Difference between revisions of "Transport" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Taipei MRT Shimen station.jpg|350px|thumb|right|A busy subway station in Taipei]]
  
[[Image:Taipei MRT Shimen station.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Ximen station, one of the stations of [[Metro Taipei]].]]
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'''Transport''' or '''transportation''' is the [[travel|movement]] of [[Passenger|people]] and [[Cargo|goods]] from one place to another. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] ''trans'' ("across") and ''portare'' ("to carry").  
  
'''Transport''' or '''transportation''' is the [[travel|movement]] of [[Passenger|people]] and [[Cargo|goods]] from one place to another. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] ''trans'' ("across") and ''portare'' ("to carry").
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The development of transport vehicles has had an incredible impact on the expansion and development of human society. Today more than ever before, people rely on various means of rapid transportation to accommodate their busy lives. We rely on transport vehicles to run businesses and obtain raw materials for industry. Also, we have expanded the distances of travel for worship, work, recreation, and vacationing. The transport of goods and other materials have aided in building relationships among cultures as well.
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Industries that provide equipment, means of transport, and services for the transport of goods or people make up a broad and important sector of most [[economy|national economies]]. They are collectively referred to as '''transport industries'''.
  
 
==Aspects of transport==
 
==Aspects of transport==
The field of transport has several aspects: loosely they can be divided into a triad of [[infrastructure]], [[vehicle]]s, and [[Business operations|operations]].  Infrastructure includes the transport networks ([[road]]s, [[railway]]s, [[airway (aviation)|airways]], [[waterway]]s, [[canal]]s, [[pipeline transport|pipelines]], etc.) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as [[airport]]s, [[train station|railway station]]s, [[bus station]]s and [[seaport]]s).  The vehicles generally ride on the networks, such as [[automobile]]s, [[bicycles]], [[buses]], [[train]]s, [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]]s.  The operations deal with the control of the system, such as [[traffic signal]]s and [[ramp meter]]s, [[railroad switch]]es, [[air traffic control]], etc, as well as policies, such as how to [[finance]] the system (for example, the use of [[toll road|tolls]] or [[gasoline tax]]es).
 
  
Broadly speaking, the design of networks are the domain of [[civil engineering]] and [[urban planning]], the design of vehicles of [[mechanical engineering]] and specialized subfields such as [[nautical engineering]] and [[aerospace engineering]], and the operations are usually specialized, though might appropriately belong to [[operations research]] or [[systems engineering]].
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The field of transport has several aspects; loosely they can be divided into a triad of [[infrastructure]], [[vehicle]]s, and [[Business operations|operations]]. Infrastructure includes the transport networks ([[road]]s, [[railway]]s, airways, [[waterway]]s, [[canal]]s, [[pipeline transport|pipelines]], and so forth) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as airports, [[train station|railway stations]], [[bus station]]s and [[seaport]]s). Vehicles generally utilize the networks as guidelines in transport. They include [[automobile]]s, [[bicycle]]s, [[bus]]es, [[train]]s, and [[fixed-wing aircraft|aircraft]]. Business operations deal with the way vehicles are operated on the network and the procedures set for this purpose, including the legal environment (laws, codes, regulations, and so forth). Policies, such as how to [[finance]] the system (for example, the use of [[toll road|tolls]] or [[gasoline]] [[tax]]es) may be considered part of the operations as well.
  
==Modes and categories ==
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Broadly speaking, the design of networks falls under the domain of [[civil engineering]] and [[urban planning]]. The design of vehicles falls under [[mechanical engineering]] and specialized subfields such as [[nautical engineering]] and [[aerospace engineering]]. The operations are usually specialized, though they might appropriately belong to [[operations research]] or [[systems engineering]].
{{main|Mode of transport}}
 
  
Modes are combinations of [[transport network|network]]s, [[vehicle]]s, and [[transport operation|operation]]s, and include  [[walking]], the [[road transport]] system, [[rail transport]], [[ship transport]] and modern [[aviation]].
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==Modes and categories==
  
;Categories of transport
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Modes of transport are combinations of [[transport network|network]]s, [[vehicle]]s, and [[transport operation|operation]]s, and include [[walking]], the [[road]] transport system, [[rail transport]], [[ship transport]] and modern [[aviation]].
* (Non-human) [[Animal-powered transport]]
 
* [[Aviation]]
 
* [[Cable transport]]
 
* [[Conveyor transport]]
 
* [[Human-powered transport]]
 
* [[Hybrid transport]]
 
* [[New Mobility Agenda]]
 
* [[Ship transport]]
 
* [[Space transport]]
 
* [[Sustainable transportation]]
 
* [[Transport on other planets]]
 
* [[Proposed future transport]]
 
  
(Non-human) [[animal-powered transport]] is a broad category of the [[human]] use of non-human [[working animal]]s (also known as "beasts of burden") for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the larger of these animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, singly or in [[team]]s, to pull (or haul) [[sled]]s or wheeled [[vehicle]]s.
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===Categories of (non-human) animal-powered transport===
  
===Vehicle===
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[[Animal-powered transport|Non-human, animal-powered transport]] is a broad category of the [[human]] use of non-human working [[animal]]s (also known as "beasts of burden") for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the larger of these animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, singly or in [[team]]s, to pull (or haul) [[sled]]s or wheeled [[vehicle]]s.
  
[[Vehicle]]s are non-living [[means of transportation]]. They are most often man-made (e.g. [[bicycle]]s, [[automobile|car]]s, [[motorcycle]]s, [[train]]s, [[ship]]s, and [[aircraft]]), although some other means of [[transportation]] which are not made by man can also be called vehicles; examples include [[iceberg]]s and floating tree trunks.
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* [[Air transport]] involves moving peoples or materials via [[aircraft]].
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* [[Rail transport]] is the movement of goods or people along railroads or [[railway]]s.
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* [[Road transport]] utilizes the land cover to move materials by [[automobile]].
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* [[Ship transport]] is the process of moving goods or materials by [[barge]], [[boat]], [[sail]], or [[ship]] across a [[sea]], [[ocean]], [[channel]], or [[lake]].
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* [[Cable transport]] involves the movement of goods or peoples with the use of electrical cables.
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* [[Conveyor transport]] a mode of transport utilizing a conveyor belt-type of structure, including escalators and moving sidewalks.
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* [[Human-powered transport]] is movement of people or goods by sheer human muscle. The [[bicycle]] is a human-powered machine.
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* [[Hybrid transport]] involves transforming traditional forms of transport into sustainable forms by harnessing energy from the sun or tapping into other forms of renewable energy.
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* [[Space transport]] involves specialized aircraft that can sustain heights above the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and into outer space for the movement of people, machines, or other materials.
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* [[Sustainable transportation]] involves forms of transport that utilize renewable sources of [[energy]] and that do not impede on future needs.
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* [[Transport on other planets]] involves the use to modern [[technology]] to assist in space exploration by shuttling machines and other materials to parts of the galaxy.
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* [[Proposed future transport]] involves forms of transport yet to be developed, such as flying cars and breaking speeds faster than the speed of light.<ref>[http://www.transporteon.com/future.html Future Transport,] Transporteon.com. Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
  
Vehicles may be propelled by animals, e.g. a [[chariot]] or an [[ox-cart]]. However, animals on their own, though used as a means of transportation, are not called vehicles. This includes humans carrying another human, for example a child or a disabled person.
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===Air transport===
  
Most land vehicles have [[wheel]]s. Please see the [[wheel]] article for examples of vehicles with and without wheels.  
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A [[airplane|fixed-wing aircraft]], commonly called “airplane” or “aeroplane,” is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the wings in relation to the aircraft is not used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish from [[helicopter|rotary-wing aircraft]], where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the aircraft generates lift (also known as a helicopter).
  
Movement without the help of a vehicle or an animal is called [[locomotion]]. The word ''vehicle'' itself comes from the Latin ''vehiculum''.
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[[Image:Cessna177BCardinal05.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A Cessna 177 propeller-driven [[general aviation]] aircraft]]
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Fixed-wing aircraft include a large range of craft from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large [[airliner]]s and military cargo aircraft. Some aircraft use fixed wings to provide lift only part of the time and may or may not be referred to as “fixed-wing.
  
