Difference between revisions of "Tumulus" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Gamla uppsala.jpg|350px|thumb|The [[Royal mounds]] of [[Gamla Uppsala]] from the fifth and the sixth centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but owing to quarrying and agriculture only 250 remain.]]
  
[[Image:Trizna 1899.jpg|thumb|Burial of [[Oleg of Novgorod]] in a tumulus in 912. Painting by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]].]]
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A '''tumulus''' (plural '''tumuli''') is a [[mound]] of [[Soil|earth]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s raised over a [[grave]] or graves. Tumuli are also known as '''barrows''', '''burial mounds''', or '''kurgans'''. When composed largely or entirely of stones they are usually referred to as [[cairn]]s. The phenomenon appears early in human history, during the [[Neolithic era]], and although used almost universally tumuli differ in size, structure, and usage with each [[culture]].
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{{toc}}
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In one aspect, the tumulus is a simple way to bury the [[death|dead]] and honor them with a memorial, for it requires little sophistication or [[technology]]. On the other hand, though, the size of many of these mounds is impressive by today's standards, and far more so considering the lack of technology available in ancient times. Their appearance throughout the world in unrelated cultures indicates a universal appreciation for the dead members of their society, and a desire to mark their [[life]] permanently in the physical world.
  
A '''tumulus''' (plural '''tumuli''' or '''tumuluses''') is a [[mound]] of [[Soil|earth]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s raised over a [[Grave (burial)|grave]] or graves. Tumuli are also known as '''barrows''', '''burial mounds''' or  '''[[kurgan]]s''' and can be found throughout much of the [[world]]. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a [[cairn]].
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==Etymology==
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The term '''tumulus''' derives from the [[Latin]] word for mound or small hill. It shares the root ''{{lang|la|tum-}}'' "to bulge, swell," with the word [[tumor]].<ref> ''Oxford English Dictionary.'' (Oxford Press, 1971, ISBN 019861117X)</ref>
  
The method of inhumation may involve a [[cist]], a [[mortuary enclosure]], a [[mortuary house]] or a [[chamber tomb]]. Examples of barrows include [[Duggleby Howe]] and [[Maeshowe]].
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==Description==
[[Image:Gamla uppsala.jpg|350px|thumb|The [[Royal mounds]] of [[Gamla Uppsala]] from the 5th and the 6th centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but due to quarrying and agriculture "only" 250 remain.]]
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[[Image:Model of Tumulus of Midas.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Model of the inside wooden construction of the tumulus of Midas in Fordion with the reconstructed head of the man buried here]]
==Sites==
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Tumuli differ from one culture to another. The simple ones were [[grave]]s dug into the ground, where bodies were deposited and then a large amount of earth was piled on top, creating a mound. The more complex type were actual structures, either built on top or sunken slightly into the ground and then covered by earth. Sometimes, large existing hills were tunneled into and graves were carved from the interior.
===Scandinavia===
 
[[Image:180px-Ottar03.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Ohthere]]'s mound'' in [[Vendel]], [[Sweden]] from the early 6th century.]]
 
Burial mounds were in use until the 11th century in Scandinavia. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by [[ploughing]] or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.
 
  
By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to [[Valhalla]] by the consuming force of the fire. The fire could reach temperatures of 1500 °C. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf.
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==Archaeology==
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[[Image:miamisburg_jqj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Miamisburg Mound, the largest conical mound in Ohio, is attributed to the [[Adena Culture]].]]
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Although people were aware of the existence of burial mounds for many years, they remained mysterious until the nineteenth century, when amateur [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] began using scientific techniques in regards to excavations. The first mounds excavated were in [[Peru]], at the site of the [[Huaca de Tantalluc]], but [[Thomas Jefferson]], before he became the third [[President of the United States]], was the first to receive widespread recognition for excavating tumuli.
  
:''Thus he ([[Odin]]) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth.  Thus, said he, every one will come to Valhalla with the riches he had with him upon the pile; and he would also enjoy whatever he himself had buried in the earth. For men of consequence a mound should be raised to their memory, and for all other warriors who had been distinguished for manhood a standing stone; which custom remained long after Odin's time. [...] It was their faith that the higher the smoke arose in the air, the higher he would be raised whose pile it was; and the richer he would be, the more property that was consumed with him.'' ([[Ynglinga saga]])
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By noting the [[stratigraphy]] of the soil and rock on a cross-section of the burial mound he excavated in the [[Mississippi Valley]], and the relative age difference between the [[skeleton]]s found in the lower sections compared to those remains closer to the surface, Jefferson was able to deduce that the mound had been revisited several times over the course of years, each time a new layer of sediment and human remains being added. While this did not end the debate over who had created the mounds, it did constitute a breakthrough in how archaeology could be used to examine the phenomenon.<ref>Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'' (Thames and Hudson, 2000, ISBN 0500281475) </ref>
  
[[Image:Hågahögen.jpg|right|200px|thumb|King Björn's barrow in Håga.]]
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With the advancement of scientific approaches in regard to archaeological techniques in the twentieth century came the realization of just how much information could be ascertained from tumuli: settlement patterns, religious beliefs, new dating techniques, and evidence of [[human evolution]] were just some of the few items of information that careful study of tumuli could reveal. However, with this realization came an [[ethics|ethical]] question which archaeology has had to deal with in all cases of human [[burial]]s. To excavate a tumulus means to destroy it and remove remains specifically laid to rest in the ground. Even if the information yielded is immensely beneficial, does it justify such a violation is something archaeologists now take into consideration, especially if the descendants of the deceased are still alive (such as the [[Native Americans]] of [[North America]]).  
As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship.
 
  
Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga ([[Old Norse]] name: ''Haug'') near [[Uppsala]]. This location has a very strong connection with [[Björn at Haugi]]. First, the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] barrow gave its name to the location ''Håga'' ("the barrow"), which became part of the cognomen of the king, ''at Haugi'' ("at the barrow"), and interestingly, the mound was later named after the king.
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Since the first excavations, many burial mounds have been completely desecrated and remains divided up amongst the academic institutions of the world. In contemporary times, great care is taken to leave certain tumuli un-excavated, but with the use of digital imagery techniques and sight observation, burial mounds that are not excavated continue to be studied.
  
