Difference between revisions of "Thoth" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:thothbw3.JPG|right|175px|thumb|Thoth, depicted with an ibis head.]]
  
[[Image:Thoth.jpg|right|thumb|Thoth ([[Ramesseum]], [[Luxor]])]]
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'''Thoth''' was considered one of the most important deities of the [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] pantheon, who was often depicted with the head of an ibis. His chief shrine was at Khemennu, where he was the head of the local company of gods, later renamed Hermopolis by the Greeks (given his identification with the Greek God [[Hermes]]) and Eshmûnên by the [[Arab]]s. Shrines in his honor were also constructed in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], Hesert, Urit, Per-Ab, Rekhui, Ta-ur, Sep, Hat, Pselket, Talmsis, Antcha-Mutet, Bah, Amen-heri-ab, and Ta-kens.
  
'''Thoth''' (his [[Greek language|Greek]] name derived from the Egyptian '''*{{unicode|ḏiḥautī}}''', written by [[Egyptians]] as ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}'') was considered one of the most important [[god (male deity)|deities]] of the [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian]] [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]], often depicted with the head of an [[ibis]]. His feminine counterpart was [[Ma'at]].<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 400)</ref> His chief shrine was at Khemennu, where he was the head of the local company of gods, later renamed [[Hermopolis]] by the Greeks (in reference to him through the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks']] interpretation that he was the same as Hermes) and Eshmûnên by the [[Arab]]s. He also had shrines in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], Hesert, Urit, [[Per (hieroglyph)|Per]]-Ab, Rekhui, Ta-ur, Sep, Hat, Pselket, Talmsis, Antcha-Mutet, Bah, Amen-heri-ab, and Ta-kens.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Thoth was said to be born from the skull of set also said to be born from the heart of Ra.p. 401)</ref>
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He was considered to be the heart and tongue of [[Ra]], as well as the means by which Ra's will was translated into speech.<ref>Budge (1969), 401.</ref> Given this association with divine speech/will, he has also been likened to the [[Logos]] of [[Plato]] and to the mind of God. In Egyptian mythology, he has played many vital and prominent roles, including being one of the two gods (the other being Ma'at) who stood on either side of Ra's boat during its daily circumnavigation of the human world and the underworld. Also, his relationship with the divine will meant that he was affiliated with arbitration (specifically with regards to the souls of the deceased), [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[writing]], and [[science]].<ref>Budge (1969), 400, 401, 403, 405, 407, 415; Pinch, 209-211.</ref>
 
 
He was considered the [[heart]] and [[tongue]] of [[Ra]] as well as the means by which Ra's [[Will (philosophy)|will]] was translated into [[speech]].<ref name="Budge 407">(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 407)</ref> He has also been likened to the [[Logos]] of [[Plato]]<ref name="Budge 407" /> and the [[Nous|mind]] of God.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 415)</ref> (see [[The All]]) In the [[Egyptian mythology]], he has played many vital and prominent roles, including being one of the two gods (the other being Ma'at) who stood on either side of Ra's boat.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 400)</ref> He has further been involved in [[arbitration]],<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 405)</ref> [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[writing]], [[science]],<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 414)</ref> and the judging of the dead.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' p. 403)</ref>
 
  
 
==Name==
 
==Name==
 
===Etymology ===
 
===Etymology ===
{{Hiero|Common names for Thoth<ref>Hieroglyphs verified, in part, in (Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 402) and (Collier and Manley p. 161)</ref>|
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{{Hiero|Common names for Thoth<ref>Hieroglyphs verified in Budge (1969), Vol. I, 402; Collier and Manley, 161.</ref>|
  <hiero>G26-t:Z4</hiero>, or <br />
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  <hiero>G26-t:Z4</hiero>, <br />
  <hiero>d-H-w-t:Z4-R8</hiero>, or <br />
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  <hiero>d-H-w-t:Z4-R8</hiero>, <br />
 
  <hiero>G26:t*Z4</hiero>
 
  <hiero>G26:t*Z4</hiero>
 
|align=right|era=egypt}}
 
|align=right|era=egypt}}
  
According to [[Theodor Hopfner]],<ref>Hopfner, Theodor, b. 1886. Der tierkult der alten Agypter nach den griechisch-romischen berichten und den wichtigeren denkmalern. Wien, In kommission bei A. Holder, 1913. Call#= 060 VPD v.57</ref> Thoth's Egyptian name written as ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}'' originated from ''{{unicode|ḏḥw}}'', claimed to be the oldest known name for the [[ibis]] although normally written as ''{{unicode|hbj}}''. The addition of -ty denotes that he possessed the attributes of the ibis.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 402)</ref> Hence his name means "He who is like the ibis".
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According to Theodor Hopfner, Thoth's Egyptian name written as ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}'' originated from ''{{unicode|ḏḥw}}'', claimed to be the oldest known name for the [[ibis]] although normally written as ''{{unicode|hbj}}''.<ref>Theodor Hopfner, ''Der tierkult der alten Agypter nach den griechisch-romischen berichten und den wichtigeren denkmalern,'' in ''kommission bei A. (Holder, 1913).</ref> The addition of ''-ty'' (an associative suffix), which denotes the possession of attributes, means that his name could be roughly translated as "He who is like the ibis".<ref>Budge (1969), 402.</ref>
  