===[[Aviation]]===
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The current term also embraces [[aircraft]] with folding wings that are fold when on the ground. This is usually to ease storage or facilitate transport on, for example, a vehicle trailer or the powered lift connecting the hangar deck of an [[aircraft carrier]] to its flight deck. It also embraces aircraft, such as the General Dynamics F-111, Grumman F-14 Tomcat and the Panavia Tornado, which can vary the sweep angle of their wings during flight. These aircraft are termed "variable geometry" aircraft. When the wings of these aircraft are fully swept, usually for high speed cruise, the trailing edges of their wings are adjacent to the leading edges of their tailplanes, giving an impression of a single delta wing if viewed in plan. There are also rare examples of aircraft which can vary the angle of incidence of their wings in flight, which are also considered to be "fixed-wing."<ref>[http://www.aviationexplorer.com/fixed_wing_aircraft.htm “Fixed Wing Aircraft Facts and How Aircraft Fly,”] AviationExplorer.com. Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
  
A [[fixed-wing aircraft]] (commonly called '''airplane''' in North America and '''aeroplane''' in many Commonwealth countries. From Gr. ''aéros- 'air' '' and  Gr. '' -planos 'wandering' '' &nbsp;) is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the wings in relation to the aircraft is not used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish from [[rotary-wing aircraft]], where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the aircraft generates lift. A more rare type of aircraft that is neither ''fixed-wing'' nor ''rotary-wing'' is an [[ornithopter]]. A [[heliplane]] is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing.
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Two necessities for all fixed-wing aircraft (as well as rotary-wing aircraft) are air flow over the wings for lifting of the aircraft and an open area for landing. The majority of aircraft however, also need an [[airport]] with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and/or passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft ascend and descend on land, though some are capable of take-off and landing on ice, snow and calm water.
  
[[Image:Cessna177BCardinal05.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Cessna 177]] propeller-driven [[general aviation]] aircraft]]
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The aircraft is the second-fastest method of transport, after the [[rocket]]. Commercial jet aircraft can reach up to 875 kilometers per hour (550 miles per hour). Single-engine aircraft are capable of reaching 175 kilometers per hour (110 miles per hour) or more at cruise speed. Supersonic aircraft (military, research and a few private aircraft) can reach speeds faster than sound. The record is currently held by the SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft with a speed of 3,529.56 kilometers per hour (2,193.17 miles per hour; 1,905.81 knots).<ref>Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, [http://records.fai.org/general_aviation/aircraft.asp?id=779 General Aviation World Records: List of records established by the 'Lockheed SR-71 "Blackbird"'] Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
 
 
Fixed-wing aircraft include a large range of craft from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large [[airliner]]s and military [[transport|cargo aircraft]]. Some aircraft use fixed wings to provide lift only part of the time and may or may not be referred to as fixed-wing.
 
 
 
The current term also embraces [[aircraft]] with folding wings that are intended to fold when on the ground. This is usually to ease storage or facilitate transport on, for example, a vehicle trailer or the powered lift connecting the hangar deck of an [[aircraft carrier]] to its flight deck. It also embraces aircraft, such as the [[General Dynamics F-111]], [[Grumman]] [[F-14 Tomcat]] and the [[Panavia]] [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado]], which can vary the [[Swing-wing|sweep angle]] of their wings during flight. These aircraft are termed "variable geometry" aircraft. When the wings of these aircraft are fully swept, usually for high speed cruise, the trailing edges of their wings about the leading edges of their tailplanes, giving an impression of a single [[delta wing]] if viewed in plan. There are also rare examples of aircraft which can vary the [[angle of incidence]] of their wings in flight, such the [[F-8 Crusader]], which are also considered to be "fixed-wing".
 
 
 
Two necessities for all fixed-wing aircraft (as well as rotary-wing aircraft) are air flow over the wings for lifting of the aircraft, and an open area for landing. The majority of aircraft, however, also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and/or passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow and calm water.
 
 
 
The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the [[rocket]]. Commercial jet aircraft can reach up to 875 km/h. Single-engined aircraft are capable of reaching 175 km/h or more at cruise speed. Supersonic aircraft (military, research and a few private aircraft) can reach speeds faster than sound. The record is currently held by the [[SR-71]] with a speed of 3,529.56 km/h.
 
  
 
===Rail===
 
===Rail===
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[[Image:Acela_2000.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Acela Express, an American [[high-speed rail|high-speed]] passenger [[train]]]]
  
[[Rail transport]] is the transport of passengers and goods along '''railways''' or '''railroads'''. A typical railway (or railroad) track consists of two parallel [[steel]] (or in older networks, [[iron]]) [[Rail tracks#Railway rail|rails]], generally anchored [[perpendicular]] to [[beam (structure)|beam]]s (termed [[railroad tie|sleepers]] ([[Commonwealth English|Commonwealth]] except Canada) or [[railroad tie]]s  ([[American English|U.S. and Canada]]) of [[timber]], [[concrete]], or [[steel]] to maintain a consistent distance apart, or [[Rail gauge|gauge]]. The rails and perpendicular beams are usually then placed on a foundation made of concrete or compressed [[soil|earth]] and [[gravel]] in a bed of ballast to prevent the track from [[buckling]] (bending out of its original configuration) as the ground settles over time beneath and under the weight of the vehicles passing above. The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a [[train]]; a series of individual powered or unpowered vehicles linked together, displaying markers. These vehicles (referred to, in general, as cars, carriages or wagons) move with much less friction than on rubber tires on a paved road, and the [[locomotive]] that pulls the train tends to use energy far more efficiently as a result.
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[[Rail transport]] is the transport of passengers and goods along ''[[railway]]s'' or ''railroads''. A typical railway (or railroad) track consists of two parallel [[steel]] (or in older networks, [[iron]]) rails, generally anchored perpendicular to beams (termed “sleepers” or “ties”) of [[lumber|timber]], [[concrete]], or steel to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are usually then placed on a foundation made of concrete or compressed [[soil]] and [[gravel]] in a bed of ballast to prevent the track from buckling, or bending out of its original configuration, as the ground settles over time under the weight of the vehicles passing above. The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a [[train]], or a series of individual powered or unpowered vehicles linked together, displaying markers. These vehicles referred to, in general, as “cars,” “carriages” or “wagons,” move with much less friction than do rubber tires on a paved road, and the [[locomotive]] that pulls the train tends to use energy far more efficiently as a result.
  
[[Image:Steamtrain.JPG|thumb|right|A typical American steam train]]
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[[Subway]]s, or metros, are underground railways generally confined to a metropolitan area. They are generally powered by electricity using a third rail and can be contained partially or fully underground. [[Light rail transit]], a modern trolley or street-car system, has become more popular as a mode of [[public transport]] in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries in multiple large cities throughout the world. Light rail systems offer the same benefits as a subway system but can be constructed at a generally lower cost.
  
In rail transport, a [[train]] consists of rail vehicles that move along guides to transport freight or passengers from one place to another.  The guideway ([[permanent way]]) usually consists of conventional [[rail tracks]], but might also be [[monorail]] or [[magnetic levitation train|maglev]]. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate [[locomotive]], or from individual motors in self-propelled [[multiple unit]]s. Most trains are powered by [[diesel engine]]s or by [[electricity]] supplied by [[Railway electrification system|trackside systems]]. Historically the [[steam engine]] was the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-[[20th century]], but other sources of power (such as [[horse]]s, [[rope]] (or [[wire]]), [[gravity]], [[pneumatics]], or [[gas turbine]]s) are possible.
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The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional [[rail tracks]], but might also be [[monorail]] or [[magnetic levitation train|maglev]]. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate [[locomotive]], or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most trains are powered by [[diesel engine]]s or by [[electricity]] supplied by trackside systems. Historically, the [[steam engine]] was the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-twentieth century, but other sources of power (such as [[horse]]s, [[rope]] (or [[wire]]), [[gravity]], [[pneumatics]], or [[gas turbine]]s) are also possible.
  
