans had facing or tiling. Kurgan Recruitment in Ukraine under soil filling has 29 big limestone slabs set on the end in a circle. Externallly they were decorated with carved geometrical ornament of rhombuses, triangles, crosses, and on one slab are schematical figures of peopled. Kurgan is dated by the 3rd millennium B.C.E. Its reconstruction showed that over an ornamented cornice up to 2м in height rested a wooden cone of thick logs, and the earthen kurgan was not above, as usually, but on the inside, under the cornice and logs.
 
 
 
 
 
The Scythian-Saka-Sibirian kurgans in the Early Iron Age are notable for their grandiose mounds throughout all Euroasian continent. The base diameters of the kurgans reach 500 m in Siberia (Great Salbyk kurgan of the settled Tagar culture), in the neighboring China they reach 5000 m (kurgan of the first emperor of China in the 3rd c. BC near city Sian) (Mason, 1997: 71). The height of the kurgans reached astronomical marks: Great Salbyk kurgan is 22 - 27 m, i.e. the height of the 7-story building; the kurgan of the Chinese emperor is over 100 m. The presence of such structures in Siberia testifies to a high standard of living and construction culture of the nomads.
 
 
In the Bronze Age were found kurgans with stone reinforcements. Frequently some of them are believed to be Scythian burials with built-up soil, and embankments reinforced with stone (Olhovsky, 1991). 
 
 
 
The most obvious archeological remains associated with the [[Scythians]] are the great burial mound (kurgans), some over 20m high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in many great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watershed.  It is from them that most has been learnt about Scythian life and art.<ref>John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. (Jan 16, 1992), p.550</ref>
 
 
 
===Cultural influences===
 
[[Image:trizna 1899.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]] being mourned by his warriors'', an 1899 painting by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]]. This burial rite, with the funerary tumulus, is typical of both [[Scandinavia]]n, and [[Eurasian nomad]]ic customs.]]
 
 
 
The tradition of kurgan burials touched not only the peoples who buried most of all of their deceased in kurgan structures, but also neighboring peoples who are known as not having a kurgan burial tradition among general population. Various Thracian kings and chieftains were buried in elaborate mound tombs found in modern Bulgaria, Phillip II, the father of Alexander of Macedon, was buried in a magnificient kurgan in present Greece, and legendary Midas, a king of ancient Phrygians, was buried in a kurgan near his ancient capital of Gordion<ref>http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/Mediterranean/Midas/intro.shtml</ref>
 
 
 
===Kurgan hypothesis===
 
 
 
The [[Kurgan hypothesis]] postulates that the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] were the bearers of the [[Kurgan culture|"Kurgan" (Yamna) culture]] of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caucasus]] and west of the [[Urals]].
 
 
 
[[Marija Gimbutas]] introduced her '''Kurgan hypothesis''' in 1956, combining ''kurgan archaeology'' with ''linguistics'' to locate the origins of the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) speaking peoples. She tentatively named the culture "''Kurgan''" after their distinctive burial mounds and traced its diffusion into Europe. This hypothesis has had a significant impact on [[Indo-European studies|Indo-European research]]. Those scholars who follow Gimbutas identify a "''Kurgan culture''" as reflecting an early [[Indo-European people|Indo-European]] [[ethnic]]ity which existed in the steppes and southeastern Europe from the [[5th millennium B.C.E.|fifth]] to [[3rd millennium B.C.E.|third]] millennia BC. Marija Gimbutas ''Kurgan hypothesis'' is opposed by [[Paleolithic Continuity Theory]], which associates [[Pit Grave]] and [[Sredny Stog]] Kurgan cultures with [[Turkic peoples]], and [[Anatolian hypothesis]] which denies Indo-European origin advocated by M. Gimbutas Baltic version of Chalcolithic Invasion Kurgan hypothesis, and is also opposed by [[Black Sea deluge theory]]. In Kurgan Cultures, most of the burials were in kurgans, either clan kurgans or individual. Most prominent leaders were buried in individual kurgans, now called "Royal kurgans," which attract highest attention and publicity.
 
 
 
===Some excavated kurgans===
 
 
 
*The ''[[Ipatovo kurgan|Ipatovo]]'' kurgan revealed a long sequence of burials from the [[Maykop culture]] ca. 4000 B.C.E. down to the burial of a [[Sarmatian]] princess of the [[3rd century B.C.E.]], excavated 1998&ndash;1999.
 
*Kurgan 4 at ''Kutuluk'' near [[Samara, Russia|Samara]], [[Russia]], dated to ca. [[24th century B.C.E.]], containing the skeleton of a man, estimated to have been 35 to 40 years old and about 152 cm tall. Rose, M., "[http://www.archaeology.org/0203/newabriefs/cudgel.html Cudgel Culture],"  , ''Archaeology'' , March/April, 2002. Resting on the skeleton's bent left elbow was a copper object of a length of ca. 65 cm with a blade of a diamond-shaped cross-section and sharp edges, but no point, and a handle, originally probably wrapped in leather. No similar object is known from Bronze Age Eurasian steppe cultures, and the object has been compared to the [[vajra]] thunderbolt of Indian [[Indra]].
 
*''Novovelichkovskaya'' kurgan of ca. 2000 B.C.E. on the [[Ponura River]], [[Krasnodar]] region, southern Russia, containing the remains of 11 people, including an embracing couple, buried with bronze tools, stone carvings, jewelry, and ceramic vessels decorated with red ocher. The tomb is associated with the [[Novotitorovka culture]] nomads.
 
*''[[Issyk kurgan]]'', in southern [[Kazakhstan]], containing a skeleton, possibly female, ca. [[4th century B.C.E.]], with  inscription on a silver cup, with 4.000 gold ornaments, with Scythian animal art objects and headdress reminiscent of Kazakh bridal hats, discovered in 1969.
 
*Kurgan 11 of the ''Berel'' cemetery, in the [[Bukhtarma River]] valley of Kazakhstan, containing a tomb of ca. 300 B.C.E., with a dozen sacrificed horses, preserved with their skin, hair, harnesses, and saddles intact, buried side by side on a bed of birch bark next to a funeral chamber containing the pillaged burial of two Scythian nobles, excavated in 1998.
 