The [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] pronunciation of ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}'' is not fully known, but may be reconstructed as *{{unicode|ḏiḥautī}}, based on the [[Ancient Greek]] borrowing {{Polytonic|Θωθ}} ''Thōth'' or ''Theut'' and the fact that it evolved into [[Coptic language|Sahidic Coptic]] variously as ''Thoout'', ''Thōth'', ''Thoot'', ''Thaut'' as well as [[Coptic language|Bohairic Coptic]] ''Thōout''. The final ''-{{unicode|y}}'' may even have been pronounced as a [[consonant]], not a vowel.<ref>Information taken from phonetic symbols for Djehuty, and explanations on how to pronounce based upon modern rules, revealed in (Collier and Manley pp. 2-4, 161)</ref> However, many write "Djehuty", inserting the letter 'e' automatically between consonants in Egyptian words, and writing 'w' as 'u', as a convention of convenience for English speakers, not the transliteration employed by Egyptologists.<ref>(Collier and Manley p. 4)</ref>
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The Egyptian pronunciation of ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}'' is not fully known, but may be reconstructed as *{{unicode|ḏiḥautī}}, based on the Ancient Greek borrowing {{Polytonic|Θωθ}} ''Thōth'' or ''Theut'' and the fact that it evolved into Sahidic Coptic variously as ''Thoout'', ''Thōth'', ''Thoot'', ''Thaut'' as well as Bohairic Coptic ''Thōout''. The final ''-{{unicode|y}}'' may even have been pronounced as a [[consonant]], not a vowel.<ref>Collier and Manley 2-4, 161.</ref> However, many write "Djehuty," inserting the letter "e" automatically between consonants in Egyptian words, and writing "w" as "u," as a convention of convenience for English speakers, not the transliteration employed by Egyptologists.<ref>Collier and Manley, 4.</ref>
  
 
===Alternate names===
 
===Alternate names===
{{Hiero|Alternate names for Thoth<ref>Hieroglyphs from (Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 pp. 402-3)</ref> |'''A''' <br /> <hiero>i-A40</hiero> <br /><br />
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''Djehuty'' is sometimes alternatively rendered as ''Tahuti,'' ''Tehuti,'' ''Zehuti,'' ''Techu,'' or ''Tetu''. ''Thoth'' (also ''Thot'' or ''Thout'') is the [[Greek language|Greek]] version derived from the letters ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}''.
'''Sheps, lord of Khemennu''' <br /> <hiero>A51-s-V30-Aa12:Aa12:Aa12:Aa12-Aa12:Aa12:Aa12:Aa12-O49</hiero> <br /><br />
 
'''Asten''' <br /> <hiero>i-s-D46:n</hiero> (hieroglyph not found) <br /><br />
 
'''Khenti''' <br /> (hieroglyph not found) <hiero>n:t*Z4</hiero> <br /><br />
 
'''Mehi''' <br /> <hiero>V12-V28-i-i-A40</hiero> <br /><br />
 
'''Hab''' <br /> <hiero>O4-G4-D58-U13-G28</hiero> <br /><br />
 
'''Aan''' <br /> <hiero>D36:D36:n</hiero> (hieroglyph not found) <br /><br />
 
'''A'ah-Djehuty''' <br /> <hiero>i-D36-V28-N10-G26:t*Z4</hiero> <br />
 
|align=right|era=egypt}}
 
 
 
''Djehuty'' is sometimes alternatively rendered as '''Tahuti''', '''Tehuti''', '''Zehuti''', '''Techu''', or '''Tetu'''. ''Thoth'' (also '''Thot''' or '''Thout''') is the [[Greek language|Greek]] version derived from the letters ''{{unicode|ḏḥwty}}''.
 
 
 
Not counting differences in spelling, Thoth had many names and titles, like other gods and goddesses. Similarly, each [[Pharaoh]], considered a god himself, had five different names used in public.<ref>(Collier and Manley p. 20)</ref> Among his alternate names are A, Sheps, Lord of Khemennu, Asten, Khenti, Mehi, Hab, and A'an.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 pp. 402-3)</ref> In addition, Thoth was also known by specific aspects of himself, for instance the moon god A'ah-Djehuty, representing the moon for the entire month,<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 pp. 412-3)</ref> or as {{lang|egy|jt-[[nṯr]]}} "god father".
 
 
 
Further, the Greeks related Thoth to their god [[Hermes]] due to his similar attributes and functions.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' p. 402)</ref> One of Thoth 's titles, "Three times great, great" (see [[Thoth#Titles|Titles]]) was translated to the Greek {{lang|grc|τρισμεγιστος}} (Trismegistos) making [[Hermes Trismegistus]].<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 415)</ref>
 
 
 
==Depictions==
 
Thoth has been depicted in many ways depending on the era and on the aspect the artist wished to convey. Usually, he is depicted in [[human]] form with the head of an ibis.<ref name ="Budge 401">(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 401)</ref> In this form, he can be represented as the reckoner of times and seasons by a lunar disk sitting in a crescent moon being placed atop his head. When depicted as a form of [[Shu (Egyptian deity)|Shu]] or Ankher, he will wear the respective god's [[headdress]]. He also is sometimes seen wearing the [[atef]] crown and the United Crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 402)</ref>
 
  
When not depicted in this common form, he sometimes takes the form of the ibis directly.<ref name ="Budge 401" /> He also appears as a [[baboon]] when he is A'an, the god of equilibrium.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 403)</ref> In the form of A'ah-Djehuty he took a more human-looking form.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 plate between pp. 408-9)</ref>
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Over and above differences in spelling, Thoth, like many other Egyptian deities, had many names and titles. Some of his alternate names included A, Sheps, Lord of Khemennu, Asten, Khenti, Mehi, Hab, and A'an. In addition, Thoth was also known by specific aspects of himself, for instance the moon god A'ah-Djehuty, representing the moon for the entire month, or as {{lang|egy|jt-nṯr}} "god father."<ref>Budge (1969), 402-403, 412-3.</ref>
  