===[[Road transport]]===
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===Road transport===
 
=====Automobile=====
 
=====Automobile=====
  
An [[automobile]] is a [[wheel]]ed [[passenger]] [[vehicle]] that carries its own [[car engine|motor]]. Different types of automobiles include cars, [[bus]]es, [[truck]]s, and [[van]]s. Some include [[motorcycles]] in the category, but cars are the most typical automobiles. The term ''automobile'' is derived from Greek ''auto-'' ("self") and Latin ''mobilis'' ("movable"), referring to the fact that it "moves by itself". Earlier terms for automobile include ''motorwagen'', and ''horseless carriage''. Although the term "car" is presumed to be derived through the shortening of the term "carriage", the word has its origin before 1300 C.E. in English as, "carr"—derived from similar words in French and much earlier Greek words—for a vehicle that moves, especially on wheels, that was applied to [[chariots]], small carts, and later—to [[carriages]] that carried more people and larger loads.  As of 2002 there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car for every ten people), of which 140 million in the [[United States|U.S.]] (roughly one car for every two people) [http://www.sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/worldmapper/display.php?selected=31].
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An [[automobile]] is a [[wheel]]ed passenger [[vehicle]] that carries its own [[car engine|motor]]. Different types of automobiles include cars, [[bus]]es, [[truck]]s, and [[van]]s. Some include [[motorcycles]] in the category, but cars are the most typical automobiles. As of 2002, there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide, giving roughly one car for every ten people. And of these passenger cars, 170 million reside in the [[United States]], making roughly one car for every two people.<ref>[http://www.sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/worldmapper/display.php?selected=31 Worldmapper: Passenger Cars.] Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
 
 
The automobile was thought of as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first introduced in the 1880s. Before its introduction, in [[New York City]] alone, more than 1,800 tons of [[manure]] had to be removed from the streets daily, although the manure was used as natural [[fertilizer]] for [[crops]] and to build top soil. In 2006, the automobile is recognized as one of the primary sources of world-wide [[air pollution]] and a cause of substantial [[noise pollution]] and adverse [[health effects]].
 
 
 
=====See also=====
 
* [[Bus]]
 
* [[Road train]]
 
* [[Semi-trailer truck]]
 
* [[Truck]]
 
* [[Limousine]]
 
* [[Taxicab]]
 
* [[Share taxi]]
 
* [[Carpool|Carpooling]]
 
 
 
=====Bicycle=====
 
  
[[Image:utility bicycle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dutch utility bicycle featuring rear internal hub brake, chaincase and mudguards, kickstand for parking, permanently attached dynamo-powered lamps and touring handlebars.]]
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The automobile was thought of as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first introduced in the 1890s. Before its introduction, in [[New York City]] alone, more than 1,800 tons of [[manure]] had to be removed from the streets daily, although the manure was also used as natural [[fertilizer]] for [[crops]] and to build top soil. In 2006, the automobile is recognized as one of the primary sources of worldwide [[air pollution]] and a cause of substantial [[noise pollution]] and adverse [[health effects]].
  
A '''[[bicycle]]''', or '''bike''', is a [[Bicycle pedal|pedal]]-driven [[Human-powered transport|human-powered vehicle]] with two [[bicycle wheel|wheel]]s attached to a [[bicycle frame|frame]], one behind the other. First introduced in [[19th century|19th-century Europe]], bicycles evolved quickly into their familiar, current design. Numbering over 1,000,000,000 in the world today,<ref>DidYouKnow.cd.  [http://www.didyouknow.cd/bicycles.htm There are about a billion bicycles in the world.] Retrieved 30 July 2006.</ref> bicycles provide the principal means of [[transportation]] in many regions and a popular form of recreational transport in others.
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=== Water transport ===
 
 
The bicycle is one of the most notable of human inventions. The basic shape and configuration of the frame, wheels, pedals, saddle and handlebars has hardly changed since the first [[chain drive|chain-driven]] model was developed around 1885, although many important detail improvements have been made since, especially in recent years using modern materials and [[computer-aided design]].
 
 
 
A remarkable aspect of the bicycle is its widespread adoption in many different fields of human activity, e.g. as a child's toy, in adult recreation and fitness, as a means of everyday transport, in cyclo-touring, for use in many cycle sports, and as a basis for static gymnasium or home fitness versions.
 
 
 
The bicycle has affected history considerably in both the cultural and industrial realms. In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies; more recently, bicycle technology has contributed, in turn, to other, newer areas.  Beyond recreation and transportation, bicycles have been adapted for use in many occupations, including the military, local policing, courier services, and sports.  A recurrent theme in bicycling has been the tension between bicyclists and drivers of [[motor vehicle]]s, each group arguing for its fair share of the world's roadways.
 
 
 
=== [[Water transport]] ===
 
 
====Watercraft====
 
====Watercraft====
  
A '''[[watercraft]]''' is a [[vehicle]] designed to float on and move across (or through) [[water]] for pleasure, physical exercise (in the case of many small boats), transporting people and/or goods, or military missions.  
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A '''[[watercraft]]''' is a [[vehicle]] designed to float on and move across (or through) [[water]] for pleasure, physical exercise (in the case of many small boats), transporting people and/or goods, or military missions.  
  
 
The common need for buoyancy unites all watercraft, and makes each one's [[hull (watercraft)|hull]] a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance, and appearance.
 
The common need for buoyancy unites all watercraft, and makes each one's [[hull (watercraft)|hull]] a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance, and appearance.
  
Most [[watercraft]] would be described as either [[ship]]s or [[boat]]s; although nearly all ships are larger than nearly all boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se.  
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Most [[watercraft]] would be described as either [[ship]]s or [[boat]]s. Although nearly all ships are larger than nearly all boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se.  
* A [[rule of thumb]] says "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat", and a ship ''usually'' has sufficient size to carry its own boats, such as [[lifeboat]]s, [[dinghy|dinghies]], or [[Runabout (boat)|runabout]]s.
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* A [[rule of thumb]] says "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat," and a ship ''usually'' has sufficient size to carry its own boats, such as lifeboats, [[dinghy|dinghies]], or runabouts.  
* Often local [[law]] and regulation will define the exact size (or the number of [[mast (sailing)|mast]]s) that distinguishes a ship from boats.  
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* Often local [[law]] and regulation will define the exact size (or the number of [[mast (sailing)|mast]]s) that distinguishes a ship from a boat.  
* Traditionally [[submarine]]s were called "boats", perhaps reflecting their cramped conditions: small size reduces the need for power, and thus the need to surface or snorkel for a supply of the air that running diesel engines requires; in contrast, nuclear-powered submarines' [[nuclear reactors|reactor]]s supply abundant power without consuming air, and such craft are large, much roomier, and classed as ships.  
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* Traditionally [[submarine]]s were called "boats," perhaps reflecting their cramped conditions, as small size reduces the need for power as well as the need to surface or snorkel for the sufficient air supply that running diesel engines require. In contrast, nuclear-powered submarines' [[nuclear reactor|reactors]] supply abundant power without consuming air, and such craft are large, much roomier, and classified as ships.  
  
Another definition says a ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of earning revenue; in that context, passenger ships transport "supercargo", another name for passengers or persons not working on board. However, neither fishing boats nor [[ferry|ferrie]]s are considered ships, though both carry cargo (their catch of the day or passengers) (and for that matter lifeboats).
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Another definition says a ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of earning revenue. In that context, passenger ships transport "supercargo," another name for passengers or persons not working on board. However, neither fishing boats nor [[ferry|ferrie]]s are considered ships, though both carry cargo, whether through their catch of the day or passengers, and for that matter, lifeboats.
  
English seldom uses the term "watercraft" to describe any specific individual object (and probably then only as an affectation): rather the term serves to unify the category that ranges from small [[boat]]s to the largest [[ship]]s, and also includes the diverse watercraft for which some term even more specific than ''ship'' or ''boat'' (e.g., [[canoe]], [[kayak]], [[raft]], [[barge]], [[jet ski]]) comes to mind first. (Some of these would even be considered at best questionable as examples of boats.)
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The term ''watercraft'' is seldom used to describe any specific individual object; rather, the term serves to unify the category that ranges from the smallest [[boat]]s to the largest [[ship]]s, and also includes the diverse watercraft for which some term even more specific than ''ship'' or ''boat'' (e.g., [[canoe]], [[kayak]], [[raft]], [[barge]], [[jet ski]]). Even so, some of these craft would be considered questionable as examples of boats.
  