===Ukraine, Russia and Central Asia ===  
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==Theories==
{{main|Kurgan}}
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[[Image:Trizna 1899.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Burial of [[Oleg of Novgorod]] in a tumulus in 912. Painting by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]].]]
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The process of creating tumuli is one that has fascinated [[archaeology|archaeologists]] for some time, if for no other reason than that it is one of the few human activities that appear to be universal and not cultural diffused. The act of human burial has long been viewed as an outgrowth of proto-religious belief; how the body is cared for after someone has died affects that person in the [[afterlife]]. Burial mounds appear to be no different. Some have argued that tumuli started as burial sites for people of importance and significance, the visible mounds paying tribute to these persons of importance, much the same way that the [[pyramid]]s were both [[tomb]]s and tributes to the [[Pharaoh]]s of [[ancient Egypt]]. Others have argued against this claim, suggesting that burial mounds were completely random phenomena with no special thought going into their creation and construction.<ref>Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology and The Trustees of  Indiana University, 1996, [http://www.gbl.indiana.edu/abstracts/adena/mounds.html"Burial Mounds"] Retrieved August 20, 2007</ref>
  
The word [[kurgan]] is of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] origin borrowed from [[Russian language]]. In Ukraine and Russia, there are royal kurgans of [[Varangian]] chieftains, such as the [[Black Grave]] in Ukrainian [[Chernihiv]] (excavated in the 19th century), [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]]'s Grave in Russian [[Staraya Ladoga]], and vast, intricate [[Rurik]]'s Hill near Russian [[Novgorod|Rurikovo gorodische]]. Other important kurgans are found in Ukraine and South Russia and are associated with much more ancient [[steppe]] peoples, notably the [[Scythian]]s (e.g.,Chortomlyk, [[Pazyryk]]) and [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] (e.g., [[Ipatovo]]) The steppe cultures found in Ukraine and South Russia naturally continue into [[Central Asia]], in particular [[Kazakhstan]].
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==Europe==
  
===Turkey===
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===Austria===
On the [[Anatolian]] peninsula, there are several sites where one can even find the biggest specimens of these artificial mounds throughout the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other [[Lydian]] mounds of the Aegean inland), [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] mounds in [[Gordium]] (Central Anatolia) and the famous [[Commagene]] tumulus on the Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] (Southeastern Anatolia).
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The '''Burgstallkogel''' (458 m; also known as '''Grillkogel''') is situated near the confluence of the [[Sulm (Austrian river)|Sulm]] and the Saggau river valleys in Southern [[Styria]], about 30 km south of [[Graz]] between [[Gleinstätten]] and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest [[iron age]] hill grave [[necropolis|necropolises]] that exists in continental Europe. It was originally composed of at least 2,000 tumuli.
  
====Bin Tepeler and other Lydian Tumulus Sites====
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[[Image:Burgstallkogel Sulm valley.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg]]
This is the most important of the enumerated sites with the number of specimens it has and with the dimensions of certain among them. It is in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] inland of Turkey. The site is called "Bin Tepeler" (a thousand mounds in Turkish) and it is in the northwest of [[Salihli]] district of [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] province. The site is very close to the southern shoreline of [[Lake Marmara]] (Lake Gyges or Gygaea). Bin Tepeler is a [[Lydian]] [[necropolis]] which dates back to 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E. These mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by [[Herodotus]], this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King [[Alyattes II]] who ruled between 619-560 B.C.E. There is also another mound belonging to King [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]]. The Gyges mound was excavated but the burial chamber hasn't been found yet. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around [[Eşme]] district of [[Uşak Province|Uşak]] province. Certain mounds in these sites had been plundered by raiders in the late 1960s and the Lydian treasures found in their burial chambers had been smuggled to United States which later had to cede them to Turkish authorities after a series of negotiations. These artifacts are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Uşak.
 
  
====Gordium and Phrygian Tumuluses====
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In contrast to the grave mounds in the Western Hallstatt zone where the deceased were mostly buried intact, all Burgstallkogel dead were [[cremation|cremated]], frequently together with some of their personal articles, before the remains were deposited in the stone grave chamber and earth was piled on it to erect the tumulus.
[[Gordium]] is the capital of the [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] Kingdom. Its ruins are in the immediate vicinity of [[Polatlı]] district of the Turkish capital [[Ankara]]. In this site, there are approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, [[History of Persia|Persian]] and [[Hellenistic]] periods. Only 35 tumuli were excavated so far. The mounds had been built between 8th century B.C.E. and 3rd or 2nd century B.C.E. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King [[Midas]]. This mound had been excavated in 1957 and several [[bronze]] artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber. Among these artifacts, "omphalos bowls" and famous "Phrygian [[fibula]]e" (hooked needles which were used by the Phryigians to bond the clothes they wore) are especially important.
 
  
====The Commagene Tumulus on Mount Nemrut====
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The "common citizen" tumuli of the Sulm valley [[necropolis]] (believed to have numbered in excess of 2,000 before agriculture destroyed most of them) surrounded the Burgstallkogel settlement on all sides, and originally they covered much of the hill range between [[Gleinstätten]] and the village of Kleinklein, where a small area had been set aside for the much larger tumuli of the chieftains. The oldest grave mounds in the necropolis correspond to the youngest surviving settlement strata of the Burgstallkogel settlement, while two later (Hallstatt B3/C1) burial phases can only be inferred from secondary deposits. Besides it being larger than most other necropolises in the Eastern Hallstatt area, the fact that the Sulm valley necropolis is set apart by the fact that preserved non-aristocratic burials far outnumber chieftains' graves.
The Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] is 86 km in the east of [[Adıyaman]] province of [[Turkey]]. It is very close to [[Kahta]] district of the same province. The mountain has, at its peak, 3050 meters of height above the sea level. A tumulus which dates back to the 1st century B.C.E. is situated at the peak of the mountain. This artificial mound has 150 meters of diameter and a height of 50 meters which was originally 55 meters. It belongs to the [[Commagene]] King [[Antiochus I Theos of Commagene]] who ruled between 69-40 B.C.E. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders the excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is sorrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] where divine figures used to embody the [[Persian mythology|Persian]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] perceptions together.
 
  
===Britain===
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[[Image:Hallstatt tumulus pottery.jpg|thumb|left|Bulls' head pottery from the Sulm valley necropolis]]
In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], early references to tumuli were made by [[William Camden]], [[John Aubrey]], and [[William Stukeley]]. During the 19th century in [[England]] the excavation of tumuli was a popular [[pastime]] amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes who became known as "barrow-diggers". This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late [[Neolithic]] until the end of the [[Bronze Age]] 2900-800B.C.E. [[Square barrows]] were occasionally used in the Iron Age 800B.C.E.-43C.E. in the east of [[England]]. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] invasion as Scandinavian burial practice became popular AD500-600. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.
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The rulers and their [[aristocracy]], which prided itself of military leadership, had the easternmost part of the necropolis to themselves. Naturally, their tumuli (of which four are known - Hartnermichelkogel I and II, Pommerkogel and Kröllkogel) were the largest and richest ones, containing significant amounts of bronze vessels and iron armament in addition to pottery. It is assumed that the chieftains' tumuli were modeled on [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] tombs. The cremation places have not been found, but are supposed to have been either near the grave site or near the hilltop.
  