These forms are all [[symbol]]ic and are [[metaphor]]s for Thoth's attributes. The Egyptians did not believe these gods actually looked like humans with animal heads. For example, Thoth's counterpart Ma'at is often depicted with an [[ostrich]] [[feather]] for a head.<ref>(Budge ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 416)</ref>
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Further, the Greeks related Thoth to their god [[Hermes]], due to the similarities between their attributes and functions. One of Thoth's titles, "three times great" (see [[Thoth#Titles|Titles]]) was translated to the Greek {{lang|grc|τρισμεγιστος}} (Trismegistos) which yielded the composite deity ''[[Hermes Trismegistus]]''.<ref>Budge (1969), 402, 415; Wilkinson, 216.</ref>
  
==Attributes==
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==Thoth in an Egyptian context==
[[Image:thothbw3.JPG|left|175px|thumb|Thoth, depicted with an ibis head.]]
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As an Egyptian deity, Thoth belonged to a religious, mythological and cosmological belief system that developed in the [[Nile]] river basin from earliest prehistory to around 525 B.C.E. (This particular "cut-off" date has been chosen because it corresponds to the Persian conquest of the kingdom, which marks the end of its existence as a discrete and (relatively) circumscribed cultural sphere. Indeed, as this period also saw an influx of immigrants from Greece, it was also at this point that the Hellenization of Egyptian religion began. While some scholars suggest that even when "these beliefs became remodeled by contact with Greece, in essentials they remained what they had always been" (Erman, 203), it still seems reasonable to address these traditions, as far as is possible, within their own cultural milieu.)
[[Egyptologist]]s disagree on Thoth's nature depending upon their view of the Egyptian pantheon. Most egyptologists today side with [[Sir Flinders Petrie]] that Egyptian religion was strictly [[polytheism|polytheistic]], in which Thoth would be a separate god. His contemporary adversary, [[E. A. Wallis Budge]], however, thought Egyptian religion to be primarily [[monotheism|monotheistic]]<ref>(Budge ''Egyptian Religion'' pp. 17-8)</ref> where all the gods and [[goddess]]es were aspects of the God Ra, similar to the [[Trinity]] in [[Christianity]] and [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] in [[Hinduism]].<ref>(Budge ''Egyptian Religion'' p. 29)</ref> In this view, Thoth would be the aspect of Ra which the Egyptian mind would relate to the heart and tongue.
 
  
His roles in Egyptian mythology were many. Thoth served as a [[mediation|mediating]] power, especially between [[Goodness and value theory|good]] and [[evil]], making sure neither had a decisive victory over the other.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 405)</ref> He also served as scribe of the gods,<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 408)</ref> credited with the invention of writing and alphabets (ie. hieroglyphs) themselves.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 414)</ref> In the [[underworld]], [[Duat]], he appeared as an ape, [[A'an]], the god of equilibrium, who reported when the scales weighing the deceased's heart against the feather, representing the principle of Ma'at, was exactly even.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 403)</ref>
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Indeed, it was during this relatively late period in Egyptian cultural development, a time when they first felt their beliefs threatened by foreigners, that many of their myths, legends and religious beliefs were first recorded. (The numerous inscriptions, stelae and papyri that resulted from this sudden stress on historical posterity provide much of the evidence used by modern archeologists and Egyptologists to approach the ancient Egyptian tradition.)<ref>Pinch, 31-32.</ref> The cults were generally fairly localized phenomena, with different deities having the place of honor in different communities.<ref>Meeks and Meeks-Favard, 34-37.</ref> Yet, the Egyptian gods (unlike those in many other pantheons) were relatively ill-defined. As Frankfort notes, “If we compare two of [the Egyptian gods] … we find, not two personages, but two sets of functions and emblems. … The hymns and prayers addressed to these gods differ only in the epithets and attributes used. There is no hint that the hymns were addressed to individuals differing in character.”<ref>Frankfort, 25-26.</ref> One reason for this was the undeniable fact that the Egyptian gods were seen as utterly immanent&mdash;they represented (and were continuous with) particular, discrete elements of the natural world.<ref>Zivie-Coche, 40-41; Frankfort, 23, 28-29.</ref> Thus, those Egyptian gods who did develop characters and mythologies were generally quite portable, as they could retain their discrete forms without interfering with the various cults already in practice elsewhere. Furthermore, this flexibility was what permitted the development of multipartite cults (such as, the cult of [[Amun-Re]], which unified the domains of [[Amun]] and [[Re]]), as the spheres of influence of these various deities were often complimentary.<ref>Frankfort, 20-21.</ref>
  