 
==== Ship transport ====
 
==== Ship transport ====
'''[[Ship transport]]''' is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by [[barge]], [[boat]], [[ship]] or [[sailboat]] over a [[sea]], [[ocean]], [[lake]], [[canal]] or [[river]].  This is frequently undertaken for purposes of [[commerce]], [[recreation]] or [[military]] objectives.
 
  
A hybrid of ship transport and [[road transport]] is the historic [[horse-drawn boat]]. Hybrids of ship transport and [[air transport]] are [[kite surfing]] and [[parasailing]].
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Ship transport is the process of moving people, goods, and other materials by [[barge]], [[boat]], [[ship]] or [[sailboat]] over a [[sea]], [[ocean]], [[lake]], [[canal]] or [[river]]. This is frequently undertaken for [[commerce]], [[recreation]] or [[military]] purposes.
  
The first craft were probably types of [[canoe]]s cut out from [[tree]] trunks. The colonization of [[Australia]] by [[Indigenous Australians]] provides indirect but conclusive evidence for the latest date for the invention of ocean-going craft; land bridges linked southeast Asia through most of the [[Malay Archipelago]] but a [[strait]] had to be crossed to arrive at [[New Guinea]], which was then linked to Australia. Ocean-going craft were required for the [[colonization]] to happen.
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A hybrid of ship transport and [[road transport]] is the historic [[horse-drawn boat]]. Horse-powered boats involved horses on deck providing power.<ref>Sid Perkins, [http://nasw.org/users/sperkins/hrsferry.html “When Horses Really Walked on Water,”] ''The Chronicle of the Horse'' (May 21, 1999). Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
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The first man-made craft were probably types of [[canoe]]s cut out from [[tree]] trunks. The colonization of [[Australia]] by [[Indigenous Australians]] provides indirect but conclusive evidence of the latest date for the invention of ocean-going craft. Historically, land bridges linked Southeast Asia through most of the [[Malay Archipelago]] but a [[strait]] had to be crossed to arrive at [[New Guinea]], which was then linked to Australia. Ocean-going craft were required for [[colonization]].
  
 
Early sea transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the [[wind]] for propulsion, and often, in earlier times with smaller vessels, a combination of the two.
 
Early sea transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the [[wind]] for propulsion, and often, in earlier times with smaller vessels, a combination of the two.
  
Also there have been horse-powered boats, with horses on the deck providing power [http://nasw.org/users/sperkins/hrsferry.html].
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Ship transport has also frequently been used as a mechanism for conducting [[warfare]]. Military use of the seas and waterways is covered in greater detail under [[navy]].
  
Ship transport was frequently used as a mechanism for conducting [[warfare]]. Military use of the seas and waterways is covered in greater detail under [[navy]].
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In the 1800s the first [[steamship]]s were developed, using a [[steam engine]] to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The [[steam]] was produced using [[wood]] or [[coal]]. Now most ships have an [[engine]] using a slightly refined type of [[petroleum]] called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships, such as [[submarine]]s, use [[nuclear power]] to produce the steam.
  
In the [[1800s]] the first [[steam ships]] were developed, using a [[steam engine]] to drive a [[paddle wheel]] or [[propeller]] to move the ship. The [[steam]] was produced using wood or [[coal]]. Now most ships have an [[engine]] using a slightly refined type of [[petroleum]] called [[bunker fuel]]. Some specialized ships, such as [[submarine]]s, use [[nuclear power]] to produce the steam.
+
[[Recreation]]al or [[education]]al craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use [[internal combustion engine]]s to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas like the [[Everglades]], some craft, such as the [[hovercraft]], are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.  
  
[[Recreation]]al or [[education]]al craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use [[internal combustion engine]]s to drive one or more [[propeller]]s, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet.  In shallow draft areas, such as the [[Everglades]], some craft, such as the [[hovercraft]], are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.  
+
Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than [[air transport|transport by air]] for trans-continental [[shipping]].
  
Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than [[aviation|transport by air]] for trans-continental [[shipping]].
+
In the context of sea transport, a ''road'' network is termed an anchorage.
  
In the context of sea transport, a '''road''' is an [[anchor|anchorage]].
+
== Transport and communication ==
  
=====See also=====
+
Transport and [[communication]] are both substitutes and complements. Though it might be possible that sufficiently advanced communication could substitute for transport, one could [[telegraph]], [[telephone]], [[fax machine|fax]], or e-mail a customer rather than visiting them in person, it has been found that those modes of communication in fact generate more total interactions, including interpersonal interactions. The growth in transport would be impossible without communication, which is vital for advanced transportation systems, from railroads which want to run trains in two directions on a single track, to air traffic control which requires knowing the location of aircraft in the sky. Thus, it has been found that the increase of one generally leads to more of the other.
* [[Water taxi]]
 
  
== Transport and communications ==
+
== Transport and land use ==
Transport and [[communication]] are both substitutes and complements. Though it might be possible that sufficiently advanced communication could substitute for transport, one could telegraph, telephone, fax, or email a customer rather than visiting them in person, it has been found that those modes of communication in fact generate more total interactions, including interpersonal interactions.  The growth in transport would be impossible without [[communication]], which is vital for advanced transportation systems, from railroads which want to run trains in two directions on a single track, to air traffic control which requires knowing the location of aircraft in the sky.  Thus, it has been found that  the increase of one generally leads to more of the other.
 
  
== Transport and land use ==
+
The first [[Europeans]] who came to the [[New World]] brought with them a culture of transportation centered on the [[wheel]]. [[Native Americans]] had developed differently, and moved through their country by means of [[canoe]]s, [[kayak]]s, [[umiak]]s, [[coracle]]s, and other water-borne vehicles, constructed from various types of [[bark]], [[hide]], [[bone]], [[wood]], and other materials; the [[snowshoe]], [[toboggan]] and [[sled]] were also essential during the winter conditions that prevailed throughout the northern half of the continent for much of the year. Europeans quickly adopted all of these technologies themselves, and therefore, were able to travel to the northern interior of [[Canada]] via the many waterways that branched out from the [[St. Lawrence River]] and from the [[Hudson Bay]].<ref>[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/virtual-vault/026018-119.01-e.php?q1=Transportation+and+Maps&PHPSESSID=709io6475tfesngi2m7226o454 Virtual Vault: Transportation and Maps,] Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
[[Image:Relay-road-Ukraine.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Relay road]] in the [[Zone of alienation|alienation zone]] in [[Ukraine]]. Abandoned due to high radioactivity level.]]
+
 
 +
There is a well-known relationship between the [[land use|density of development]], and types of transportation. Intensity of development is often measured by area of [[floor area ratio]] (FAR), or the ratio of usable floorspace to area of land. As a rule of thumb, FARs of 1.5 or less are well suited to automobiles; those of six and above are well suited to trains. The range of densities from about two to about four is not well served by conventional [[Public transport|public]] or private transport. Many [[city|cities]] have grown into these densities, and are suffering traffic problems as a result.
  
There is a well-known relationship between the [[land use|density of development]], and types of transportation.  Intensity of development is often measured by area of [[floor area ratio]] (FAR), the ratio of useable floorspace to area of land. As a rule of thumb, FARs of 1.5 or less are well suited to automobiles, those of six and above are well suited to trains.  The range of densities from about two up to about four is not well served by conventional [[Public transport|public]] or [[Private transport|private]] transport.  Many cities have grown into these densities, and are suffering traffic problems.
+
Land uses support activities, and as those activities are spatially separated, people need transportation to go from one to the other, from home to work to shop back to home, for instance. Transport is a "derived demand," in that it is not a necessary but for the activities pursued at the ends of trips.
  