===Israel===  
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===Bulgaria===
[[Image:JerusalemTumulus2.jpg|thumb|Jerusalem Tumulus #2 (in 2004).]]
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[[Image:VarnaMemorial.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Memorial of the [[Battle of Varna]] of 1444 carved into an ancient [[Thracians|Thracian]] burial mound. The sign in front is for [[Władysław III of Poland]]]]
Near the western city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]] in [[Israel]], 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958).  Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by [[William Foxwell Albright]], and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by [[Gabriel Barkay]] in 1983.  Since 21 kings reigned in [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Israelite]] monarchy from [[David]] to [[Zedekiah]] (who was conquered and humiliated by the [[Chaldea]]n king, [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded).  See [[2 Chronicles]] 16:14, 21:19 (which states that King [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]] was not given this honor), 32:33, the [[book of Jeremiah]] 34:5 (a conditional promise for [[Zedekiah]] that he did not earn), and [[Biblical archaeology]]. [[Gabriel Barkay]] popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in [[Cyprus]].
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Hundreds of [[Thracian]] burial mounds are found throughout [[Bulgaria]], including the [[Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak|Kazanlak]] and [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Sveshtari]] tombs, [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage]] sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of [[Seuthopolis]] (of the [[Odrysian kingdom]]) and Daosdava or Helis (of the [[Getae]]), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other tombs contained offerings such as the [[Panagyuriste treasure|Panagyurishte]] and [[Rogozen treasure|Rogozen]] treasures.<ref> Evgeni I. Paunov, [http://www.athenapub.com/thrace1.htm "Ancient Treasures from Thracian Tombs"] ''Athena Review'', Vol.1, no. 4 (1998). Retrieved August 20, 2007</ref>
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[[Image:Sveshtari Thracian tomb Bulgaria IFB.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Inside view of the [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari]], Bulgaria]]
  
*More than half of these ancient Israeli structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation.  The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two [[LMLK seal]] impressions and two other handles with associated Concentric Circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King [[Hezekiah]] (Barkay, 2003, p. 68) or his son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]] (Grena, 2004, p. 326).
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===Czech Republic===
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During the early [[Middle Ages]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribesmen inhabiting what is now the [[Czech Republic]] used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice was widespread in southern and eastern [[Bohemia]] and some neighboring regions, like [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lusatia]], which at that time were also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around [[Prague]]), neither they are found in [[Moravia]]. This has led [[archaeology|archaeologists]] to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).
  
*When comparing the number of these tumuli to the total number of Israelite kings (northern and southern), note that [[Saul the King|Saul]] never ruled in [[Jerusalem]], and [[Athaliah]] was never crowned. She took the throne by force ([[Books of Kings|2Kings]] 11:1-3), and would certainly not have been honored with a tumulus ceremony following her brutal assassination.
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At places where barrows were constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to [[Vitín]], a small village close to [[České Budějovice]]. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as two meters high.
  
*The northern kings did not reign over the southern kingdom, and they would certainly not have been honored with a tumulus ceremony in [[Jerusalem]]; if any ceremonies were held for them, they would have transpired in the north (near [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], [[Tirzah]], or [[Samaria]]).
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===Macedonia (Greece)===
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[[Image:Vergina Tombs Entrance.jpg|thumb|250 px|The entrance to the "Great Tumulus" at Vergina]]
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Some of the world's most prominent tumuli, the [[Macedonia]]n tombs and a cist-grave at [[Vergina]], tomb of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] (359-336 B.C.E.) of Macedonia and father of [[Alexander the Great]] (336-323). Speculation that the other grave found there is that of [[Alexander IV]] is controversial. His corpse was allegedly buried in Memphis during the turmoil of the Diadochi after his death in 323 B.C.E..<ref> Jona Lendering, 2007, [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_iv.html"Alexander VI"] Retrieved August 20, 2007 </ref>
  
*The association of these tumuli with the Judean kings who ruled [[Jerusalem]] does not substantiate Biblical history since it is mere speculation. No inscriptions naming any specific Judean king have been excavated from a tumulus.
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Excavations were first undertaken at this site in the nineteenth century. [[L. Heuzy]] of France and [[K. Rhomaios]] of Greece began but were stalled by the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars. In the 1960s, [[M. Andronicos]] was director of the excavations and the cemetery of the tumuli was investigated. The Palace of Philip II was excavated by a team from [[Thessaloniki University]] along with part of the necropolis being investigated by the Ministry of Culture. 1977 was the pivotal date that M. Andronicos brought to the attention of the world, the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus of Vergina, (ΜεγάΛα) tomb. However, the townspeople of Vergina put a halt to any more excavations, under the auspices of preserving their beautiful surroundings and heritage.<ref>The Museum of Macedonia, 2007, [http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Museums/Archaeological_and_Byzantine/Arx_Bas_Tafoi_Berginas.html"Royal Tombs—Vergina"] Retrieved August 20, 2007</ref>
  
===Japan===
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===Great Britain===
[[Image:KofunTumulus.JPG|thumb|300px|Noge-Ōtsuka [[Kofun]] tumulus, [[Tokyo]], early 5th century.]]  
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In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], early references to tumuli were made by [[William Camden]], [[John Aubrey]], and [[William Stukeley]]. During the nineteenth century in [[England]] the excavation of tumuli was a popular [[pastime]] amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes, who became known as "barrow-diggers." This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain but also resulted in untold damage to the sites. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late [[Neolithic]] until the end of the [[Bronze Age]], 2900-800 B.C.E.. [[Square barrows]] were occasionally used in the Iron Age (800 B.C.E. - 43 C.E..) in the east of England. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasion, as Scandinavian burial practice became popular 500-600 C.E. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.
In [[Japan]], powerful leaders built tumuli known as ''kofun''. The [[Kofun]] period of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds. The largest is over 400&nbsp;meters in length. In addition to other shapes, kofun include a keyhole shape.
 
  
===U.S.A.===
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===Scandinavia===
{{main|Mound Builders}}
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Burial mounds were in use until the eleventh century in [[Scandinavia]]. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by [[plow]]ing or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.
Mound building was a central feature of the public [[architecture]] of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures from Chile to Minnesota. Thousands of mounds in the USA have been destroyed as a result of farming, pot-hunting, amateur and professional archaeology, road-building and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], Tennessee and Ohio Rivers.  
 
Mounds were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared [[cosmology]], and to unite and demarcate community.  Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, [[platform mound]]s, and animal [[effigy]] mounds, but there are many variations.  Mound building in the USA is believed to date back to at least 1200 B.C.E. in the Southeast (see [[Poverty Point]]), and recent research shows that it may predate that as well. The [[Adena culture|Adena]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of [[Mexico]] is [[Cahokia]], a vast [[World Heritage Site]] located just east of St. Louis, Missouri. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. The largest conical burial mound can be found in [[Moundsville, West Virginia]].
 