*''Ryzhanovka'' kurgan, a 10 metres high kurgan 125 km south of [[Kiev]], containing the tomb of a [[Scythian]] chieftain, [[3rd century B.C.E.]], excavated in 1996.
 
*''[[Solokha kurgan]]'', Scythian, early [[4th century B.C.E.]].
 
 
 
[[Image:SamaraKurganR2.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Undated unattributed unexplored kurgan on west side of Samara Bend, [[Russian Federation]], with visible tunnel of grave robbers.]]
 
 
*''[[Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak]]'', a [[Thracia]]n kurgan of ca. the [[4th century B.C.E.]].
 
*''[[Aleksandrovo kurgan]]'', a [[Thracia]]n kurgan of ca. the [[4th century B.C.E.]].
 
*''[[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari]]'', a [[Thracia]]n kurgan of ca. the [[3rd century B.C.E.]].
 
*''[[Håga Kurgan]]'', a large [[Nordic Bronze Age]] kurgan from ca 1000 B.C.E.
 
*''[[Pereschepino Kurgan]]'', burial memorial of Great Bulgaria Khan [[Kubrat]] (Kurbat) from ca 660 C.E.
 
*''[[Noin-Ula]] kurgan'', a tomb of Uchjulü-Chanuy (8 B.C.E. - 13 C.E.), head of the [[Hun]] confederation.<ref>http://www.hostkingdom.net/siberia.html#Hsiung-Nu</ref>
 
<!-- Please translate, copyedit, wikify and/or fix the following section —>
 
some kurgans in Poland
 
* [[Unetice culture#Burials]] 14 kurgans form 2000 - 1800 B.C.E. ([http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielkopolskie_piramidy more PL]}
 
* Trzcinica http://teams.karpaty.edu.pl/trzcinica/ogolnie.htm
 
* Krasnik Neolitic(stone age) kurhans http://www.krasnik.lubelskie.pl/pliki/hist_mogila2.htm
 
* 'Na Plesniku' http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/grafika/mogily.htm
 
* Trawiasta Buczyna hundreds of stone kurhans 1200-1000 B.C.E.
 
* Skalbmierz 4000B.C.E. http://www.kwiatek.krakow.pl/skalbmierz/main2.htm
 
* Zambrow http://www.ugzambrow.pl/zdjecia/kurhan_z_xi_w_pod_cieciorkami.jpg
 
* more http://forum.gazeta.pl/forum/72,2.html?f=12217&w=22873085&v=2&s=0
 
* Jawczyce Described by Bishop Nankerus 1322 C.E. Late kurgan from XI c ad. Old man with arm . Excavated by Sikora from UJ. [http://www.odyssei.com/pl/travel-tips/19625.html]
 
* Łubno, pow. Sieradz "Trzciniec Culture" ~1500 B.C.E. contains man and woman buried at the same time. "she folow him to the grave"
 
* kurgans inhumation Łubna-Jakusy (51,59035;18,49461), kurgan cremation Guciów (50,57859°;23,08208° of [[Trzciniec culture]] ~1500 B.C.E.
 
* kopiec Krakusa [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Krakusa], Where people gather for spcial customs from prohistory til today.
 
* 'kopiec Wandy' doughter of [[Krakus]] [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Wandy]
 
*  Piłakno near Mrągowo digout in 1988 "west balltic kurhan culture" [http://www.historycy.org/index.php?showtopic=1548&pid=27266&mode=threaded&show=&st=&#entry27266]
 
* Bełchatow pagan Polish "church" on top of kurgan [http://www.historycy.org/index.php?showtopic=151 ''Odkrywca'' nr1(25) 01.2001]
 
* 'Kopiec Tatarski' Przemyśl [http://www.kki.com.pl/pioinf/przemysl/zabytki/kopiec/kopiec.html]. Triangle shaped, 10m mound, narowest angle facing east. Dig in 1869 by T.Żebrawski found bones and late coins. Digs in 1958 by A.Kunysz fond on nother side scools and bones and medieval ceramc. On the top was erected arond 1534 'Templum s. Leonardi' destroy in WW2.
 
 
 
* Kopiec Esterki XIV c erected by [[Casimir III of Poland]] for his decesed love.
 
* Kopiec [[Władysław III of Poland]] after 1444 in [[Varna]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VarnaMemorial.jpg]
 
* Kopiec [[Tadeusz Kościuszko|Kościuszki]] build 09/15/1820 [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Ko%C5%9Bciuszki] another 2 in Olkusz for 44 aniversary in 1861. Destroy in 1964 and rebuild in 1917. 3 in Busko.
 
* Kopiec Unii Lubelskiej,  06/28/1869 in [[Lviv]] to celebrate 300 universary of [[Union of Lublin]] [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Unii_Lubelskiej].
 
* Kopiec [[Adam Mickiewicz]] 1898 [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Adama_Mickiewicza_%28Sanok%29]
 
* Kopiec Wyzwolenia 07/20/1930 [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Wyzwolenia]
 
* Kopiec [[Józef Piłsudski|Piłsudskiego]] 8/6/1934 [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopiec_Pi%C5%82sudskiego]
 
 
 
 
 
===Contemporary kurgans===
 
Kurgan building tradition is alive in Poland. The Polish word for kurgan is ''kopiec''. The next one for [[Pope John Paul II]] is hotly [http://www.google.com/search?as_q=Kopiec+Jana+Paw%C5%82a+II&hl=en&num=100&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&lr=&as_ft=i&as_filetype=&as_qdr=all&as_nlo=&as_nhi=&as_occt=any&as_dt=i&as_sitesearch=&as_rights=&safe=images debated]
 
 
 
In Russia, the memorial connotation of the word "kurgan" has survived through the centuries, and in the post-WWII period was resuscitated as an architectural device in building numerous WWII memorials (Glory Kurgan, [[Mamayev Kurgan]]).
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
==United States==
 
 
 
Mound building was a central feature of the public [[architecture]] of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures from Chile to Minnesota. Thousands of mounds in the USA have been destroyed as a result of farming, pot-hunting, amateur and professional archaeology, road-building and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and [[Ohio River|Ohio]] Rivers.
 