Land uses support activities.  Those activities are spatially separated.  People need transport to go from one to the other (from home to work to shop back to home for instance).  Transport is a "derived demand," in that transport is unnecessary but for the activities pursued at the ends of trips.
+
Good land use keeps common activities close (e.g. housing and [[supermarket|food shopping]]), and places higher-density development closer to transportation lines and hubs. Poor land use concentrates activities, such as jobs, far from other destinations, such as housing and shopping.
Good land use keeps common activities close (e.g. housing and food shopping), and places higher-density development closer to transportation lines and hubs. Poor land use concentrates activities (such as jobs) far from other destinations (such as housing and shopping).
 
  
There are [[economies of agglomeration]]. Beyond transportation some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.
+
There are [[economies of agglomeration]]. Beyond transportation, some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.
  
 
==Transport in cities==
 
==Transport in cities==
  
Transport in cities, the ways that people and goods move through and serve the complex physical, economic and social metabolism of these living organisms, presents a special case.  
+
Because of the much higher densities of people and activities, [[Environmentalism|environmental]], [[Economics|economic]], [[public health]], social and [[quality of life]] considerations and constraints are important in cities.
  
The city presents an unusual context for transport, mobility and policy choices because of the much higher densities of people and activities relative to the rest. This leads to a situation where [[Environmentalism|environmental]], [[Economics|economic]], [[public health]], [[social]] and [[quality of life]] considerations and constraints become at least equi-important to pure mobility objectives and requirements.
+
Urban transport has been led by professional transport planners and traffic experts who have made use of the same forecasting and response tools that they have used to good effect in other transport sectors. This has led in most cities to a substantial overbuilding of the road and supporting infrastructure, which has maximized throughput in terms of the numbers of vehicles and the speeds with which they pass through and move around in the built-up areas.  
  
Traditionally, however, urban transport analysis, policies and the investments that follow have been lead by professional transport planners and traffic experts, who have by and large made use of the same forecasting and response tools that they have used to good effect in other transport sectors. The result of relying on these narrowly conceived, highly focused technical tools has led in most cities to a substantial overbuilding of the road and supporting infrastructure, which has purposely maximized throughput in terms of the numbers of vehicles and the speeds with which they pass through and move around in the built-up areas.  
+
Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle throughput means that in many cities there is too much traffic and many, if not all, of the negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places. As a result of new types of analysis, which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied upon, such areas as environmental impact analysis and public health are encouraging sociologists and economists to increasingly question the viability of old mobility solutions. European cities are taking the lead in this transition.
  
Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing of it for maximum vehicle throughput and speeds has created situations in which in many cities of the world there is not only too much traffic but also many - if not all - of the negative impacts that go with it.  This is the dilemma of transport policy and practice in our cities today, with the negative results that can be clearly observed in all too many places.
+
== Transport, energy, and the environment ==
  
It is only in recent years that these traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places, and as a result of new types of analysis which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied on – spanning such areas as environmental impact analysis, public health, sociologists as well as economists who increasingly are questioning the viability of the old mobility solutions we are today at a turn in the road as far as transport in cities is concerned. It is relevant to note that by and large European cities and local government are leading the way in this transition in process.
+
Transport is a major use of [[energy]], and burns most of the world's [[petroleum]].
 +
Transportation accounts for two-thirds of all U.S. petroleum consumption.<ref name=eesi>[http://www.eesi.org/programs/cleanBus/PHEVS/plugin2.about.htm Environmental and Energy Study Institute, National Plug-in Partner Campaign.] Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
  
It is critically important that analytic procedures and practices in the sector are radically revised and rendered more appropriate for the emerging and very different circumstances presented by 21st century cities. First, because that’s where half of the earth’s population already is. Second because these are the areas with by far the highest growth rates. Third, most of this growth is now taking place in the Global South, whose cities are growing at rates out of control. And hand in had with this because the number of motor vehicles (including two wheeled vehicles and especially in the countries of the developing world) is exploding, leading to levels of traffic and problems which far exceed anything ever seen in the past.  
+
The transportation sector generates 82 percent of carbon monoxide, 56 percent of [[nitrous oxide]] (NOx) emissions, and over one-quarter of total U.S. [[greenhouse gas]] emissions.<ref name=eesi /> [[Hydrocarbon]] fuels also produce [[carbon dioxide]], another greenhouse gas widely thought to be the chief cause of [[global climate change]]. Petroleum-powered engines, especially inefficient ones, create air pollution, including [[nitrous oxide]]s and [[particulate]]s, like soot. Although vehicles in developed countries have been releasing cleaner emissions because of [[environmental regulation]]s, an increase in the number of vehicles and increased use of vehicles in these countries does not add to the solution.
  
The field of transport planning and policy in cities is under enormous pressure for change, but despite this the traditional approaches continue to dominate in most places. This is certainly  the main battle ground for transport policy in the years immediately ahead.
+
Other environmental impacts of transport systems include [[traffic congestion]] and automobile-oriented [[urban sprawl]], which can consume natural habitat and [[agriculture|agricultural]] lands.
  
You can find more on this topic here in the sections on [[Sustainable Transportation]] and the [[New Mobility Agenda]].  
+
Toxic runoff from roads and parking lots can also pollute water supplies and aquatic ecosystems.
  
===See also===
+
Low-pollution [[fuel]] vehicles can reduce pollution. Low-pollution fuels may have reduced [[carbon]] content, thereby contributing less in the way of carbon dioxide emissions, and generally have reduced [[sulfur]], as sulfur exhaust is a cause of [[acid rain]]. The most popular low-pollution fuels at this time are biofuels like [[Ethanol fuel|gasoline-ethanol blends]] and [[biodiesel]]. [[Hydrogen]] is an even lower pollution fuel that releases no carbon dioxide emission, but producing and storing it is currently not economically feasible.
* [[Transport engineering]]
 
  
== Transport, energy, and the environment ==
+
=== Increasing efficiency, reducing pollution ===
Transport is a major use of [[energy]], and transport burns most of the world's [[petroleum]]. [[Hydrocarbon]] fuels produce [[carbon dioxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]] widely thought to be the chief cause of [[global climate change]], and petroleum-powered engines, especially inefficient ones, create air pollution, including [[nitrous oxide]]s and [[particulate]]s (soot). Although vehicles in [[developed countries]] have been getting cleaner because of [[environmental regulation]]s, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles and more use of each vehicle.
 
  
Other [[natural environment|environmental]] impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion, toxic runoff from roads and parking lots that can pollute water supplies and aquatic ecosystems,  and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands.
+
Another strategy in reducing emission pollution is to make vehicles more efficient, which reduces pollution and waste by reducing the energy use. [[Electric vehicle]]s use efficient electric motors, but their range is limited by either the extent of the electric transmission system or by the storage capacity of [[battery (electricity)|batteries]]. Electrified public transport generally uses overhead wires or third rails to transmit electricity to vehicles, and is used for both rail and bus transport. Battery electric vehicles store their electric fuel onboard in a [[battery pack]].
  
Low-pollution fuels can reduce pollution. Low pollution fuels may have a reduced [[carbon]] content, and thereby contribute less in the way of carbon dioxide emissions, and generally have reduced [[sulfur]], since sulfur exhaust is a cause of [[acid rain]]. The most popular low-pollution fuel at this time is [[liquefied natural gas]]. [[Hydrogen]] is an even lower-pollution fuel that produces no carbon dioxide, but producing and storing it economically is currently not feasible.  Other alternative [[renewable energy]] sources such as [[biodiesel]] are being researched heavily.
+
[[Fuel cell]]s are also a way of generating efficient energy, which may eventually be two to five times as efficient as the [[internal combustion engine]]s currently used in most vehicles.
  