The ancient Egyptians regarded Thoth as One, self-begotten, and self-produced.<ref name ="Budge 401" /> He was the master of both [[nature|physical]] and [[morality|moral]] (ie. [[divinity|Divine]]) [[law]],<ref name ="Budge 401" /> making proper use of Ma'at.<ref name="Budge 407" /> He is credited with making the calculations for the establishment of the heavens, stars, Earth,<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 401)</ref> and everything in them.<ref name="Budge 407" /> Compare this to how his feminine counterpart, Ma'at was the force which maintained the Universe.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 pp. 407-8)</ref> He is said to direct the motions of the heavenly bodies. Without his words, the Egyptians believed, the gods would not exist.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 408)</ref> His power was almost unlimited in the Underworld and rivalled that of Ra and Osiris.<ref name ="Budge 401" />
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The worldview engendered by ancient Egyptian religion was uniquely defined by the geographical and calendrical realities of its believers' lives. The Egyptians viewed both history and cosmology as being well ordered, cyclical and dependable. As a result, all changes were interpreted as either inconsequential deviations from the cosmic plan or cyclical transformations required by it.<ref>Assmann, 73-80; Zivie-Coche, 65-67.</ref> The major result of this perspective, in terms of the religious imagination, was to reduce the relevance of the present, as the entirety of history (when conceived of cyclically) was defined during the creation of the cosmos. The only other aporia in such an understanding is death, which seems to present a radical break with continuity. To maintain the integrity of this worldview, an intricate system of practices and beliefs (including the extensive mythic geographies of the afterlife, texts providing moral guidance (for this life and the next) and rituals designed to facilitate the transportation into the afterlife) was developed, whose primary purpose was to emphasize the unending continuation of existence.<ref>Frankfort, 117-124; Zivie-Coche, 154-166.</ref> Given these two cultural foci, it is understandable that the tales recorded within this mythological corpus tended to be either creation accounts or depictions of the world of the dead, with a particular focus on the relationship between the gods and their human constituents.
 
 
The Egyptians credited him as the author of all works of science, [[religion]], [[philosophy]], and magic.<ref>(Hall ''The Hermetic Marriage'' p. 224)</ref> The Greeks further declared him the inventor of [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[numerology|the science of numbers]], [[mathematics]], [[geometry]], [[land surveying]], [[medicine]], [[botany]], [[theology]], [[civilized]] [[government]], the [[alphabet]], [[reading (activity)|reading]], writing, and [[oratory]]. They further claimed he was the true author of every work of every branch of knowledge, human and divine.<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 414)</ref>
 
  
 
==Mythology==
 
==Mythology==
Thoth has played a prominent role in many of the Egyptian myths. Displaying his role as arbitrator, he had overseen the three epic battles between good and evil. All three battles are fundamentally the same and belong to different periods. The first battle took place between Ra and [[Apep]], the second between Heru-Bekhutet and [[Set (mythology)|Set]], and the third between [[Horus]], the son of [[Osiris]], and Set. In each instance, the former god represented good while the latter represented evil. If one god was seriously injured, Thoth would heal them to prevent either from overtaking the other.
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===Depictions===
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Throughout the development of Egyptian mythology, Thoth, like the majority of multi-faceted Egyptian gods, has been depicted in a variety of forms. Most often, he is portrayed as an humanoid figure with the head of an ibis, which is in keeping with the [[#Etymology|etymology]] of his name. When not depicted in this common form, he is sometimes represented entirely zoomorphically, as either an ibis or a baboon, or entirely anthropomorphically (as in the form of ''A'ah-Djehuty'').<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. I, 401, 403. Wilkinson, 216-217; Frankfort, 10-11.</ref>
  
Thoth was also prominent in the Osiris myth, being of great aid to [[Isis]]. After Isis gathered together the pieces of Osiris' dismembered body, he gave her the words to [[Resurrection|resurrect]] him so she could be impregnated and bring forth Horus, named for his uncle. When Horus was slain, Thoth gave the [[Alchemy|formulae]] to resurrect him as well. Similar to God speaking the words to create the [[Cosmos|heavens]] and [[Earth]] in [[Judeo-Christian]] mythology, Thoth, being the god who always speaks the words that fulfill the wishes of Ra, spoke the words that created the heavens and Earth in Egyptian mythology.
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In many of these forms, Thoth's identification with the moon is visually represented by the presence of the lunar disk atop his head. Conversely, when he is depicted as a form of Shu or Ankher, the god will often be portrayed wearing the respective god's headdress. Also, in some later images that stress the god's relationship with the ruling dynasty, he is sometimes shown wearing either the ''atef'' crown or the double crown (which symbolizes the rulership of both Upper and Lower Egypt).<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. I, 402.</ref>
  
Mythology also accredits him with the creation of the 365 day [[calendar]]. Originally, according to the myth, the year was only 360 days long and [[Nut (goddess)|Nut]] with sterility during these days, unable to bear children. Thoth gambled with [[Khonsu]], the moon, for 1/72nd of its light (360/72 = 5), or 5 days, and won. During these 5 days, she gave birth to [[Heru-ur#Brother of Isis|Kheru-ur]] (Horus the Elder, Face of Heaven), Osiris, Set, Isis, and [[Nepthys]].
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===Attributes and mythological accounts===
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Egyptologists disagree on Thoth's nature depending upon their view of the Egyptian pantheon. Most egyptologists today side with Sir Flinders Petrie that Egyptian religion was strictly [[polytheism|polytheistic]], in which Thoth would be a separate god.<ref>''The Religion of Ancient Egypt'' (London: Archibald Constable & Co, 1906), 2-7.</ref> Corresponding to this characterization were some origin tales that described Thoth emerging fully-formed from the skull of [[Set]].<ref>Wilkinson, 215.</ref>
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His contemporary adversary, E. A. Wallis Budge, however, thought Egyptian religion to be primarily [[monotheism|monotheistic]] where all the gods and [[goddess]]es were aspects of the God Ra, similar to the [[Trinity]] in [[Christianity]] and [[Deva|devas]] in [[Hinduism]]. In this view, Thoth was characterized as the heart and tongue of Ra, representing the both the cosmic order ([[Ma'at]]) and the means through which it was ''incanted'' into the created world. In this context, Thoth and Ma'at (both personifications of order) were understood to be passengers on [[Ra]]'s celestial barque, regulating its regular, systematic progression through the heavens.<ref>Budge, ''Egyptian Religion,'' 17-18, 29; Pinch, 210.</ref>
  