[[Effigy mound]]s were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared [[cosmology]], and to unite and demarcate community.  Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, [[platform mound]]s, and animal [[effigy]] mounds, but there are many variations.  Mound building in the USA is believed to date back to at least 1200 B.C.E. in the Southeast (see [[Poverty Point]]), and recent research shows that it may predate that as well. The [[Adena culture|Adena]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of [[Mexico]] is [[Cahokia]], a vast [[World Heritage Site]] located just east of St. Louis, Missouri. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. The largest conical burial mound can be found in [[Moundsville, West Virginia]].
 
[[Image:Serpent mound 8438.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Serpent Mound]] – an ancient [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ceremonial structure in Ohio.]]  Other sites in the U.S.A. include [[Indian Mounds Park, Wisconsin]], [[Indian Mounds Park (Saint Paul, Minnesota)]], and [[Indian Mound Park, Alabama]].
 
 
 
[[Image:miamisburg_jqj.jpg|frame|right|Miamisburg Mound, the largest conical mound in Ohio, is attributed to the [[Adena Culture|Adena archaeological culture]].]]
 
'''Mound Builder''' is a general term referring to the [[Indigenous peoples of North America|Native North American peoples]] who constructed various styles of earthen [[mound]]s for burial, residential, and ceremonial purposes. These included [[Archaic period|Archaic]], and [[Woodland period]], and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian period]] [[Pre-Columbian]] cultures dating from roughly 3000 B.C.E. to the 1500s, and living in the [[Great Lakes]] region, the [[Ohio River]] region, and the [[Mississippi River]] region.
 
 
 
The term "Mound Builder" was also applied to an imaginary race believed to have constructed these earthworks, because Euroamericans from the 16th-19th centuries generally thought that Native Americans did not build the mounds.
 
 
 
===The mounds and their structure===
 
The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of [[mound]]s and other [[Earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]]. These burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat-topped [[pyramid]]s or [[platform mound]]s, flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. The best known flat-topped pyramidal structure, which is also the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico at over 100 feet tall, is [[Monk's Mound]] at [[Cahokia]]. Some [[effigy mound]]s were made in unusual shapes, such as the outline of culturally significant animals. The most famous effigy mound, [[Serpent Mound]] in southern Ohio, is 5 feet tall, 20 wide, over 1330 feet long, and shaped as a [[serpent]].
 
 
 
The Mound Builders included many different [[tribe|tribal groups]] and [[chiefdom]]s, probably involving a bewildering array of beliefs and unique cultures, united only by the shared architectural practice of mound construction. This practice, believed to be associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common cultural antecedents. The first mound building is an early marker of incipient political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States.
 
 
 
The most complete reference for these earthworks is ''[[Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley]]'', written by [[E. G. Squier|Ephraim G. Squier]], Edwin H. Davis and Samuel Morton. It was published by the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[1848 in archaeology|1848]]. Since many of the features they documented have since been destroyed or diminished by farming and development, their surveys, sketches and descriptions are still used by modern archaeologists. All of their sites located in Kentucky came from the manuscripts of the deceased [[C._S._Rafinesque|C.S. Rafinesque]]. A smaller regional study in 1931 by author and archaeologist [[Fred Dustin]] charted and examined the mounds and Ogemaw Earthworks near [[Saginaw, Michigan]]. Archaeological survey and recording of mounds is an ongoing task.
 
 
 
[[Image:AncientCherokeeGorget.png|thumb|left|Many engraved [[conch shell]] artifacts, such as this one from a mound in Tennessee, have been found.]]
 
===Eras===
 
The Moundbuilding cultures can be divided into roughly three eras:
 
====Archaic era====
 
[[Poverty Point]] in what is now [[Louisiana]] is a prominent example of early archaic Mound Builder construction (c. 2500 B.C.E. - 1000 B.C.E.). While earlier Archaic mound centers existed (see [[Watson Brake]]), Poverty Point remains one of the best-known early examples.
 
 
 
====Woodland period====
 
Throughout the United States, the [[Archaic period]] was followed by the [[Woodland period]] (c. 1000 B.C.E. - 1000). Some well-understood examples would be the [[Adena culture]] of [[Ohio]] and nearby states, and the subsequent [[Hopewell culture]] known from [[Illinois]] to Ohio and renowned for their geometric earthworks. The Adena and Hopewell were not, however, the only mound building peoples during this time period. There were contemporaneous mound building cultures throughout the Eastern United States.
 
 
 
====Mississippian culture====
 
[[Image:Emerald_Mound.jpg|frame|right|Occupied between 1250 and 1600 [[Common Era|C.E.]], [[Mississippi]]'s Emerald Mound is the second-largest ceremonial earthwork in the United States.]]
 
Around 900-1000 C.E. the [[Mississippian culture]] developed and spread through the Eastern United States, primarily along the river valleys. The location where the Mississippian culture is first clearly developed is located in Illinois, and is referred to today as [[Cahokia]].
 
 
 
===The Moundbuilder Myth===
 
Through the mid-1800s, Native Americans were generally not believed to have built the mounds of the eastern U.S.
 
 
 
A key work in the widespread recognition of the true origins of the mounds was the lengthy 1894 report of [[Cyrus Thomas]] of the [[Bureau of American Ethnology]], which concluded that the prehistoric earthworks of the eastern United States were the work of Native Americans. A small number of people had earlier reached similar conclusions: [[Thomas Jefferson]], for example, excavated a mound and noted similarities between mound builder funeral practices, and the funeral practices of Native Americans in his time.
 
 
 
Several alternate explanations were forwarded as to the origins of the mound builders:
 
 
 
[[Benjamin Smith Barton]] proposed the theory that the mound builders were [[Viking]]s who came to America and eventually disappeared. Other people believed that they were [[Greeks]], [[Africans]], [[History of China|Chinese]] or assorted [[European]]s. The [[Ten Lost Tribes]] of [[Israel]] were often given credit for the mounds by  Euroamericans who embraced a [[Bible|Biblical worldview]]. The ''[[Book of Mormon]]'' (first published in 1830) claimed that Israelite groups (called the [[Nephite]]s, [[Lamanite]]s and [[Jaredite]]s) settled in the Americas and built magnificent cities (including large burial mounds), only to be later decimated by warfare. Reverend Landon West claimed that [[Serpent Mound]] in Ohio was built by God. He believed that God built the mound himself and placed it in Eden, which apparently was in Ohio. Some people went as far as to attribute the mounds to mythical cultures: [[Lafcadio Hearn]] suggested that the mounds were built by people from the lost continent of [[Atlantis]]. 
 