Another strategy is to make vehicles more efficient, which reduces pollution and waste by reducing the energy use. [[Electric vehicle]]s use efficient electric motors, but their range is limited by either the extent of the electric transmission system or by the storage capacity of [[battery (electricity)|batteries]]. Electrified public transport generally uses overhead wires or third rails to transmit electricity to vehicles, and is used for both rail and bus transport. [[Battery electric vehicle]]s store their electric fuel onboard in a [[battery pack]]. Another method is to generate energy using [[fuel cell]]s, which may eventually be two to five times as efficient as the [[internal combustion engine]]s currently used in most vehicles. Another effective method is to streamline ground vehicles, which spend up to 75% of their energy on air-resistance, and to reduce their weight. [[Regenerative braking]] is possible in all electric vehicles and recaptures the energy normally lost to braking, and is becoming
+
Another effective method is to streamline ground vehicles, which spend up to 75 percent of their energy on air resistance, and to reduce their weight. Regenerative braking is possible in all electric vehicles and recaptures the energy normally lost to braking; it is becoming common in rail vehicles. In internal combustion automobiles and [[bus]]es, regenerative braking is not possible, unless electric vehicle components are also a part of the powertrain, otherwise known as hybrid electric vehicles.
common in rail vehicles. In internal combustion automobiles and buses, regenerative braking is not possible, unless electric vehicle components are also a part of the powertrain, these are called [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s.
 
  
 
Shifting travel from automobiles to well-utilized public transport can reduce energy consumption and traffic congestion.
 
Shifting travel from automobiles to well-utilized public transport can reduce energy consumption and traffic congestion.
  
[[Walking]] and [[bicycling]] instead of traveling by motorized means also reduces the consumption of fossil fuels. While the use of these two modes generally declines as a given area becomes wealthier, there are some countries (including [[Denmark]], [[Netherlands]], [[Japan]] and parts of [[Germany]], [[Finland]] and [[Belgium]]) where bicycling comprises a significant share of trips. Some cities with particularly high modal shares of cycling are [[Oulu]] (25%), [[Copenhagen]] (33%) and [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] (50%). A number of other cities, including [[London]], [[Paris]], [[New York]], [[Sydney]], [[Bogotá]], [[Chicago]] and [[San Francisco]] are creating networks of [[bicycle lane]]s and [[bicycle path]]s, but the value of such devices for [[Utility cycling#Examples: Cycle lanes and Cycle tracks|utility cycling]] is highly controversial.
+
[[Walking]] and [[bicycling]] instead of traveling by motorized means also reduces the consumption of fossil fuels. While the use of these two modes generally declines as a given area becomes wealthier, there are some countries (including [[Denmark]], [[Netherlands]], [[Japan]] and parts of [[Germany]], [[Finland]] and [[Belgium]]) where bicycling comprises a significant share of trips. Some cities with particularly high modal shares of cycling are [[Oulu]] (25 percent), [[Copenhagen]] (33 percent) and [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] (50 percent). A number of other cities, including [[London]], [[Paris]], [[New York City|New York]], [[Sydney]], [[Bogotá]], [[Chicago]] and [[San Francisco]] are creating networks of [[bicycle lane]]s and [[bicycle path]]s, but the value of such devices for [[Utility cycling#Examples: Cycle lanes and Cycle tracks|utility cycling]] is highly controversial.
 +
 
 +
There is also a growing movement of drivers who practice ways to increase their MPG and save fuel through practicing effective driving techniques. They are often referred to as “hypermilers.” Hypermilers have broken records of fuel efficiency, averaging 109 miles per gallon driving a hybrid electric car. In non-hybrid vehicles these techniques are also beneficial. Hypermiler Wanye Gerdes can get 59 miles per gallon in a mid-sized car and 30 MPG in a small sport utility vehicle.<ref>Dennis Gaffney, [http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2007/01/king_of_the_hypermilers.html “This Guy Can Get 59 MPG in a Plain Old Accord. Beat That, Punk,”] ''Mother Jones'' (January 1, 2007). Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
  
 
== Research ==
 
== Research ==
  
Transport research facilities are mainly attached to universities or are steered by the state. In most countries (not in France and Spain) one can see now how laboratories are brought into PPP-operation, where industry takes over part of the share.
+
Transport research facilities are mainly attached to [[university|universities]] or are steered by the state. In most countries, although not in France or Spain, one can see how laboratories are brought into PPP-operation, where industry takes over part of the share.
  
Some major research centres in Europe:
+
== See also ==
*[http://www.cedex.es/ CEDEX ES]
 
*[http://www.certu.fr CERTU FR]
 
*[http://www.crf.it CRF IT]
 
*[http://http://www.cts.cv.ic.ac.uk/ Centre for Transport Studies Imperial College UK]
 
*[http://www.transport.citg.tudelft.nl/ Delft University of Technology NL]
 
*[http://www.dlr.de/dlr/Verkehr DLR DE]
 
*[http://www.ivt.ethz.ch/vpl/index_EN Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule CH]
 
  
*[http://www.lcpc.fr LCPC FR]
+
* [[Aircraft]]
*[http://www.inrets.fr INRETS FR]
+
* [[Air transport]]
*[http://www.vv.tno.nl TNO NL]
+
* [[Automobile]]
*[[Transport Research Laboratory]] [http://www.trl.co.uk/ TRL UK]
+
* [[Bus]]
*[http://www.vtt.fi/transport/ VTT FI]
+
* [[Public transport]]
 +
* [[Rail transport]]
 +
* [[Shipping]]
 +
* [[Train]]
 +
* [[Transport engineering]]  
  
 +
== Notes ==
 +
<references/>
  
*[http://www.cemt.org/jtrc/ Joint OECD-ECMT Transport Research Centre]
+
==References==
*[http://www.cemt.org/index.htm European Conference of Ministers of Transport]
 
  
USA:
+
* Black, William R. ''Transportation: A Geographical Analysis''. New York: The Guilford Press, 2003. ISBN 1572308486
* http://www.its.berkeley.edu Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Berkeley
+
* Hanson, Susan (ed.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation'', 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press, 1995. ISBN 1572300175
*[[National Transportation Research Center]]
+
* Kane, Anthony R. “Transportation in the new millennium.” ''Transportation Quarterly'' 54 (2000): 5-9.
*[http://www.trb.org/ Transportation Research Board]
+
* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. ''Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Road Transport: Analytical Methods''. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2002. ISBN 9264196781
 +
* “The Future of Transportation.” ''Scientific American'' 277 (1997): 54-137.
  
The European Commission supports the co-operation and collaboration amongst the transport laboratories by funding projects like EXTR@Web and [http://www.intransnet.org Intransnet]. Especially the transition from planned economy to achieving a stable position on the market will be a challenge for laboratories in the new member states. Another EU-project [http://www.etra.cc etra.cc]is coping with those problems.
+
== External links ==
 +
All links retrieved May 1, 2023.
  
== See also == 
+
* [http://www.its.berkeley.edu Institute of Transportation Studies] &ndash; University of California, Berkeley
 +
* [http://www.trb.org/ Transportation Research Board]
 +
* [http://www.ifsttar.fr/ IFSTTAR (The French institute of science and technology for transport, development and networks)]
 +
* [http://www.ivt.ethz.ch/vpl/index Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule (Switzerland)]
 +
* [http://www.trl.co.uk/ Transport Research Laboratory (UK)]
 +
* [https://www.trucklocator.co.uk/uk-and-global-transport-facts/ UK & Global Transport Facts]
  
*[[Cargo]]
+
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
*[[List of transport topics]]
+
[[Category:Transportation technology]]
*[[List of reference tables#Transportation|Transportation reference tables]]
+
[[Category:Civil engineering]]
*[[Historic transport]]
+
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]
*[[Megaprojects]]
 
*[[Shipping]]
 
*[[Transport engineering]]  
 
*[[Public transport]]
 
 
 
{{Energy Transportation}}
 
  
== Notes ==
 
<div class="references-small">
 
<references/>
 
</div>
 
 
== References ==
 
* [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/edz/pdf/2000/transstat.pdf EU Transport in figures, Eurostat]
 
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Technology]]
 
  
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Latest revision as of 02:08, 2 May 2023

A busy subway station in Taipei

Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin trans ("across") and portare ("to carry").

The development of transport vehicles has had an incredible impact on the expansion and development of human society. Today more than ever before, people rely on various means of rapid transportation to accommodate their busy lives. We rely on transport vehicles to run businesses and obtain raw materials for industry. Also, we have expanded the distances of travel for worship, work, recreation, and vacationing. The transport of goods and other materials have aided in building relationships among cultures as well.