In the [[Ogdoad]] [[cosmogony]] myth, Thoth gave birth to Ra, [[Atum]], [[Nefertum]], and [[Khepri]] by laying an [[egg (biology)|egg]] while in the form of an ibis, or later as a [[goose]] laying a [[golden egg]].
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Regardless of the overall characterization of the god, it is undeniable that his roles in Egyptian mythology were both numerous and varied. First, Thoth served as a mediating power, especially between the forces of good and evil, making sure neither had a decisive victory over the other. This aspect was particularly relevant in his arbitration of the conflict between [[Set]] and [[Horus]]. Likewise, Thoth's mediative role was also evident in his netherworldly alter ego ''A'an'', the god of equilibrium, who monitored the posthumous judgment of deceased mortals and recorded the results in a celestial ledger.<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. I, 403, 405, 408, 414; Pinch, 209-211.</ref>
  
==History==
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Thoth was also understood to serve as the scribe of the gods, and was resultantly credited with the invention of writing and alphabets. As a result, he was also acknowledged as the progenitor of all works of science, [[religion]], [[philosophy]], and magic. In the Hellenistic period, the Greeks further declared him the inventor of [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[numerology]], [[mathematics]], [[geometry]], surveying, [[medicine]], [[botany]], [[theology]], civilized [[government]], the [[alphabet]], reading, writing, and [[oratory]]. They further claimed he was the true author of every work of every branch of knowledge, human and divine.<ref>Hall, 224; Budge (1969), Vol. I, 414; Wilkinson, 216; Zivie-Coche, 61.</ref>
[[Image:thothbw1.JPG|right|thumb|Thoth, sitting on his throne.]]
 
  
He was originally the deification of the [[moon]] in the [[Ogdoad]] belief system. Initially, in that system, the moon had been seen to be the eye of [[Horus]], the sky god, which had been semi-blinded (thus darker) in a fight against [[Set (mythology)|Set]], the other eye being the sun. However, over time it began to be considered separately, becoming a [[lunar deity]] in its own right, and was said to have been another son of [[Ra]]. As the crescent moon strongly resembles the curved beak of the [[ibis]], this separate deity was named Djehuty (i.e. Thoth), meaning ''ibis''.
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In the cultic system centered in Hermopolis (the [[Ogdoad]]), Thoth was also characterized as a creator deity: the self-begotten and self-produced One. In this context, he was understood to be the master of both physical and moral [[law]], both of which corresponded to the proper understanding and application of [[Ma'at]]. As such, he was credited with making the calculations for the establishment of the heavens, stars, Earth, and everything in them, and to direct the motions of the heavenly bodies.<ref>Budge (1969), Vol. I, 408.</ref> In this particular construal of the Egyptian pantheon, Thoth's this-worldly and other-worldly power was almost unlimited, rivaling both [[Ra]] and [[Osiris]]. Also, this cosmogony creditec him with giving birth to Ra, [[Atum]], [[Nefertum]], and [[Khepri]] by laying an egg while in the form of an ibis (or, according to some accounts, a goose).<ref name ="Budge 401"> Budge (1969), Vol. I, 401, 407-408; Pinch, 209-210.</ref>
  
Thoth became associated with the Moon, due to the Ancient Egyptians observation that Baboons (sacred to Thoth) 'sang' to the moon at night.
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Thoth was also prominent in the Osiris myth, being of great aid to [[Isis]]. After Isis gathered together the pieces of Osiris' dismembered body, he gave her the words to [[Resurrection|resurrect]] him so she could be impregnated and bring forth Horus, named for his uncle. When Horus was slain, Thoth gave the [[Alchemy|formulae]] to resurrect him as well.<ref>Pinch, 210.</ref>
  
The Moon not only provides light at night, allowing the [[time]] to still be measured without the sun, but its [[phases of the moon|phases]] and prominence gave it a significant importance in early [[astrology]]/[[astronomy]]. The cycles of the moon also organized much of Egyptian society's civil, and religious, rituals, and events. Consequently, Thoth gradually became seen as a god of [[wisdom]], [[magic and religion|magic]], and the measurement, and regulation, of events, and of time. He was thus said to be the secretary and counsellor of Ra, and with [[Ma'at]] ([[truth]]/order) stood next to Ra on the nightly voyage across the [[sky]], Ra being a [[solar deity|sun god]].
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Mythological accounts also assign him credit for the creation of the 365 day calendar. According to this tale, the sky goddess [[Nut]] was cursed with barrenness by [[Shu]], who declared that she would be unable to conceive during any of the months of the year. Coming to her aid, Thoth, the crafty god, discovered a loophole&mdash;since the calendrical (lunar) year was only 360 days long, the addition of days that were not contained in any given month (''epagomenal'' days) would circumvent the hex. Thus, Thoth gambled with [[Khonsu]], the moon, for 1/72nd of its light (five days) and won. During these five days, the goddess conceived and gave birth to [[Osiris]], [[Set]], [[Isis]], [[Nepthys]], and (in some versions) Kheru-ur ([[Horus]] the Elder, Face of Heaven). For his exploits, Thoth was acknowledged as "Lord of Time."<ref>saxakali.com, [http://saxakali.com/COLOR_ASP/egyptian.htm COLOR: The Egyptian Calendar.] Retrieved September 3, 2007.</ref>
  