 
 
The removal of most Indians from the mound builder regions by the 1830s, by means of the [[Trail of Tears]], was partly justified by the theory that the Indians destroyed the mound builders. Because people thought that the mound builders were sometimes believed to be ancient Europeans, the removal of the Indians was justified in order to reclaim their land.
 
 
 
The mound builder myth was not just a simple hoax, but a misinterpretation of real data from valid sources. The myth was widely accepted by scholars and laymen. Reference to this alleged race appears in the poem "The Prairies" (1832) by [[William Cullen Bryant]]  <ref>http://www.4literature.net/William_Cullen_Bryant/Prairies/ Bryant, William Cullen, “The Praries” (1832)</ref>  The widespread acceptance of the myth was based on a number of factors.
 
 
 
One was the belief the American Indians were simple beings that could not have constructed such magnificent earthworks and artifacts. The stone, metal, and clay artifacts were thought to be too complex for the primitive Indians to make. However, in the American Southeast, Northeast, and Midwest, there were numerous Indian cultures that were sedentary and participated in agriculture. Numerous Indian towns even had walls surrounding them for defense. If they were capable of this type of construction, building mounds should have been no more difficult. People who believed that the Indians were not responsible for the earthworks also used the argument that they could have not built them because they were [[nomadic]] peoples who followed their food. In this view, they could not have devoted the time and effort to construct mounds and other time-consuming projects. 
 
 
 
When Europeans first arrived in America they never witnessed the American Indians building mounds; and when asked about the mounds, most of the Indians did not know anything about them. Yet there were numerous written accounts about the Indians' construction of the mounds by Europeans. One detailed account was by [[Garcilaso de la Vega]], who wrote about how they built the mounds and the temples that were placed on top of the mounds.  There were even French expeditions that stayed with Indian societies who built mounds. 
 
 
 
People also claimed that the Indians were not the mound builders because the mounds and related artifacts were older than the Indian culture itself. [[Caleb Atwater]]'s misunderstanding of [[stratigraphy]] led him to believe that the mound builders were a much older civilization than the Indians. In his book, ''Antiquities Discovered in the Western States'' (1820), Atwater claims that Indian remains are always found right beneath the surface of the earth. Since the artifacts associated with the mound builders are found fairly deep in the ground, Atwater argued that they must be from a different group of people. The discovery of metal artifacts further convinced people that the mound builders were not Native Americans because the Indians were not known to engage in metallurgy. This was another ignorant perception that was based on the assumption that all Indian cultures are similar. Some artifacts that were found in relation to the mounds were inscribed with symbols. The Europeans did not know of any Indian cultures that had a writing system, so they assumed it was another group who created them.
 
 
 
===Hoaxes===
 
Several hoaxes enforced the Moundbuilder Myth, leading people to believe in the myth even more.
 
 
 
In 1860, David Wyrick discovered the “Keystone tablet,” containing [[Hebrew language]] inscriptions written on it in Newark, Ohio. Soon after, he found the “Decologue” tablet nearby, also claimed to contain Hebrew. It was later discovered that a Reverend John W. McCarty created the stones and put them in a place where Wyrick would find them.
 
 
 
Another hoax related to the mound builder myth was the discovery of the Davenport tablets by Reverend Jacob Gass. These were also tablets with inscriptions on them that later were found to be fake. 
 
 
 
The [[Walam Olum]] hoax had considerable influence in the mound builder myth. [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque]] published in 1836 his translation of a text he claimed had been written in pictographs on wooden tablets. This text explained the origin of the Lenape Indians in Asia, told of their passage over the Bering Strait, and narrated their subsequent migration across the North American continent. This “Walam Olum” tells of battles with native peoples already in America before the Lenape arrived. It was assumed by others that these original people were the mound builders, and that the Lenape Indians overthrew them and destroyed their culture. David Oestreicher later branded Rafinesque's story a hoax, arguing that the Walam Olum glyphs derive from Chinese, [[Egyptian script|Egyptian]], and [[Maya script|Mayan]] alphabets. Meanwhile, the belief that the Native Americans destroyed the mound builder culture had earned widespread acceptance.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The [[Kinderhook Plates]] ("discovered" in 1843) were another hoax planted in Native American mounds.
 
 
Other groups that have developed myths about the moundbuilders are certain sects affiliated with the Black nationalist Moorish Science philosophy. They argue that the moundbuilders were an ancient advanced Black civilization that developed the legendary continents of Atlantis and Mu as well as ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica.
 
 
Like other moundbuilder myths, they posit that the American Indians were too uncivilized and unable to develop cities and the technology necessary for building these mounds.
 
 
 
 
 
==Tumulus burial accounts==
 
The funeral  of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the ''[[Iliad]]''. Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre. Achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a [[chariot race]], boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing.
 
 
 
Beowulf is taken to Hronesness, where he burned on a funeral pyre. During cremation, the  Geats  lament the death of their lord, the widow's lament being mentioned in particular.  singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow.
 
Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, and filled with treasure. A band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord.
 
 
 
Parallels have also been drawn to the account of [[Attila]]'s burial in [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Getica]]''.<ref>Frederick Klaeber, ''Attila's and Beowulf's funeral'', PMLA (1927);
 
Martin Puhvel, ''The Ride around Beowulf's Barrow'', Folklore (1983).</ref> Jordanes tells that as Attila's body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games.
 
 
 
An Old Irish ''Life of [[Columcille]]'' reports that every funeral procession "halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, and the mourners marched thrice solemnly round the spot."
 
 
 
 
 
==Types of barrows==
 
[[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below:
 
 
 
 
 
*[[Bank barrow]]
 
*[[Bell barrow]]
 
*[[Bowl barrow]]
 
*[[D-shaped barrow]] A round barrow with a purposely flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs
 
*[[Fancy barrow]] A generic term for any [[Bronze Age]] barrows more elaborate than a simple hemispherical shape.
 
*[[Long barrow]]
 
*[[Oval barrow]] A type of [[Neolithic]] long barrow consisting of an elliptical, rather than rectangular or trapezoidal mound.
 
*[[Platform barrow]] The least common of the recognised types of round barrow,  consisting of a flat, wide circular mound, which may be  surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern  England with a marked concentration in East and West [[Sussex]].
 