Industries that provide equipment, means of transport, and services for the transport of goods or people make up a broad and important sector of most national economies. They are collectively referred to as transport industries.

Aspects of transport

The field of transport has several aspects; loosely they can be divided into a triad of infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure includes the transport networks (roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals, pipelines, and so forth) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports). Vehicles generally utilize the networks as guidelines in transport. They include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, and aircraft. Business operations deal with the way vehicles are operated on the network and the procedures set for this purpose, including the legal environment (laws, codes, regulations, and so forth). Policies, such as how to finance the system (for example, the use of tolls or gasoline taxes) may be considered part of the operations as well.

Broadly speaking, the design of networks falls under the domain of civil engineering and urban planning. The design of vehicles falls under mechanical engineering and specialized subfields such as nautical engineering and aerospace engineering. The operations are usually specialized, though they might appropriately belong to operations research or systems engineering.

Modes and categories

Modes of transport are combinations of networks, vehicles, and operations, and include walking, the road transport system, rail transport, ship transport and modern aviation.

Categories of (non-human) animal-powered transport

Non-human, animal-powered transport is a broad category of the human use of non-human working animals (also known as "beasts of burden") for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the larger of these animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, singly or in teams, to pull (or haul) sleds or wheeled vehicles.

  • Air transport involves moving peoples or materials via aircraft.
  • Rail transport is the movement of goods or people along railroads or railways.
  • Road transport utilizes the land cover to move materials by automobile.
  • Ship transport is the process of moving goods or materials by barge, boat, sail, or ship across a sea, ocean, channel, or lake.
  • Cable transport involves the movement of goods or peoples with the use of electrical cables.
  • Conveyor transport a mode of transport utilizing a conveyor belt-type of structure, including escalators and moving sidewalks.
  • Human-powered transport is movement of people or goods by sheer human muscle. The bicycle is a human-powered machine.
  • Hybrid transport involves transforming traditional forms of transport into sustainable forms by harnessing energy from the sun or tapping into other forms of renewable energy.
  • Space transport involves specialized aircraft that can sustain heights above the Earth's atmosphere and into outer space for the movement of people, machines, or other materials.
  • Sustainable transportation involves forms of transport that utilize renewable sources of energy and that do not impede on future needs.
  • Transport on other planets involves the use to modern technology to assist in space exploration by shuttling machines and other materials to parts of the galaxy.
  • Proposed future transport involves forms of transport yet to be developed, such as flying cars and breaking speeds faster than the speed of light.[1]

Air transport

A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called “airplane” or “aeroplane,” is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the wings in relation to the aircraft is not used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the aircraft generates lift (also known as a helicopter).

A Cessna 177 propeller-driven general aviation aircraft

Fixed-wing aircraft include a large range of craft from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo aircraft. Some aircraft use fixed wings to provide lift only part of the time and may or may not be referred to as “fixed-wing.”

The current term also embraces aircraft with folding wings that are fold when on the ground. This is usually to ease storage or facilitate transport on, for example, a vehicle trailer or the powered lift connecting the hangar deck of an aircraft carrier to its flight deck. It also embraces aircraft, such as the General Dynamics F-111, Grumman F-14 Tomcat and the Panavia Tornado, which can vary the sweep angle of their wings during flight. These aircraft are termed "variable geometry" aircraft. When the wings of these aircraft are fully swept, usually for high speed cruise, the trailing edges of their wings are adjacent to the leading edges of their tailplanes, giving an impression of a single delta wing if viewed in plan. There are also rare examples of aircraft which can vary the angle of incidence of their wings in flight, which are also considered to be "fixed-wing."[2]

Two necessities for all fixed-wing aircraft (as well as rotary-wing aircraft) are air flow over the wings for lifting of the aircraft and an open area for landing. The majority of aircraft however, also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and/or passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft ascend and descend on land, though some are capable of take-off and landing on ice, snow and calm water.

The aircraft is the second-fastest method of transport, after the rocket. Commercial jet aircraft can reach up to 875 kilometers per hour (550 miles per hour). Single-engine aircraft are capable of reaching 175 kilometers per hour (110 miles per hour) or more at cruise speed. Supersonic aircraft (military, research and a few private aircraft) can reach speeds faster than sound. The record is currently held by the SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft with a speed of 3,529.56 kilometers per hour (2,193.17 miles per hour; 1,905.81 knots).[3]

Rail

Acela Express, an American high-speed passenger train

Rail transport is the transport of passengers and goods along railways or railroads. A typical railway (or railroad) track consists of two parallel steel (or in older networks, iron) rails, generally anchored perpendicular to beams (termed “sleepers” or “ties”) of timber, concrete, or steel to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are usually then placed on a foundation made of concrete or compressed soil and gravel in a bed of ballast to prevent the track from buckling, or bending out of its original configuration, as the ground settles over time under the weight of the vehicles passing above. The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a train, or a series of individual powered or unpowered vehicles linked together, displaying markers. These vehicles referred to, in general, as “cars,” “carriages” or “wagons,” move with much less friction than do rubber tires on a paved road, and the locomotive that pulls the train tends to use energy far more efficiently as a result.

Subways, or metros, are underground railways generally confined to a metropolitan area. They are generally powered by electricity using a third rail and can be contained partially or fully underground. Light rail transit, a modern trolley or street-car system, has become more popular as a mode of public transport in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries in multiple large cities throughout the world. Light rail systems offer the same benefits as a subway system but can be constructed at a generally lower cost.

The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most trains are powered by diesel engines or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Historically, the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-twentieth century, but other sources of power (such as horses, rope (or wire), gravity, pneumatics, or gas turbines) are also possible.

Road transport

Automobile

An automobile is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Different types of automobiles include cars, buses, trucks, and vans. Some include motorcycles in the category, but cars are the most typical automobiles. As of 2002, there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide, giving roughly one car for every ten people. And of these passenger cars, 170 million reside in the United States, making roughly one car for every two people.[4]

The automobile was thought of as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first introduced in the 1890s. Before its introduction, in New York City alone, more than 1,800 tons of manure had to be removed from the streets daily, although the manure was also used as natural fertilizer for crops and to build top soil. In 2006, the automobile is recognized as one of the primary sources of worldwide air pollution and a cause of substantial noise pollution and adverse health effects.

Water transport

Watercraft

A watercraft is a vehicle designed to float on and move across (or through) water for pleasure, physical exercise (in the case of many small boats), transporting people and/or goods, or military missions.

The common need for buoyancy unites all watercraft, and makes each one's hull a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance, and appearance.

Most watercraft would be described as either ships or boats. Although nearly all ships are larger than nearly all boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se.

  • A rule of thumb says "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat," and a ship usually has sufficient size to carry its own boats, such as lifeboats, dinghies, or runabouts.
  • Often local law and regulation will define the exact size (or the number of masts) that distinguishes a ship from a boat.
  • Traditionally submarines were called "boats," perhaps reflecting their cramped conditions, as small size reduces the need for power as well as the need to surface or snorkel for the sufficient air supply that running diesel engines require. In contrast, nuclear-powered submarines' reactors supply abundant power without consuming air, and such craft are large, much roomier, and classified as ships.

Another definition says a ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of earning revenue. In that context, passenger ships transport "supercargo," another name for passengers or persons not working on board. However, neither fishing boats nor ferries are considered ships, though both carry cargo, whether through their catch of the day or passengers, and for that matter, lifeboats.

The term watercraft is seldom used to describe any specific individual object; rather, the term serves to unify the category that ranges from the smallest boats to the largest ships, and also includes the diverse watercraft for which some term even more specific than ship or boat (e.g., canoe, kayak, raft, barge, jet ski). Even so, some of these craft would be considered questionable as examples of boats.

Ship transport

Ship transport is the process of moving people, goods, and other materials by barge, boat, ship or sailboat over a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. This is frequently undertaken for commerce, recreation or military purposes.