Thoth became credited by the ancient Egyptians as the inventor of [[writing]], and was also considered to have been the scribe of the underworld, and the moon became occasionally considered a separate entity, now that Thoth had less association with it, and more with wisdom. For this reason Thoth was universally worshipped by ancient Egyptian Scribes. Many scribes had a painting or a picture of Thoth in their "office". Likewise, one of the symbols for scribes was that of the ibis.
+
==Cultic history==
 +
[[Image:thothbw1.JPG|right|thumb|Thoth, in his ibis-headed form, enthroned.]]
 +
As mentioned above, Thoth was, from the earliest mythic accounts, associated with the scribal profession. For this reason, Thoth was universally worshiped by ancient Egyptian administrators, scribes, librarians, and copyists, who viewed him as their patron. This identification was also a "two-way" phenomenon, as the ibis (the sacred bird of Thoth) came to be a visual shorthand for scribes.<ref>Wilkinson, 216-217. Frankfort, 77, 79-80; Wilkinson, 217.</ref> In a more general context, "the wisdom and magical powers ascribed to Thoth meant that he was naturally invoked in many spells utilized in popular magic and religion."<ref>Wilkinson, 217.</ref>
  
In [[art]], Thoth was usually depicted with the head of an ibis, deriving from his name, and the curve of the ibis' beak, which resembles the crescent moon. Sometimes, he was depicted as a [[baboon]] holding up a crescent moon, as the baboon was seen as a nocturnal, and intelligent, creature. The association with baboons led to him occasionally being said to have as a consort [[Astennu]], one of the (male) baboons at the place of judgement in [[duat|the underworld]], and on other occasions, Astennu was said to be Thoth himself.
+
During the [late period of Egyptian history, a cult of Thoth gained prominence, due to its main center, Khnum (Hermopolis Magna) becoming the capital. This led to millions of ibises being sacrificed, mummified and buried in his honor. The rise of his cult also led his followers to adjust the mythological corpus to give Thoth a greater role. One of these developments can be seen in the ''Book of the Dead'', where the god's affiliation with natural/social law ([[ma'at]]) allows him to be seen as the scribe of the underworld, recording the results of each individual's judgment in a celestial register.<ref>Pinch, 210-211.</ref> Likewise, Thoth was seen as the author of the entire corpus of spells and charms designed to aid the dead in their traversal of the underworld.<ref>Pinch, 211; Wilkinson, 217.</ref> The increasing importance of the cult of Thoth is also attested to by the fact that Djehuty (Thoth), a Sixteenth Dynasty pharaoh (ca. 1650 B.C.E.), took the god's name as his own. This augmented veneration of Thoth remained a relative constant of Egyptian religion until well into the Hellenistic period.
 
 
During the [[History of Egypt|late period of Egyptian history]] a [[cult]] of Thoth gained prominence, due to its main centre, Khnum ([[Hermopolis Magna]]), also becoming the capital, and millions of dead [[ibis]] were mummified and buried in his honour. The rise of his cult also led to his cult seeking to adjust mythology to give Thoth a greater role.
 
 
 
Thoth was inserted in many tales as the wise counsel and persuader, and his association with learning, and measurement, led him to be connected with [[Seshat]], the earlier deification of wisdom, who was said to be his daughter, or variably his wife. Thoth's qualities also led to him being identified by the Greeks with their closest matching god - [[Hermes]], with whom Thoth was eventually combined, as [[Hermes Trismegistus]], also leading to the Greeks naming Thoth's cult centre as Hermopolis, meaning ''city of Hermes''.
 
 
 
It is also viewed that Thoth was the God of Scribe and not a messenger. [[Anubis]] was viewed as the messenger of the gods, as he travelled in and out of the Underworld, to the presence of the gods, and to humans, as well. Some call this fusion [[Hermanubis]]. It is in more favor that Thoth was a record keeper, and not the messenger.
 
 
 
There is also an Egyptian [[pharaoh]] of the [[Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt]] named Djehuty (Thoth) after him, and who reigned for three years.
 
  
 
==Titles==<!-- This section is linked from [[Thoth]] —>
 
==Titles==<!-- This section is linked from [[Thoth]] —>
{{Hiero|Titles belonging to Thoth<ref>Hieroglyphs verified in (Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 pp. 401, 405, 415)</ref>|
+
{{Hiero|Titles belonging to Thoth<ref>Hieroglyphs verified in Budge (1969), Vol. I, 401, 405, 415.</ref>|
 
  '''Scribe of Ma'at in the Company of the Gods'''<br /><hiero>Y4-Aa11:t-C10-N10:t-R8</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Scribe of Ma'at in the Company of the Gods'''<br /><hiero>Y4-Aa11:t-C10-N10:t-R8</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Lord of Ma'at''' <br /> <hiero>V30:Aa11</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Lord of Ma'at''' <br /> <hiero>V30:Aa11</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Lord of Divine Words''' <br /> <hiero>R8-S43-D46:t*Z1*Z1*Z1</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Lord of Divine Words''' <br /> <hiero>R8-S43-D46:t*Z1*Z1*Z1</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Judge of the Two Combatant Gods''' <br /> <hiero>F13-r-V28-Z4-G43-A40-A40</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Judge of the Two Combatant Gods''' <br /> <hiero>F13-r-V28-Z4-G43-A40-A40</hiero> <br /><br />
  '''Judge of the Rekhekhui, <br /> the Pacifier of the Gods, <br /> who Dwelleth in Unnu, <br /> the Great God in the Temple of Abtiti''' <br /> <hiero>G26:t*Z4-A40-F13:r-V28-V28-Z7:Z4-A40-A40-Z1:Z1:Z1 ! s-Y2:t*p-Z4:Y1-R8-R8-R8-A40-Z1:Z1:Z1 ! G17-W6*O1:n-E34:n-W6:t*Z1-O49-R8 ! A40-O29:D36:Y1-G17-O6-t:O1-i-b-t:Z4-T26-t:O49</hiero> <br /><br />
+
  '''Judge of the Rekhekhui, <br /> the Pacifier of the Gods, <br /> who Dwelleth in Unnu, <br /> the Great God in the Temple of Abtiti''' <br /> <br /> <hiero>G26:t*Z4-A40-F13:r-V28-V28-Z7:Z4-A40-A40-Z1:Z1:Z1 ! s-Y2:t*p-Z4:Y1-R8-R8-R8-A40-Z1:Z1:Z1 ! G17-W6*O1:n-E34:n-W6:t*Z1-O49-R8 ! A40-O29:D36:Y1-G17-O6-t:O1-i-b-t:Z4-T26-t:O49</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Twice Great''' <br /> <hiero>O29:O29</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Twice Great''' <br /> <hiero>O29:O29</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Thrice Great''' <br /> <hiero>G29-O29:O29:O29</hiero> <br /><br />
 