[[Image:Serpent mound 8438.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Serpent Mound]] – an ancient [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ceremonial structure in Ohio.]]  Other sites in the U.S.A. include [[Indian Mounds Park, Wisconsin]], [[Indian Mounds Park, Minnesota]], and [[Indian Mound Park]].
 
  
===Czech Republic===
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By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to [[Valhalla]] by the consuming force of the [[fire]]. The remains were covered with [[cobblestone]]s and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf. As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship. Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga ([[Old Norse]] name: ''Haug'') near [[Uppsala]].
During the early [[Middle Ages]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribesmen inhabiting what is now the Czech Republic used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice has been widespread in southern and eastern [[Bohemia]] and some neighboring regions, like [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lusatia]], which at that time have been also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around [[Prague]]), neither they are found in [[Moravia]]. This has led some of the archaeologists to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which have colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).
 
  
At places where barrows have been constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. Only a few of them have been studied scientifically so far; in them, both burials by fire (with burnt ashes) and unburnt skeletons have been found, even on the same site. It seems that builders of the barrows have at some time switched from burials by fire to burying of unburnt corpses; however, the reason for such change is unknown. The barrows date too much back to history (700 C.E. to 800 C.E.) to contain any [[Christian]] influences - it is almost certain that all people buried in them were [[pagans]].
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===Ukraine and Russia===
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[[Image:LYablonskyFilipovkaKurganR1.jpg|thumb|right|250px| [[Sarmatian]] Kurgan fourth c. BC, Fillipovka, S. Urals, [[Russian Federation]]. Archaeological dig lead by [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] Archeology Institute Prof. L.Yablonsky, Summer of 2006. First known kurgan to be completely destroyed and then rebuilt to its original appearance.]]
  
As Czech barrows usually served for burials of poor villagers, only a few objects are found in them except for cheap pottery. Only one Slavic barrow is known to have contained gold.
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'''Kurgan''' ({{lang-ru|курга́н}}) is the [[Russian language|Russian]] word for a tumulus, a type of burial mound or barrow, heaped over a burial chamber, often of wood.<ref>[http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com kurgan] Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002. Retrieved October 14, 2006. </ref> Kurgan type barrows were characteristic of [[Bronze Age]] peoples, from the [[Altay Mountains]] to the [[Caucasus]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Sometimes, they were quite complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, members of the elite were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. A circular burial mound constructed over a pit grave and often containing grave vessels, weapons, and the bodies of horses as well as a single human body; originally in use in the Russian Steppes but later spreading into eastern, central, and northern [[Europe]] in the third millennium B.C.E...
  
Most of the Czech burial barrows have been damaged or destroyed by intense [[agriculture]] in the densely populated region. Those which remain are usually located in forests, especially at hilltops in remote places. Therefore there is no general knowledge about burial barrows in the Czech population.
+
The tradition of kurgan burials touched not only the peoples who buried most of all of their deceased in kurgan structures, but also neighboring peoples who are known as not having a kurgan burial tradition among general population. The most obvious [[archaeology|archaeological]] remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mound (kurgans), some over 20 meters high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in many great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watershed. It is from them that most has been learned about Scythian life and art.<ref>John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. ''The Cambridge Ancient History'' (Cambridge University Press, 1990, ISBN 0521234468)</ref>
  
The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to [[Vitín]], a small village close to [[České Budějovice]]. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as 2 meters high.
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==Americas==
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[[Image:Serpent mound 8438.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Serpent Mound]] – an ancient [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ceremonial structure in Ohio.]]
 +
Mound building was a central feature of the public [[architecture]] of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures from [[Chile]] to [[Minnesota]]. Thousands of mounds in the United States have been destroyed as a result of [[farming]], pot-hunting, amateur and professional [[archaeology]], road-building, and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]], and [[Ohio River|Ohio]] Rivers.
 +
[[Image:AncientCherokeeGorget.png|thumb|left|200px|Many engraved [[conch shell]] artifacts, such as this one from a mound in Tennessee, have been found.]]
 +
[[Effigy mound]]s were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared [[cosmology]], and to unite and demarcate community. Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, [[platform mound]]s, and animal [[effigy]] mounds, but there are many variations. Mound building in the United States is believed to date back to at least 1200 B.C.E. in the southeast. The [[Adena culture|Adena]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of [[Mexico]] is [[Cahokia]], a vast [[World Heritage Site]] located just east of [[St. Louis, Missouri]]. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. The largest conical burial mound can be found in [[Moundsville, West Virginia]]. Other sites in the United States include [[Indian Mounds Park, Wisconsin]], [[Indian Mounds Park (Saint Paul, Minnesota)]], and [[Indian Mound Park, Alabama]].
  
There are also some [[prehistoric]] burial barrows in Czechia, built by unknown people.  Unlike Slavic barrows, they can be found all across the country, though they are scarce. Distinguishing them from Slavic ones is not an easy task for the unskilled eye.
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==Middle East==
  
===Korea===
+
===Israel===  
[[Image:Burial-Mounds-at-GyeongJu.jpg|thumb|300px|Burial mounds of the Silla kings.]]
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[[Image:JerusalemTumulus2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Jerusalem Tumulus #2 in 2004.]]
The first burial mounds in Korea were [[dolmens]] which contained the material culture of the first millennium CE, such as bronze-ware, pottery, and other symbols of the elite of society.
+
Near the western city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]] in [[Israel]], 19 tumuli have been documented. Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by [[William Foxwell Albright]], and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by [[Gabriel Barkay]] in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in Jerusalem during the [[Israelite]] [[monarchy]] from [[David]] to [[Zedekiah]] (who was conquered and humiliated by the [[Chaldea]]n king, [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded). Gabriel Barkay popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in [[Cyprus]].
 +
 
 +
===Turkey===
 +
On the [[Anatolia]]n peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the largest specimens of these artificial mounds in the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other [[Lydian]] mounds of the Aegean inland), [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] mounds in [[Gordium]] (Central Anatolia), and the famous [[Commagene]] tumulus on the Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] (Southeastern Anatolia).
  