*[[Pond barrow]] a barrow consisting of a shallow circular  depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of  the depression. [[Bronze age]]
 
*[[Ring barrow]] a bank which encircles a number of burials.
 
*[[Round barrow]] a circular feature created by the [[Bronze Age]] peoples of Britain and also the later [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vikings]] and [[Saxons]]. Divided into sub classes such as saucer and bell barrow.  The [[Six Hills]] are a rare Roman example.
 
*[[Saucer barrow]] circular Bronze Age barrow featuring a low, wide mound surrounded by a ditch which may be accompanied by an external bank.
 
*[[Square barrow]] A burial site, usually of [[Iron Age]] date, consisting of a small, square, ditched enclosure surrounding a central burial, which may also have been covered by a mound
 
 
 
==List of notable barrow diggers==
 
*[[Thomas Bateman]]
 
*[[William Copeland Borlase]]
 
*Sir [[Richard Colt Hoare]]
 
*[[William Cunnington]]
 
*Rev. [[Bryan Faussett]]
 
*Canon [[William Greenwell]]
 
*[[Llewellyn Jewitt]]
 
*Rev. [[W. C. Lukis]]
 
*[[John Robert Mortimer]]
 
*[[Augustus Pitt Rivers]]
 
*[[John Thurman]]
 
*[[Charles Warne]]
 
  
 +
Korean tombs exhibit many styles borrowed by and from the Chinese, such as the styles of how the tombs were built and the use of the four guardian beasts, such as [[Ssu Ling]]. Additionally, many indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted, along with Chinese culture, to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as [[horse]] trappings, bronze mirrors, paintings, and iron-ware.
  
 
==Gallery==
 
==Gallery==
 
<gallery>
 
<gallery>
Image:SalbykKurgan221201683.jpg|Salbyk kurgan before excavation, 5th-4th c.BC, upper Enisey-Irtysh interfluvial. Salbyk kurgan is surrounded by [[balbal]]s, and topped with [[Kurgan stelae|kurgan obelisk]]
+
Image:SalbykKurgan221201683.jpg|Salbyk kurgan before excavation, fifth-fourth c.BC, upper Enisey-Irtysh interfluvial. Salbyk kurgan is surrounded by [[balbal]]s, and topped with [[Kurgan stelae|kurgan obelisk]]
Image:AlexandropolKurganBeforeExcavation1852-6.gif|Scythian royal Alexandropol (Gümri in Armenia) kurgan C14 dated 394-366 B.C.E., before excavation in 1852-6
+
Image:AlexandropolKurganBeforeExcavation1852-6.gif|Scythian royal Alexandropol (Gümri in Armenia) kurgan C14 dated 394-366 B.C.E., before excavation in 1852-1856
Image:PerepyatichaKurganGroup.gif|Engraving of Ukraine Perepyat kurgan cemetery group before its excavation
+
Image:Sulm valley tumulus.jpg|Hallstatt-era tumulus in the Sulm valley necropolis
 +
Image:Hågahögen.jpg|King Björn's barrow in Håga.
 +
Image:IshibutaiWithFigureSmallVersion2.jpg|Ishibutai kofun, the tomb of the [[Soga no Umako]], [[Asuka]]<br/>seventh century
 +
Image:Thracian-tumulus-Strelcha.jpg|Thracian tumulus near the town of Strelcha, Bulgaria
 +
Image:Wesiory5.jpg|Tumulus near Wesiory, Poland
 +
Image:Tumulus othee belgium.JPG|Tumulus d'Othée en Belgique
 +
Image:Hünenbett Nobbin.JPG|Long barrow near Nobbin/Rügen, Nortern Germany
 +
Image:Banditaccia Tumulus.jpg|A burial mound, Tumulus, part of the necropolis of Banditaccia at Cerveteri in Lazio, Italy.
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
Line 376: Line 133:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
* Albright, William F. "Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem". ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' (The American Schools of Oriental Research) 10 (April 1923): 1–3.
 +
* Barkay, Gabriel. [http://www.bib-arch.org/ "Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented"]. ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' 29(3) (2003): 32-9, 66, 68. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
 +
* Boardman, John, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. ''The Cambridge Ancient History''. Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521234468
 +
* Feder, Kenneth L. 2007. ''Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology''. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780073405292
 +
* Gimbutas, Marija. ''The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993 (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series No. 18)''. Institute for the Study of Man, 1997. ISBN 0941694569
 +
* Grena, G.M. ''LMLK—A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1''. Redondo Beach, California: 4000 Years of Writing History, 2004. ISBN 097487860X
 +
*Grinsell, L.V. ''The Ancient Burial-mounds of England''. London: Methuen, 1936. {{ASIN|B000H4CUSO}}
 +
*Ismagulov, O. "Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)," ''Science'' (1970).
 +
*Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth''. Thames & Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0500276161
 +
*Mallory, James (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'' Routledge, 1997. ISBN 1884964982
 +
* Nelson, Sarah Milledge. ''The Archaeology of Korea''.  1993. ISBN 0521407834
 +
*Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'' Thames and Hudson, 2000. ISBN 0500281475
 +
*Telegin, D. Ya. et al. ''Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona''. Kiev: Shlyakh, 2001.
 +
* Thomas, Cyrus. "Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology," in J. W. Powell ''Twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890-91'' (1894):3-730.
  
* {{cite journal | author=Albright, William F. | year=1923 | title=Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem | journal=[http://www.asor.org/pubs/basor/basor.html Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research] | volume=10 | issue=April | pages=1-3}}
+
==External links==
 
+
All links retrieved May 2, 2023.
* {{cite journal | author=Amiran, Ruth | year=1958 | title=The tumuli west of Jerusalem, Survey and Excavations, 1953 | journal=[http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/ies/iej.htm Israel Exploration Journal] | volume=8 | issue=4 | pages=205-27}}
 
 
 
* {{cite journal | author=Barkay, Gabriel | year=2003 | title=Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented | journal=[http://www.bib-arch.org/ Biblical Archaeology Review] | volume=29 | issue=3 | pages=32-9, 66, 68}}
 
 
 
* {{cite book | author=Grena, G.M. | year=2004 | title=LMLK—A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1 | location=Redondo Beach, California | publisher=4000 Years of Writing History | id=ISBN 0-9748786-0-X}}
 
 
 
*Grinsell, L.V., 1936, ''The Ancient Burial-mounds of England''. London: Methuen.
 