A hybrid of ship transport and road transport is the historic horse-drawn boat. Horse-powered boats involved horses on deck providing power.[5]

The first man-made craft were probably types of canoes cut out from tree trunks. The colonization of Australia by Indigenous Australians provides indirect but conclusive evidence of the latest date for the invention of ocean-going craft. Historically, land bridges linked Southeast Asia through most of the Malay Archipelago but a strait had to be crossed to arrive at New Guinea, which was then linked to Australia. Ocean-going craft were required for colonization.

Early sea transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, and often, in earlier times with smaller vessels, a combination of the two.

Ship transport has also frequently been used as a mechanism for conducting warfare. Military use of the seas and waterways is covered in greater detail under navy.

In the 1800s the first steamships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using wood or coal. Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam.

Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas like the Everglades, some craft, such as the hovercraft, are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.

Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than transport by air for trans-continental shipping.

In the context of sea transport, a road network is termed an anchorage.

Transport and communication

Transport and communication are both substitutes and complements. Though it might be possible that sufficiently advanced communication could substitute for transport, one could telegraph, telephone, fax, or e-mail a customer rather than visiting them in person, it has been found that those modes of communication in fact generate more total interactions, including interpersonal interactions. The growth in transport would be impossible without communication, which is vital for advanced transportation systems, from railroads which want to run trains in two directions on a single track, to air traffic control which requires knowing the location of aircraft in the sky. Thus, it has been found that the increase of one generally leads to more of the other.

Transport and land use

The first Europeans who came to the New World brought with them a culture of transportation centered on the wheel. Native Americans had developed differently, and moved through their country by means of canoes, kayaks, umiaks, coracles, and other water-borne vehicles, constructed from various types of bark, hide, bone, wood, and other materials; the snowshoe, toboggan and sled were also essential during the winter conditions that prevailed throughout the northern half of the continent for much of the year. Europeans quickly adopted all of these technologies themselves, and therefore, were able to travel to the northern interior of Canada via the many waterways that branched out from the St. Lawrence River and from the Hudson Bay.[6]

There is a well-known relationship between the density of development, and types of transportation. Intensity of development is often measured by area of floor area ratio (FAR), or the ratio of usable floorspace to area of land. As a rule of thumb, FARs of 1.5 or less are well suited to automobiles; those of six and above are well suited to trains. The range of densities from about two to about four is not well served by conventional public or private transport. Many cities have grown into these densities, and are suffering traffic problems as a result.

Land uses support activities, and as those activities are spatially separated, people need transportation to go from one to the other, from home to work to shop back to home, for instance. Transport is a "derived demand," in that it is not a necessary but for the activities pursued at the ends of trips.

Good land use keeps common activities close (e.g. housing and food shopping), and places higher-density development closer to transportation lines and hubs. Poor land use concentrates activities, such as jobs, far from other destinations, such as housing and shopping.

There are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transportation, some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.

Transport in cities

Because of the much higher densities of people and activities, environmental, economic, public health, social and quality of life considerations and constraints are important in cities.

Urban transport has been led by professional transport planners and traffic experts who have made use of the same forecasting and response tools that they have used to good effect in other transport sectors. This has led in most cities to a substantial overbuilding of the road and supporting infrastructure, which has maximized throughput in terms of the numbers of vehicles and the speeds with which they pass through and move around in the built-up areas.

Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle throughput means that in many cities there is too much traffic and many, if not all, of the negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places. As a result of new types of analysis, which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied upon, such areas as environmental impact analysis and public health are encouraging sociologists and economists to increasingly question the viability of old mobility solutions. European cities are taking the lead in this transition.

Transport, energy, and the environment

Transport is a major use of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum. Transportation accounts for two-thirds of all U.S. petroleum consumption.[7]

The transportation sector generates 82 percent of carbon monoxide, 56 percent of nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions, and over one-quarter of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.[7] Hydrocarbon fuels also produce carbon dioxide, another greenhouse gas widely thought to be the chief cause of global climate change. Petroleum-powered engines, especially inefficient ones, create air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, like soot. Although vehicles in developed countries have been releasing cleaner emissions because of environmental regulations, an increase in the number of vehicles and increased use of vehicles in these countries does not add to the solution.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands.

Toxic runoff from roads and parking lots can also pollute water supplies and aquatic ecosystems.

Low-pollution fuel vehicles can reduce pollution. Low-pollution fuels may have reduced carbon content, thereby contributing less in the way of carbon dioxide emissions, and generally have reduced sulfur, as sulfur exhaust is a cause of acid rain. The most popular low-pollution fuels at this time are biofuels like gasoline-ethanol blends and biodiesel. Hydrogen is an even lower pollution fuel that releases no carbon dioxide emission, but producing and storing it is currently not economically feasible.

Increasing efficiency, reducing pollution

Another strategy in reducing emission pollution is to make vehicles more efficient, which reduces pollution and waste by reducing the energy use. Electric vehicles use efficient electric motors, but their range is limited by either the extent of the electric transmission system or by the storage capacity of batteries. Electrified public transport generally uses overhead wires or third rails to transmit electricity to vehicles, and is used for both rail and bus transport. Battery electric vehicles store their electric fuel onboard in a battery pack.

Fuel cells are also a way of generating efficient energy, which may eventually be two to five times as efficient as the internal combustion engines currently used in most vehicles.

Another effective method is to streamline ground vehicles, which spend up to 75 percent of their energy on air resistance, and to reduce their weight. Regenerative braking is possible in all electric vehicles and recaptures the energy normally lost to braking; it is becoming common in rail vehicles. In internal combustion automobiles and buses, regenerative braking is not possible, unless electric vehicle components are also a part of the powertrain, otherwise known as hybrid electric vehicles.

Shifting travel from automobiles to well-utilized public transport can reduce energy consumption and traffic congestion.

Walking and bicycling instead of traveling by motorized means also reduces the consumption of fossil fuels. While the use of these two modes generally declines as a given area becomes wealthier, there are some countries (including Denmark, Netherlands, Japan and parts of Germany, Finland and Belgium) where bicycling comprises a significant share of trips. Some cities with particularly high modal shares of cycling are Oulu (25 percent), Copenhagen (33 percent) and Groningen (50 percent). A number of other cities, including London, Paris, New York, Sydney, Bogotá, Chicago and San Francisco are creating networks of bicycle lanes and bicycle paths, but the value of such devices for utility cycling is highly controversial.

There is also a growing movement of drivers who practice ways to increase their MPG and save fuel through practicing effective driving techniques. They are often referred to as “hypermilers.” Hypermilers have broken records of fuel efficiency, averaging 109 miles per gallon driving a hybrid electric car. In non-hybrid vehicles these techniques are also beneficial. Hypermiler Wanye Gerdes can get 59 miles per gallon in a mid-sized car and 30 MPG in a small sport utility vehicle.[8]

Research

Transport research facilities are mainly attached to universities or are steered by the state. In most countries, although not in France or Spain, one can see how laboratories are brought into PPP-operation, where industry takes over part of the share.

See also

Notes

  1. Future Transport, Transporteon.com. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  2. “Fixed Wing Aircraft Facts and How Aircraft Fly,” AviationExplorer.com. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  3. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, General Aviation World Records: List of records established by the 'Lockheed SR-71 "Blackbird"' Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  4. Worldmapper: Passenger Cars. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  5. Sid Perkins, “When Horses Really Walked on Water,” The Chronicle of the Horse (May 21, 1999). Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  6. Virtual Vault: Transportation and Maps, Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  7. 7.0 7.1 Environmental and Energy Study Institute, National Plug-in Partner Campaign. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
  8. Dennis Gaffney, “This Guy Can Get 59 MPG in a Plain Old Accord. Beat That, Punk,” Mother Jones (January 1, 2007). Retrieved August 9, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Black, William R. Transportation: A Geographical Analysis. New York: The Guilford Press, 2003. ISBN 1572308486
  • Hanson, Susan (ed.). The Geography of Urban Transportation, 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press, 1995. ISBN 1572300175
  • Kane, Anthony R. “Transportation in the new millennium.” Transportation Quarterly 54 (2000): 5-9.
  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Road Transport: Analytical Methods. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2002. ISBN 9264196781
  • “The Future of Transportation.” Scientific American 277 (1997): 54-137.

External links

All links retrieved May 1, 2023.


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