The most famous tumulii in Korea, dating around 300 C.E., are those left behind by the Korean [[Baekje]], [[Goguryeo]], [[Silla]], and [[Gaya]] states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Jian]], and [[Gwangju]]. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at [[Anak Tomb No.3]] which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King [[Gwanggaeto]] is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521407834&id=sANORB_MSRUC&vq=korean+tombs&dq=korean+tombs&lpg=PA214&pg=PA213&sig=1H5DNJ77lxjt8wlBxZCUKJcw7yY] Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the [[Silk Road]].
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Bin Tepeler (a thousand mounds in Turkish) is in the northwest of [[Salihli]] district of [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] province. It is a [[Lydian]] [[necropolis]] which dates back to seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E.. The mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1,115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by [[Herodotus]], this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King [[Alyattes II]] who ruled between 619-560 B.C.E.. There is also another mound belonging to King [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]]. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around [[Eşme]] district of [[Uşak Province|Uşak]] province.  
  
Korean tombs exhibit many styles borrowed by the Chinese, such as the styles of how the tombs were built and the use of the four guardian beasts, such as [[Ssu Ling]]. Additionally, indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted, along with Chinese culture, to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as horsetrappings, bronze mirrors, paintings and iron-ware.
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[[Gordium]] was the capital of the [[Phrygia|Phrygian]] Kingdom. Its ruined site contains approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, [[Persia]]n, and [[Hellenism|Hellenistic]] periods. The mounds were built between the eighth century B.C.E. and third or second century B.C.E.. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King [[Midas]]. This mound was excavated in 1957 and several [[bronze]] artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber.  
  
== Hungary ==
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On the peak of Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] in the east of the [[Adıyaman]] province of [[Turkey]] is situation a tumulus which dates back to the first century B.C.E.. It belongs to the [[Commagene]] King [[Antiochus I Theos of Commagene]] who ruled between 69-40 B.C.E..E.. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]].
There are many tumuli in the [[Great Hungarian Plain]], the highest is near of the settlement of [[Békésszentandrás]], in [[Békés county]].[http://www.bekesszentandras.hu/turizmus_seta.htm# (see the picture of "Gödény-halom") ]
 
  
==See also==
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==Asia==
{{commons|Category:Tumulus|Tumulus}}
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===Japan===
* [[Avebury]]
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[[Image:KofunTumulus.JPG|thumb|250px|Noge-Ōtsuka [[Kofun]] tumulus, [[Tokyo]], early fifth century.]]  
* [[Long barrow]]
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'''Kofun''' are megalithic or tumuli in [[Japan]], constructed between early third century and early seventh century. They gave their name to the [[Yamato Period#Kofun Period|Kofun period]] (middle third century—late sixth century).
* [[Seven Barrows]]
 
* [[Waylands Smithy]]
 
* [[West Kennet Long Barrow]]
 
* [[East Cambridgeshire]]
 
  
==Types of barrows==
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[[Image:NintokuTomb.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Daisen Kofun]], the tomb of [[Emperor Nintoku]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]]<Br>[[fifth century]]]]
[[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction.  Some British types are listed below:
 
  
<!please don't add more info here. I'm in the process of creating a separate page for each barrow type -->
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Most of the Kofun have the Keyhole-shaped mount ''zenpo-koenfun'', which was unique to ancient Japan. There are also circular ''enpun'', rectangular ''zempō-kōhō'', and square ''hōfun''.  
*[[Bank barrow]]
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Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length. The largest kofun is [[Daisen kofun]], the tomb of the [[Emperor Nintoku]]; the largest tomb by area in the world.
*[[Bell barrow]]
 
*[[Bowl barrow]]
 
*[[D-shaped barrow]] A round barrow with a purposely flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs
 
*[[Fancy barrow]] A generic term for any [[Bronze Age]] barrows more elaborate than a simple hemispherical shape.
 
*[[Long barrow]]
 
*[[Oval barrow]] A type of [[Neolithic]] long barrow consisting of an elliptical, rather than rectangular or trapezoidal mound.
 
*[[Platform barrow]] The least common of the recognised types of round barrow,  consisting of a flat, wide circular mound, which may be  surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern  England with a marked concentration in East and West [[Sussex]].
 
*[[Pond barrow]] a barrow consisting of a shallow circular  depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression. [[Bronze age]]
 
*[[Ring barrow]] a bank which encircles a number of burials.
 
*[[Round barrow]] a circular feature created by the [[Bronze Age]] peoples of Britain and also the later [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vikings]] and [[Saxons]]. Divided into sub classes such as saucer and bell barrow.  The [[Six Hills]] are a rare Roman example.
 
*[[Saucer barrow]] circular Bronze Age barrow featuring a low, wide mound surrounded by a ditch which may be accompanied by an external bank.
 
*[[Square barrow]] A burial site, usually of [[Iron Age]] date, consisting of a small, square, ditched enclosure surrounding a central burial, which may also have been covered by a mound
 
  
==List of notable barrow diggers==
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The oldest Japanese kofun is said to be Hokenoyama Kofun located in [[Sakurai, Nara]], which dates to the later third century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, earlier keyhole kofun (Hashihaka Kofun, Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around the early fourth century. The trend of keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where gigantic kofun such as Daisen Kofun of Emperor Nintoku are built), and then throughout the country (except for the [[Tōhoku region]]) in the fifth century.  
*[[Thomas Bateman]]
 
*[[William Copeland Borlase]]
 
*Sir [[Richard Colt Hoare]]
 
*[[William Cunnington]]
 
*Rev. [[Bryan Faussett]]
 
*Canon [[William Greenwell]]
 
*[[Llewellyn Jewitt]]
 
*Rev. [[W. C. Lukis]]
 
*[[John Robert Mortimer]]
 
*[[Augustus Pitt Rivers]]
 
*[[John Thurman]]
 
*[[Charles Warne]]
 
  
==References==
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===Korea===
* {{cite journal | author=Albright, William F. | year=1923 | title=Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem | journal=[http://www.asor.org/pubs/basor/basor.html Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research] | volume=10 | issue=April | pages=1-3}}
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[[Image:Burial-Mounds-at-GyeongJu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea.]]
  
* {{cite journal | author=Amiran, Ruth | year=1958 | title=The tumuli west of Jerusalem, Survey and Excavations, 1953 | journal=[http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/ies/iej.htm Israel Exploration Journal] | volume=8 | issue=4 | pages=205-27}}
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The most famous tumuli in [[Korea]], dating around 300 C.E., are those left behind by the Korean [[Baekje]], [[Goguryeo]], [[Silla]], and [[Gaya]] states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Jian]], and [[Gwangju]]. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at [[Anak Tomb No.3]] which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King [[Gwanggaeto]] is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.<ref> Sarah Milledge Nelson, ''The Archaeology of Korea'' (Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0521407834)</ref> Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the [[Silk Road]].  
  