 
 
* {{cite book | author=Nelson, Sarah Milledge | year=1993 | title=The Archaeology of Korea  | location=New York: Cambridge University Press.  | isbn=0-521-40783-4}}
 
 
 
*"Proto-Türkic rune-like inscription on silver cup (Issyk Inscription)" by [[A. S. Amanzholov|A.S. Amanjolov]], in "History Of Ancient Türkic Script," Almaty 2003
 
*"In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth" by J. P. Mallory, ISBN 0-500-27616-1
 
*"The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993" von Marija Gimbutas u.a., ISBN 0-941694-56-9
 
*"[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]]" ed. James Mallory, D. Q. Adams, ISBN 1-884964-98-2
 
*D. Ya. Telegin et al., ''Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona''. Kiev: Shlyakh, 2001. Reviewed by J.P. Mallory, JIES vol. 32, 3/4, p. 363&ndash;366.
 
*"Reconstruction Of The Genofond Peculiarities Of The Ancient Pazyryk Population (I-II Millennium B.C.E.) From Gorny Altai According To The mtDNA Structure" Voevoda M.I., Sitnikova V.V., Romashchenko A.G., Chikisheva T.A., Polosmak N.V., Molodin V.I http://www.bionet.nsc.ru/bgrs/thesis/99/.
 
*[[Orazak Ismagulov|O.Ismagulov]] 'Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)', Science, Alma-Ata, 1970
 
 
 
 
 
* [[Cyrus Thomas|Thomas, Cyrus]]. Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology. Pp. 3-730. Twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890-91, by J. W. Powell, Director. XLVIII+742 pp., 42 pls., 344 figs. 1894.
 
* [[Feder, Kenneth L.]]. ‘’Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology’’. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2006.  
 
  
==External links==
+
* [http://archaeology.about.com/od/lterms/g/lostraces.htm Moundbuilder Myth]  
* [http://archaeology.about.com/od/lterms/g/lostraces.htm Lost Race Myth]
 
* [http://www.LostWorlds.org  LostWorlds.org | An Interactive Museum of the American Indian]
 
* [http://www.lenaweehistory.com/lenawee-ch1.html#indians  LenaweeHistory.com | Mound Builders section, The Western Historical Society 1909, reprint.]
 
* [http://www.artisthideout.com/art-of-the-ancients-2/ Artist Hideout, Art of the Ancients]
 
 
* {{gutenberg|no=17987|name=The Mound Builders}}
 
* {{gutenberg|no=17987|name=The Mound Builders}}
 +
*[http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/kofun.html  Japanese Archaeology: Kofun Culture]
  
  
*[http://www.eng-h.gov.uk/mpp/mcd/intro2.htm English Heritage Monument Class Descriptions]
+
{{Prehistoric technology}}
 
+
{{Credits|Tumulus|146739916|Kurgan|147936990|Mound_builder_(people)|145547760|Kofun|150000613|Burgstallkogel_(Sulm_valley)|155008586|}}
* [http://www.congleton-cheshire.co.uk/barrows_of_congleton.htm? Congletons barrows and burial mounds]
 
 
 
 
 
*[http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/Kurgans.htm Kurgan Culture]
 
*[http://www.rdg.ac.uk/archaeology/Research/Klin_Yar/Ipatovo.htm the Ipatovo kurgan]
 
*[http://www.archaeology.org/cgi-bin/perlfect/search/search.pl?mode=all&q=Kurgan excavated kurgans] (archaeology.org).
 
*[http://www.csen.org/BAR%20Book/BAR.%20Part%2001.TofC.htmlKurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age] book for download (www.csen.org)
 
*[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kurgan Definitions from Dictionary.com]
 
 
 
*[http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/kofun.html  Japanese Archaeology: Kofun Culture]
 
*[http://www.jref.com/culture/kofun_period_era.shtml  Kofun Period]
 
*[http://www.nbz.or.jp/eng/prehistoric.htm  Prehistoric Archaeology of Japan ]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{{Credits|Tumulus|146739916|Kurgan|147936990|Mound_builder_(people)|145547760|Kofun|150000613|}}
 

Latest revision as of 18:43, 2 May 2023


The Royal mounds of Gamla Uppsala from the fifth and the sixth centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but owing to quarrying and agriculture only 250 remain.

A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, or kurgans. When composed largely or entirely of stones they are usually referred to as cairns. The phenomenon appears early in human history, during the Neolithic era, and although used almost universally tumuli differ in size, structure, and usage with each culture.

In one aspect, the tumulus is a simple way to bury the dead and honor them with a memorial, for it requires little sophistication or technology. On the other hand, though, the size of many of these mounds is impressive by today's standards, and far more so considering the lack of technology available in ancient times. Their appearance throughout the world in unrelated cultures indicates a universal appreciation for the dead members of their society, and a desire to mark their life permanently in the physical world.

Etymology

The term tumulus derives from the Latin word for mound or small hill. It shares the root tum- "to bulge, swell," with the word tumor.[1]

Description

Model of the inside wooden construction of the tumulus of Midas in Fordion with the reconstructed head of the man buried here

Tumuli differ from one culture to another. The simple ones were graves dug into the ground, where bodies were deposited and then a large amount of earth was piled on top, creating a mound. The more complex type were actual structures, either built on top or sunken slightly into the ground and then covered by earth. Sometimes, large existing hills were tunneled into and graves were carved from the interior.

Archaeology

Miamisburg Mound, the largest conical mound in Ohio, is attributed to the Adena Culture.

Although people were aware of the existence of burial mounds for many years, they remained mysterious until the nineteenth century, when amateur archaeologists began using scientific techniques in regards to excavations. The first mounds excavated were in Peru, at the site of the Huaca de Tantalluc, but Thomas Jefferson, before he became the third President of the United States, was the first to receive widespread recognition for excavating tumuli.