  '''Thrice Great''' <br /> <hiero>G29-O29:O29:O29</hiero> <br /><br />
Line 95: Line 70:
 
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|align=right|era=egypt}}
  
Thoth, like many Egyptian gods and nobility, held many titles. Among these were "Scribe of [[Ma'at]] in the Company of the Gods," "Lord of Ma'at," "Lord of Divine Words," "Judge of the Two Combatant Gods,"<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 401)</ref> "Judge of the Rekhekhui, the pacifier of the Gods, who Dwelleth in [[Unnu]], the Great God in the Temple of [[Abtiti]],"<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 405)</ref> "Twice Great," "Thrice Great,"<ref name ="Budge 401" /> " and "Three Times Great, Great."<ref>(Budge ''Gods of the Egyptians'' Vol. 1 p. 415)</ref>
+
Thoth, like many Egyptian gods and nobility, held many titles. Among these were "Scribe of [[Ma'at]] in the Company of the Gods," "Lord of Ma'at," "Lord of Divine Words," "Judge of the Two Combatant Gods," "Judge of the Rekhekhui, the pacifier of the Gods, who Dwelleth in [[Unnu]], the Great God in the Temple of [[Abtiti]]," "Twice Great," "Thrice Great," and "Three Times Great, Great."<ref>Budge, Vol. I, 401, 405, 415.</ref>
 
 
==Thoth in more recent times ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Tahuti]] —>
 
 
 
One of the most popular and cited works on the [[Tarot]] was connected to this deity. Written by the occultist [[Aleister Crowley]], ''[[The Book of Thoth]]'' is a philosophical text on the usage of [[Tarot]] and, most notably, Crowley's own created Tarot Deck, the ''[[Thoth Tarot]]'' which he also referred to as ''The Book of Thoth'', where the name is taken from a "non-existent" (translations from papyrus of an actual Book of Thoth DO exist, titled 'The Ancient Egyptian Book of Thoth' by Jasnow and Zauzich) book in Egyptian mythology, believed to contain ancient knowledge originally brought to man by this deity. Crowley commissioned [[Lady Frieda Harris]] to assist him in painting the ''Thoth Deck''.
 
 
 
A text entitled ''The Emerald Tablets of Thoth-The-Atlantean'' has been claimed to have been translated by a man named [[Doreal]]. The introduction claims them to be written by an [[Atlantis|Atlantean]] Priest-King named Thoth, who settled a colony in Egypt after Atlantis sunk. Doreal further claims the texts are 36,000 years old.<ref> (Doreal p. i)</ref> Regardless of the authenticity of the text, it contains much Hermetic and Egyptian [[symbolism]] that Doreal misses.
 
 
 
It is also interesting to note that of legend there is apparently some connection between Thoth, and the [[number]] [[42]]. Many historians and researches of Thoth claim that it is not 'The Book of Thoth' or the 'Emerald Tablets of Thoth', but actually the '42 Books of Thoth' These books are often also referred to as the 42 Books of Instructions or the 42 Books of Thoth which describe the instructions for achieving immortality plus 2 more books kept separately, mirroring the 42+2 chromosomes and the [[sacred geometry]] embedded in the Great Pyramid.
 
 
 
==Thoth/Djehuty in pop culture==
 
*The [[Orbital Frame]] Jehuty, from the game, [[Zone of the Enders]] (published by [[Konami]]) is based on Thoth/Djehuty.
 
* Using the name 'Mister Ibis', Thoth works as a [[mortician]] alongside [[Anubis]] (as 'Mister Jacquel') in [[Cairo, Illinois]], in Neil Gaiman's ''[[American Gods]]''. He later acts as a [[psychopomp]], guiding the main character to his final judgment.
 
*In the [[Palladium Books|Palladium Fantasy RPG Series]], Thoth is the name taken by an [[Alien Intelligence]], a Great Old One who once was the leader of the [[Old Ones (Palladium Books)|Old Ones]], and who through treachery and ultra-powerful magics is currently unaware of his own origins as an Old One. He believes himself to be an actual founding member of the Egyptian Pantheon and stalwart of the Forces of Light; ironically, it was he, as Thoth, who created the spell that successfully imprisoned the other Old Ones in the first place.
 
*''The Ring of Thoth'' (aka: The Mummy) was written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle for The Cornhill Magazine published Jan 1890.[http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/gaslight/rngthoth.htm]
 
*Thoth was a minor [[Goa'uld]] scientist serving [[Anubis]] in the [[Kull Warrior]] R&D on the planet [[Tartarus]]. Thoth was killed by [[Samantha Carter]]. (Season 7 Stargate SG-1 episode "Evolution part II")
 
*Thoth is also a [[Carnival]] [[Krewe]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], which parades on the Sunday before Mardi Gras. The Krewe features a float decorated with a large depiction of the ancient deity.
 