* {{cite journal | author=Barkay, Gabriel | year=2003 | title=Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented | journal=[http://www.bib-arch.org/ Biblical Archaeology Review] | volume=29 | issue=3 | pages=32-9, 66, 68}}
+
Korean tombs exhibit many styles borrowed by and from the Chinese, such as the styles of how the tombs were built and the use of the four guardian beasts, such as [[Ssu Ling]]. Additionally, many indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted, along with Chinese culture, to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as [[horse]] trappings, bronze mirrors, paintings, and iron-ware.
  
* {{cite book | author=Grena, G.M. | year=2004 | title=LMLKA Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1 | location=Redondo Beach, California | publisher=4000 Years of Writing History | id=ISBN 0-9748786-0-X}}
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==Gallery==
 +
<gallery>
 +
Image:SalbykKurgan221201683.jpg|Salbyk kurgan before excavation, fifth-fourth c.BC, upper Enisey-Irtysh interfluvial. Salbyk kurgan is surrounded by [[balbal]]s, and topped with [[Kurgan stelae|kurgan obelisk]]
 +
Image:AlexandropolKurganBeforeExcavation1852-6.gif|Scythian royal Alexandropol (Gümri in Armenia) kurgan C14 dated 394-366 B.C.E., before excavation in 1852-1856
 +
Image:Sulm valley tumulus.jpg|Hallstatt-era tumulus in the Sulm valley necropolis
 +
Image:Hågahögen.jpg|King Björn's barrow in Håga.
 +
Image:IshibutaiWithFigureSmallVersion2.jpg|Ishibutai kofun, the tomb of the [[Soga no Umako]], [[Asuka]]<br/>seventh century
 +
Image:Thracian-tumulus-Strelcha.jpg|Thracian tumulus near the town of Strelcha, Bulgaria
 +
Image:Wesiory5.jpg|Tumulus near Wesiory, Poland
 +
Image:Tumulus othee belgium.JPG|Tumulus d'Othée en Belgique
 +
Image:Hünenbett Nobbin.JPG|Long barrow near Nobbin/Rügen, Nortern Germany
 +
Image:Banditaccia Tumulus.jpg|A burial mound, Tumulus, part of the necropolis of Banditaccia at Cerveteri in Lazio, Italy.
 +
</gallery>
  
*Grinsell, L.V., 1936, ''The Ancient Burial-mounds of England''. London: Methuen.
+
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
*Nelson, Sarah Milledge, "The Archaeology of Korea"". New York: Cambridge University Press.  id=ISBN 0-521-44043-6
+
==References==
 +
* Albright, William F. "Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem". ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' (The American Schools of Oriental Research) 10 (April 1923): 1–3.
 +
* Barkay, Gabriel. [http://www.bib-arch.org/ "Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented"]. ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' 29(3) (2003): 32-9, 66, 68. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
 +
* Boardman, John, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. ''The Cambridge Ancient History''. Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521234468
 +
* Feder, Kenneth L. 2007. ''Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology''. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780073405292
 +
* Gimbutas, Marija. ''The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993 (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series No. 18)''. Institute for the Study of Man, 1997. ISBN 0941694569
 +
* Grena, G.M. ''LMLK—A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1''. Redondo Beach, California: 4000 Years of Writing History, 2004. ISBN 097487860X
 +
*Grinsell, L.V. ''The Ancient Burial-mounds of England''. London: Methuen, 1936. {{ASIN|B000H4CUSO}}
 +
*Ismagulov, O. "Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)," ''Science'' (1970).
 +
*Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth''. Thames & Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0500276161
 +
*Mallory, James (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'' Routledge, 1997. ISBN 1884964982
 +
* Nelson, Sarah Milledge. ''The Archaeology of Korea''1993. ISBN 0521407834
 +
*Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'' Thames and Hudson, 2000. ISBN 0500281475
 +
*Telegin, D. Ya. et al. ''Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona''. Kiev: Shlyakh, 2001.
 +
* Thomas, Cyrus. "Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology," in J. W. Powell ''Twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890-91'' (1894):3-730.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://www.eng-h.gov.uk/mpp/mcd/intro2.htm English Heritage Monument Class Descriptions]
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All links retrieved May 2, 2023.
  
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* [http://archaeology.about.com/od/lterms/g/lostraces.htm Moundbuilder Myth]
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* {{gutenberg|no=17987|name=The Mound Builders}}
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*[http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/kofun.html  Japanese Archaeology: Kofun Culture]
  
  
{{Credit1|Tumulus|91896249|}}
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{{Prehistoric technology}}
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{{Credits|Tumulus|146739916|Kurgan|147936990|Mound_builder_(people)|145547760|Kofun|150000613|Burgstallkogel_(Sulm_valley)|155008586|}}

Latest revision as of 18:43, 2 May 2023


The Royal mounds of Gamla Uppsala from the fifth and the sixth centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but owing to quarrying and agriculture only 250 remain.

A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, or kurgans. When composed largely or entirely of stones they are usually referred to as cairns. The phenomenon appears early in human history, during the Neolithic era, and although used almost universally tumuli differ in size, structure, and usage with each culture.

In one aspect, the tumulus is a simple way to bury the dead and honor them with a memorial, for it requires little sophistication or technology. On the other hand, though, the size of many of these mounds is impressive by today's standards, and far more so considering the lack of technology available in ancient times. Their appearance throughout the world in unrelated cultures indicates a universal appreciation for the dead members of their society, and a desire to mark their life permanently in the physical world.

Etymology

The term tumulus derives from the Latin word for mound or small hill. It shares the root tum- "to bulge, swell," with the word tumor.[1]

Description

Model of the inside wooden construction of the tumulus of Midas in Fordion with the reconstructed head of the man buried here

Tumuli differ from one culture to another. The simple ones were graves dug into the ground, where bodies were deposited and then a large amount of earth was piled on top, creating a mound. The more complex type were actual structures, either built on top or sunken slightly into the ground and then covered by earth. Sometimes, large existing hills were tunneled into and graves were carved from the interior.

Archaeology

Miamisburg Mound, the largest conical mound in Ohio, is attributed to the Adena Culture.

Although people were aware of the existence of burial mounds for many years, they remained mysterious until the nineteenth century, when amateur archaeologists began using scientific techniques in regards to excavations. The first mounds excavated were in Peru, at the site of the Huaca de Tantalluc, but Thomas Jefferson, before he became the third President of the United States, was the first to receive widespread recognition for excavating tumuli.