By noting the stratigraphy of the soil and rock on a cross-section of the burial mound he excavated in the Mississippi Valley, and the relative age difference between the skeletons found in the lower sections compared to those remains closer to the surface, Jefferson was able to deduce that the mound had been revisited several times over the course of years, each time a new layer of sediment and human remains being added. While this did not end the debate over who had created the mounds, it did constitute a breakthrough in how archaeology could be used to examine the phenomenon.[2]

With the advancement of scientific approaches in regard to archaeological techniques in the twentieth century came the realization of just how much information could be ascertained from tumuli: settlement patterns, religious beliefs, new dating techniques, and evidence of human evolution were just some of the few items of information that careful study of tumuli could reveal. However, with this realization came an ethical question which archaeology has had to deal with in all cases of human burials. To excavate a tumulus means to destroy it and remove remains specifically laid to rest in the ground. Even if the information yielded is immensely beneficial, does it justify such a violation is something archaeologists now take into consideration, especially if the descendants of the deceased are still alive (such as the Native Americans of North America).

Since the first excavations, many burial mounds have been completely desecrated and remains divided up amongst the academic institutions of the world. In contemporary times, great care is taken to leave certain tumuli un-excavated, but with the use of digital imagery techniques and sight observation, burial mounds that are not excavated continue to be studied.

Theories

Burial of Oleg of Novgorod in a tumulus in 912. Painting by Viktor Vasnetsov.

The process of creating tumuli is one that has fascinated archaeologists for some time, if for no other reason than that it is one of the few human activities that appear to be universal and not cultural diffused. The act of human burial has long been viewed as an outgrowth of proto-religious belief; how the body is cared for after someone has died affects that person in the afterlife. Burial mounds appear to be no different. Some have argued that tumuli started as burial sites for people of importance and significance, the visible mounds paying tribute to these persons of importance, much the same way that the pyramids were both tombs and tributes to the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. Others have argued against this claim, suggesting that burial mounds were completely random phenomena with no special thought going into their creation and construction.[3]

Europe

Austria

The Burgstallkogel (458 m; also known as Grillkogel) is situated near the confluence of the Sulm and the Saggau river valleys in Southern Styria, about 30 km south of Graz between Gleinstätten and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest iron age hill grave necropolises that exists in continental Europe. It was originally composed of at least 2,000 tumuli.

The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg

In contrast to the grave mounds in the Western Hallstatt zone where the deceased were mostly buried intact, all Burgstallkogel dead were cremated, frequently together with some of their personal articles, before the remains were deposited in the stone grave chamber and earth was piled on it to erect the tumulus.

The "common citizen" tumuli of the Sulm valley necropolis (believed to have numbered in excess of 2,000 before agriculture destroyed most of them) surrounded the Burgstallkogel settlement on all sides, and originally they covered much of the hill range between Gleinstätten and the village of Kleinklein, where a small area had been set aside for the much larger tumuli of the chieftains. The oldest grave mounds in the necropolis correspond to the youngest surviving settlement strata of the Burgstallkogel settlement, while two later (Hallstatt B3/C1) burial phases can only be inferred from secondary deposits. Besides it being larger than most other necropolises in the Eastern Hallstatt area, the fact that the Sulm valley necropolis is set apart by the fact that preserved non-aristocratic burials far outnumber chieftains' graves.

Bulls' head pottery from the Sulm valley necropolis

The rulers and their aristocracy, which prided itself of military leadership, had the easternmost part of the necropolis to themselves. Naturally, their tumuli (of which four are known - Hartnermichelkogel I and II, Pommerkogel and Kröllkogel) were the largest and richest ones, containing significant amounts of bronze vessels and iron armament in addition to pottery. It is assumed that the chieftains' tumuli were modeled on Etruscan tombs. The cremation places have not been found, but are supposed to have been either near the grave site or near the hilltop.

Bulgaria

Memorial of the Battle of Varna of 1444 carved into an ancient Thracian burial mound. The sign in front is for Władysław III of Poland

Hundreds of Thracian burial mounds are found throughout Bulgaria, including the Kazanlak and Sveshtari tombs, UNESCO World Heritage sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of Seuthopolis (of the Odrysian kingdom) and Daosdava or Helis (of the Getae), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other tombs contained offerings such as the Panagyurishte and Rogozen treasures.[4]

Inside view of the Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari, Bulgaria

Czech Republic

During the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribesmen inhabiting what is now the Czech Republic used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice was widespread in southern and eastern Bohemia and some neighboring regions, like Upper Austria and Lusatia, which at that time were also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around Prague), neither they are found in Moravia. This has led archaeologists to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).

At places where barrows were constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to Vitín, a small village close to České Budějovice. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as two meters high.

Macedonia (Greece)

The entrance to the "Great Tumulus" at Vergina

Some of the world's most prominent tumuli, the Macedonian tombs and a cist-grave at Vergina, tomb of Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.) of Macedonia and father of Alexander the Great (336-323). Speculation that the other grave found there is that of Alexander IV is controversial. His corpse was allegedly buried in Memphis during the turmoil of the Diadochi after his death in 323 B.C.E..[5]

Excavations were first undertaken at this site in the nineteenth century. L. Heuzy of France and K. Rhomaios of Greece began but were stalled by the First and Second World Wars. In the 1960s, M. Andronicos was director of the excavations and the cemetery of the tumuli was investigated. The Palace of Philip II was excavated by a team from Thessaloniki University along with part of the necropolis being investigated by the Ministry of Culture. 1977 was the pivotal date that M. Andronicos brought to the attention of the world, the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus of Vergina, (ΜεγάΛα) tomb. However, the townspeople of Vergina put a halt to any more excavations, under the auspices of preserving their beautiful surroundings and heritage.[6]

Great Britain

In Britain, early references to tumuli were made by William Camden, John Aubrey, and William Stukeley. During the nineteenth century in England the excavation of tumuli was a popular pastime amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes, who became known as "barrow-diggers." This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain but also resulted in untold damage to the sites. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late Neolithic until the end of the Bronze Age, 2900-800 B.C.E.. Square barrows were occasionally used in the Iron Age (800 B.C.E. - 43 C.E.) in the east of England. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the Anglo-Saxon invasion, as Scandinavian burial practice became popular 500-600 C.E. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.

Scandinavia

Burial mounds were in use until the eleventh century in Scandinavia. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by plowing or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.

By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to Valhalla by the consuming force of the fire. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf. As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship. Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga (Old Norse name: Haug) near Uppsala.

Ukraine and Russia

Sarmatian Kurgan fourth c. BC, Fillipovka, S. Urals, Russian Federation. Archaeological dig lead by Russian Academy of Sciences Archeology Institute Prof. L.Yablonsky, Summer of 2006. First known kurgan to be completely destroyed and then rebuilt to its original appearance.