By noting the stratigraphy of the soil and rock on a cross-section of the burial mound he excavated in the Mississippi Valley, and the relative age difference between the skeletons found in the lower sections compared to those remains closer to the surface, Jefferson was able to deduce that the mound had been revisited several times over the course of years, each time a new layer of sediment and human remains being added. While this did not end the debate over who had created the mounds, it did constitute a breakthrough in how archaeology could be used to examine the phenomenon.[2]

With the advancement of scientific approaches in regard to archaeological techniques in the twentieth century came the realization of just how much information could be ascertained from tumuli: settlement patterns, religious beliefs, new dating techniques, and evidence of human evolution were just some of the few items of information that careful study of tumuli could reveal. However, with this realization came an ethical question which archaeology has had to deal with in all cases of human burials. To excavate a tumulus means to destroy it and remove remains specifically laid to rest in the ground. Even if the information yielded is immensely beneficial, does it justify such a violation is something archaeologists now take into consideration, especially if the descendants of the deceased are still alive (such as the Native Americans of North America).

Since the first excavations, many burial mounds have been completely desecrated and remains divided up amongst the academic institutions of the world. In contemporary times, great care is taken to leave certain tumuli un-excavated, but with the use of digital imagery techniques and sight observation, burial mounds that are not excavated continue to be studied.

Theories

Burial of Oleg of Novgorod in a tumulus in 912. Painting by Viktor Vasnetsov.

The process of creating tumuli is one that has fascinated archaeologists for some time, if for no other reason than that it is one of the few human activities that appear to be universal and not cultural diffused. The act of human burial has long been viewed as an outgrowth of proto-religious belief; how the body is cared for after someone has died affects that person in the afterlife. Burial mounds appear to be no different. Some have argued that tumuli started as burial sites for people of importance and significance, the visible mounds paying tribute to these persons of importance, much the same way that the pyramids were both tombs and tributes to the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. Others have argued against this claim, suggesting that burial mounds were completely random phenomena with no special thought going into their creation and construction.[3]

Europe

Austria

The Burgstallkogel (458 m; also known as Grillkogel) is situated near the confluence of the Sulm and the Saggau river valleys in Southern Styria, about 30 km south of Graz between Gleinstätten and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest iron age hill grave necropolises that exists in continental Europe. It was originally composed of at least 2,000 tumuli.

The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg

In contrast to the grave mounds in the Western Hallstatt zone where the deceased were mostly buried intact, all Burgstallkogel dead were cremated, frequently together with some of their personal articles, before the remains were deposited in the stone grave chamber and earth was piled on it to erect the tumulus.

The "common citizen" tumuli of the Sulm valley necropolis (believed to have numbered in excess of 2,000 before agriculture destroyed most of them) surrounded the Burgstallkogel settlement on all sides, and originally they covered much of the hill range between Gleinstätten and the village of Kleinklein, where a small area had been set aside for the much larger tumuli of the chieftains. The oldest grave mounds in the necropolis correspond to the youngest surviving settlement strata of the Burgstallkogel settlement, while two later (Hallstatt B3/C1) burial phases can only be inferred from secondary deposits. Besides it being larger than most other necropolises in the Eastern Hallstatt area, the fact that the Sulm valley necropolis is set apart by the fact that preserved non-aristocratic burials far outnumber chieftains' graves.

Bulls' head pottery from the Sulm valley necropolis

The rulers and their aristocracy, which prided itself of military leadership, had the easternmost part of the necropolis to themselves. Naturally, their tumuli (of which four are known - Hartnermichelkogel I and II, Pommerkogel and Kröllkogel) were the largest and richest ones, containing significant amounts of bronze vessels and iron armament in addition to pottery. It is assumed that the chieftains' tumuli were modeled on Etruscan tombs. The cremation places have not been found, but are supposed to have been either near the grave site or near the hilltop.

Bulgaria

Memorial of the Battle of Varna of 1444 carved into an ancient Thracian burial mound. The sign in front is for Władysław III of Poland

Hundreds of Thracian burial mounds are found throughout Bulgaria, including the Kazanlak and Sveshtari tombs, UNESCO World Heritage sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of Seuthopolis (of the Odrysian kingdom) and Daosdava or Helis (of the Getae), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other tombs contained offerings such as the Panagyurishte and Rogozen treasures.[4]

Inside view of the Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari, Bulgaria

Czech Republic

During the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribesmen inhabiting what is now the Czech Republic used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice was widespread in southern and eastern Bohemia and some neighboring regions, like Upper Austria and Lusatia, which at that time were also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around Prague), neither they are found in Moravia. This has led archaeologists to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).

At places where barrows were constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to Vitín, a small village close to České Budějovice. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as two meters high.

Macedonia (Greece)

The entrance to the "Great Tumulus" at Vergina

Some of the world's most prominent tumuli, the Macedonian tombs and a cist-grave at Vergina, tomb of Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.) of Macedonia and father of Alexander the Great (336-323). Speculation that the other grave found there is that of Alexander IV is controversial. His corpse was allegedly buried in Memphis during the turmoil of the Diadochi after his death in 323 B.C.E..[5]

Excavations were first undertaken at this site in the nineteenth century. L. Heuzy of France and K. Rhomaios of Greece began but were stalled by the First and Second World Wars. In the 1960s, M. Andronicos was director of the excavations and the cemetery of the tumuli was investigated. The Palace of Philip II was excavated by a team from Thessaloniki University along with part of the necropolis being investigated by the Ministry of Culture. 1977 was the pivotal date that M. Andronicos brought to the attention of the world, the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus of Vergina, (ΜεγάΛα) tomb. However, the townspeople of Vergina put a halt to any more excavations, under the auspices of preserving their beautiful surroundings and heritage.[6]

Great Britain

In Britain, early references to tumuli were made by William Camden, John Aubrey, and William Stukeley. During the nineteenth century in England the excavation of tumuli was a popular pastime amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes, who became known as "barrow-diggers." This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain but also resulted in untold damage to the sites. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late Neolithic until the end of the Bronze Age, 2900-800 B.C.E.. Square barrows were occasionally used in the Iron Age (800 B.C.E. - 43 C.E.) in the east of England. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the Anglo-Saxon invasion, as Scandinavian burial practice became popular 500-600 C.E. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.

Scandinavia

Burial mounds were in use until the eleventh century in Scandinavia. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by plowing or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.

By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to Valhalla by the consuming force of the fire. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf. As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship. Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga (Old Norse name: Haug) near Uppsala.

Ukraine and Russia

Sarmatian Kurgan fourth c. BC, Fillipovka, S. Urals, Russian Federation. Archaeological dig lead by Russian Academy of Sciences Archeology Institute Prof. L.Yablonsky, Summer of 2006. First known kurgan to be completely destroyed and then rebuilt to its original appearance.

Kurgan (Russian: курга́н) is the Russian word for a tumulus, a type of burial mound or barrow, heaped over a burial chamber, often of wood.[7] Kurgan type barrows were characteristic of Bronze Age peoples, from the Altay Mountains to the Caucasus, Romania, and Bulgaria. Sometimes, they were quite complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, members of the elite were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. A circular burial mound constructed over a pit grave and often containing grave vessels, weapons, and the bodies of horses as well as a single human body; originally in use in the Russian Steppes but later spreading into eastern, central, and northern Europe in the third millennium B.C.E..

The tradition of kurgan burials touched not only the peoples who buried most of all of their deceased in kurgan structures, but also neighboring peoples who are known as not having a kurgan burial tradition among general population. The most obvious archaeological remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mound (kurgans), some over 20 meters high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in many great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watershed. It is from them that most has been learned about Scythian life and art.[8]

Americas

Serpent Mound – an ancient Native American ceremonial structure in Ohio.

Mound building was a central feature of the public architecture of many Native American cultures from Chile to Minnesota. Thousands of mounds in the United States have been destroyed as a result of farming, pot-hunting, amateur and professional archaeology, road-building, and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Ohio Rivers.

Many engraved conch shell artifacts, such as this one from a mound in Tennessee, have been found.

Effigy mounds were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared cosmology, and to unite and demarcate community. Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, platform mounds, and animal effigy mounds, but there are many variations. Mound building in the United States is believed to date back to at least 1200 B.C.E. in the southeast. The Adena and Mississippian cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of Mexico is Cahokia, a vast World Heritage Site located just east of St. Louis, Missouri. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in Moundville, Alabama. The largest conical burial mound can be found in Moundsville, West Virginia. Other sites in the United States include Indian Mounds Park, Wisconsin, Indian Mounds Park (Saint Paul, Minnesota), and Indian Mound Park, Alabama.

Middle East

Israel

Jerusalem Tumulus #2 in 2004.

Near the western city limits of modern Jerusalem in Israel, 19 tumuli have been documented. Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by William Foxwell Albright, and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by Gabriel Barkay in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in Jerusalem during the Israelite monarchy from David to Zedekiah (who was conquered and humiliated by the Chaldean king, Nebuchadnezzar), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded). Gabriel Barkay popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in Cyprus.

Turkey

On the Anatolian peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the largest specimens of these artificial mounds in the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other Lydian mounds of the Aegean inland), Phrygian mounds in Gordium (Central Anatolia), and the famous Commagene tumulus on the Mount Nemrut (Southeastern Anatolia).

Bin Tepeler (a thousand mounds in Turkish) is in the northwest of Salihli district of Manisa province. It is a Lydian necropolis which dates back to seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E.. The mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1,115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by Herodotus, this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King Alyattes II who ruled between 619-560 B.C.E.. There is also another mound belonging to King Gyges. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around Eşme district of Uşak province.

Gordium was the capital of the Phrygian Kingdom. Its ruined site contains approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, Persian, and Hellenistic periods. The mounds were built between the eighth century B.C.E. and third or second century B.C.E.. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King Midas. This mound was excavated in 1957 and several bronze artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber.

On the peak of Mount Nemrut in the east of the Adıyaman province of Turkey is situation a tumulus which dates back to the first century B.C.E.. It belongs to the Commagene King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene who ruled between 69-40 B.C.E.. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene pantheon.

Asia

Japan

Noge-Ōtsuka Kofun tumulus, Tokyo, early fifth century.

Kofun are megalithic or tumuli in Japan, constructed between early third century and early seventh century. They gave their name to the Kofun period (middle third century—late sixth century).

Daisen Kofun, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Sakai
fifth century

Most of the Kofun have the Keyhole-shaped mount zenpo-koenfun, which was unique to ancient Japan. There are also circular enpun, rectangular zempō-kōhō, and square hōfun. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length. The largest kofun is Daisen kofun, the tomb of the Emperor Nintoku; the largest tomb by area in the world.

The oldest Japanese kofun is said to be Hokenoyama Kofun located in Sakurai, Nara, which dates to the later third century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, earlier keyhole kofun (Hashihaka Kofun, Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around the early fourth century. The trend of keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where gigantic kofun such as Daisen Kofun of Emperor Nintoku are built), and then throughout the country (except for the Tōhoku region) in the fifth century.

Korea

Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea.

The most famous tumuli in Korea, dating around 300 C.E., are those left behind by the Korean Baekje, Goguryeo, Silla, and Gaya states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day Pyongyang, Seoul, Jian, and Gwangju. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at Anak Tomb No.3 which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King Gwanggaeto is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.[9] Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the Silk Road.

Korean tombs exhibit many styles borrowed by and from the Chinese, such as the styles of how the tombs were built and the use of the four guardian beasts, such as Ssu Ling. Additionally, many indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted, along with Chinese culture, to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as horse trappings, bronze mirrors, paintings, and iron-ware.

Gallery

Notes

  1. Oxford English Dictionary. (Oxford Press, 1971, ISBN 019861117X)
  2. Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice (Thames and Hudson, 2000, ISBN 0500281475)
  3. Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology and The Trustees of Indiana University, 1996, "Burial Mounds" Retrieved August 20, 2007
  4. Evgeni I. Paunov, "Ancient Treasures from Thracian Tombs" Athena Review, Vol.1, no. 4 (1998). Retrieved August 20, 2007
  5. Jona Lendering, 2007, "Alexander VI" Retrieved August 20, 2007
  6. The Museum of Macedonia, 2007, "Royal Tombs—Vergina" Retrieved August 20, 2007
  7. kurgan Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002. Retrieved October 14, 2006.
  8. John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge University Press, 1990, ISBN 0521234468)
  9. Sarah Milledge Nelson, The Archaeology of Korea (Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0521407834)

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Albright, William F. "Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (The American Schools of Oriental Research) 10 (April 1923): 1–3.
  • Barkay, Gabriel. "Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented". Biblical Archaeology Review 29(3) (2003): 32-9, 66, 68. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
  • Boardman, John, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521234468
  • Feder, Kenneth L. 2007. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780073405292
  • Gimbutas, Marija. The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993 (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series No. 18). Institute for the Study of Man, 1997. ISBN 0941694569
  • Grena, G.M. LMLK—A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1. Redondo Beach, California: 4000 Years of Writing History, 2004. ISBN 097487860X
  • Grinsell, L.V. The Ancient Burial-mounds of England. London: Methuen, 1936. ASIN B000H4CUSO
  • Ismagulov, O. "Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)," Science (1970).
  • Mallory, J.P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. Thames & Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0500276161
  • Mallory, James (ed.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture Routledge, 1997. ISBN 1884964982
  • Nelson, Sarah Milledge. The Archaeology of Korea. 1993. ISBN 0521407834
  • Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice Thames and Hudson, 2000. ISBN 0500281475
  • Telegin, D. Ya. et al. Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona. Kiev: Shlyakh, 2001.
  • Thomas, Cyrus. "Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology," in J. W. Powell Twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890-91 (1894):3-730.

External links

All links retrieved May 2, 2023.


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