Kurgan (Russian: курга́н) is the Russian word for a tumulus, a type of burial mound or barrow, heaped over a burial chamber, often of wood.[7] Kurgan type barrows were characteristic of Bronze Age peoples, from the Altay Mountains to the Caucasus, Romania, and Bulgaria. Sometimes, they were quite complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, members of the elite were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. A circular burial mound constructed over a pit grave and often containing grave vessels, weapons, and the bodies of horses as well as a single human body; originally in use in the Russian Steppes but later spreading into eastern, central, and northern Europe in the third millennium B.C.E..

The tradition of kurgan burials touched not only the peoples who buried most of all of their deceased in kurgan structures, but also neighboring peoples who are known as not having a kurgan burial tradition among general population. The most obvious archaeological remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mound (kurgans), some over 20 meters high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in many great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watershed. It is from them that most has been learned about Scythian life and art.[8]

Americas

Serpent Mound – an ancient Native American ceremonial structure in Ohio.

Mound building was a central feature of the public architecture of many Native American cultures from Chile to Minnesota. Thousands of mounds in the United States have been destroyed as a result of farming, pot-hunting, amateur and professional archaeology, road-building, and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Ohio Rivers.

Many engraved conch shell artifacts, such as this one from a mound in Tennessee, have been found.

Effigy mounds were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared cosmology, and to unite and demarcate community. Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, platform mounds, and animal effigy mounds, but there are many variations. Mound building in the United States is believed to date back to at least 1200 B.C.E. in the southeast. The Adena and Mississippian cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of Mexico is Cahokia, a vast World Heritage Site located just east of St. Louis, Missouri. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in Moundville, Alabama. The largest conical burial mound can be found in Moundsville, West Virginia. Other sites in the United States include Indian Mounds Park, Wisconsin, Indian Mounds Park (Saint Paul, Minnesota), and Indian Mound Park, Alabama.

Middle East

Israel

Jerusalem Tumulus #2 in 2004.

Near the western city limits of modern Jerusalem in Israel, 19 tumuli have been documented. Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by William Foxwell Albright, and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by Gabriel Barkay in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in Jerusalem during the Israelite monarchy from David to Zedekiah (who was conquered and humiliated by the Chaldean king, Nebuchadnezzar), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded). Gabriel Barkay popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in Cyprus.

Turkey

On the Anatolian peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the largest specimens of these artificial mounds in the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other Lydian mounds of the Aegean inland), Phrygian mounds in Gordium (Central Anatolia), and the famous Commagene tumulus on the Mount Nemrut (Southeastern Anatolia).

Bin Tepeler (a thousand mounds in Turkish) is in the northwest of Salihli district of Manisa province. It is a Lydian necropolis which dates back to seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E.. The mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1,115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by Herodotus, this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King Alyattes II who ruled between 619-560 B.C.E.. There is also another mound belonging to King Gyges. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around Eşme district of Uşak province.

Gordium was the capital of the Phrygian Kingdom. Its ruined site contains approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, Persian, and Hellenistic periods. The mounds were built between the eighth century B.C.E. and third or second century B.C.E.. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King Midas. This mound was excavated in 1957 and several bronze artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber.

On the peak of Mount Nemrut in the east of the Adıyaman province of Turkey is situation a tumulus which dates back to the first century B.C.E.. It belongs to the Commagene King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene who ruled between 69-40 B.C.E.. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene pantheon.

Asia

Japan

Noge-Ōtsuka Kofun tumulus, Tokyo, early fifth century.

Kofun are megalithic or tumuli in Japan, constructed between early third century and early seventh century. They gave their name to the Kofun period (middle third century—late sixth century).

Daisen Kofun, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Sakai
fifth century

Most of the Kofun have the Keyhole-shaped mount zenpo-koenfun, which was unique to ancient Japan. There are also circular enpun, rectangular zempō-kōhō, and square hōfun. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length. The largest kofun is Daisen kofun, the tomb of the Emperor Nintoku; the largest tomb by area in the world.

The oldest Japanese kofun is said to be Hokenoyama Kofun located in Sakurai, Nara, which dates to the later third century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, earlier keyhole kofun (Hashihaka Kofun, Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around the early fourth century. The trend of keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where gigantic kofun such as Daisen Kofun of Emperor Nintoku are built), and then throughout the country (except for the Tōhoku region) in the fifth century.

Korea

Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea.

The most famous tumuli in Korea, dating around 300 C.E., are those left behind by the Korean Baekje, Goguryeo, Silla, and Gaya states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day Pyongyang, Seoul, Jian, and Gwangju. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at Anak Tomb No.3 which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King Gwanggaeto is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.[9] Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the Silk Road.

Korean tombs exhibit many styles borrowed by and from the Chinese, such as the styles of how the tombs were built and the use of the four guardian beasts, such as Ssu Ling. Additionally, many indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted, along with Chinese culture, to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as horse trappings, bronze mirrors, paintings, and iron-ware.

Gallery

Notes

  1. Oxford English Dictionary. (Oxford Press, 1971, ISBN 019861117X)
  2. Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice (Thames and Hudson, 2000, ISBN 0500281475)
  3. Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology and The Trustees of Indiana University, 1996, "Burial Mounds" Retrieved August 20, 2007
  4. Evgeni I. Paunov, "Ancient Treasures from Thracian Tombs" Athena Review, Vol.1, no. 4 (1998). Retrieved August 20, 2007
  5. Jona Lendering, 2007, "Alexander VI" Retrieved August 20, 2007
  6. The Museum of Macedonia, 2007, "Royal Tombs—Vergina" Retrieved August 20, 2007
  7. kurgan Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002. Retrieved October 14, 2006.
  8. John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge University Press, 1990, ISBN 0521234468)
  9. Sarah Milledge Nelson, The Archaeology of Korea (Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0521407834)

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Albright, William F. "Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (The American Schools of Oriental Research) 10 (April 1923): 1–3.
  • Barkay, Gabriel. "Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented". Biblical Archaeology Review 29(3) (2003): 32-9, 66, 68. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
  • Boardman, John, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521234468
  • Feder, Kenneth L. 2007. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780073405292
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External links

All links retrieved May 2, 2023.


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