*Djehuty is the name of a three-dimensional radiative hydrodynamical code for modelling stars at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]].[http://www.llnl.gov/str/May02/Dearborn.html]
 
*He is also the administrator of the Library where superhero/librarian Rex works, in the comic [[Rex Libris]] by James Turner
 
*In [[Age of Mythology]], Thoth can be worshipped. He grants his followers [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenixes]], War [[Turtles]] and [[Meteors]].
 
* Thoth appears in the [[OKEY-DOKEY]] comic book series as the Non-Local Prometheus.
 
* Thoth was the name of an [[Artificial Intelligence]] in the [[Marathon Trilogy]], created by the S'pht on their homeworld, Lh'owon.
 
* Thoth, as a person's name has appeared at least twice in the late twentieth century.
 
**S. K. Thoth is the name of a street performer, who was born in 1954, in [[Queens]], [[New York]], [[United States]]. Sarah Kernochan directed a film about him in 2002, which won an Academy Award, in the same year. Thoth later performed on the television show [[America's Got Talent]] in 2007 with a violin and various bells around his ankles. He did not make it past the first round, receiving two votes against him (from [[David Hasselhoff]] and [[Piers Morgan]]) and one vote for him (from [[Sharon Osbourne]]).
 
**Thoth Harris (born, in 1972, in [[North Vancouver]], [[B.C.]] [[Canada]]), is the name of a writer and spoken word performer who hosted spoken word cabarets in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] from 1998 - 2002. He now lives in [[Fongyuan]], [[Taiwan]] as a teacher, and writes a blog entitled The Montreal Writers' Storm Sewer.[http://thothharris.blogspot.com]
 
*Thoth is a member of the wizard pantheon, alongside [[Anhur]] and [[Ptah]], in the game [[NetHack]]. Thoth is worshipped by neutral characters.
 
*Thoth's name is borrowed for the character of Mr. Thoth in [[The Crying of Lot 49]], a novel by [[Thomas Pynchon]].
 
*Thoth is a path one can follow in Egyptian [[MMORPG]] [[Ankhet]].  On this path you can use various magicks to strike your opponents from afar.
 
 
 
==See also==
 
*[[Eye of Horus]]
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
<div class = "references-small">
 
 
<references />
 
<references />
</div>
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
*Bleeker, Claas Jouco. 1973. ''Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the Ancient Egyptian Religion''. Studies in the History of Religions 26. Leiden: E. J. Brill
+
* Assmann, Jan. ''In Search for God in Ancient Egypt''. Translated by David Lorton. Ithica: Cornell University Press, 2001. ISBN 0801487293.
*Boylan, Patrick. 1922. ''Thot, the Hermes of Egypt: A Study of Some Aspects of Theological Thought in Ancient Egypt''. London: Oxford University Press. (Reprinted Chicago: Ares Publishers inc., 1979)
+
* Bleeker, Claas Jouco. "Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the Ancient Egyptian Religion." ''Studies in the History of Religions'' 26. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973.
*Budge, E. A. Wallis. ''Egyptian Religion''. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
+
* Boylan, Patrick. ''Thot, the Hermes of Egypt: A Study of Some Aspects of Theological Thought in Ancient Egypt''. London: Oxford University Press, 1922.
*Budge, E. A. Wallis. ''The Gods of the Egyptians'' Volume 1 of 2. New York: Dover Publications, 1969 (original in 1904).
+
* Breasted, James Henry. ''Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. ISBN 0812210454.
*Černý, Jaroslav. 1948. "Thoth as Creator of Languages." ''Journal of Egyptian Archæology'' 34:121&ndash;122.
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis. ''Egyptian Religion''. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
*Collier, Mark and Manley, Bill. ''How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: Revised Edition''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). ''The Egyptian Book of the Dead''. 1895.
*Doreal. ''The Emerald Tablets of Thoth-The-Atlanean''. Alexandrian Library Press, date undated.
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). ''The Egyptian Heaven and Hell''. 1905.
*Fowden, Garth. 1986. ''The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Mind''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. (Reprinted Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). ISBN 0-691-02498-7
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis. ''The Gods of the Egyptians; or, Studies in Egyptian Mythology''. A Study in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications, 1969.
*Hall, Manly P. ''The Secret Teachings of All Ages''. San Francisco: H.S. Crocker Company, 1928.
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). ''Legends of the Gods: The Egyptian Texts''. 1912.
 
+
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). ''The Rosetta Stone''. 1893, 1905.  
{{Ancient Egypt}}
+
* Černý, Jaroslav. "Thoth as Creator of Languages." ''Journal of Egyptian Archæology'' 34 (1948): 121–122.
 
+
* Dunand, Françoise and Zivie-Coche, Christiane. ''Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 B.C.E. to 395 C.E.''. Translated from the French by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004. ISBN 080144165X.
[[Category:Arts gods]]
+
* Erman, Adolf. ''A handbook of Egyptian religion''. Translated by A. S. Griffith. London: Archibald Constable, 1907.
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
+
* Fowden, Garth. ''The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Mind''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-691-02498-7
[[Category:Hermeticism]]
+
* Frankfort, Henri. ''Ancient Egyptian Religion''. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961. ISBN 0061300772.
[[Category:Inventors of writing systems]]
+
* Griffith, F. Ll. and Thompson, Herbert (Trans.). ''The Leyden Papyrus''. 1904.
[[Category:Knowledge gods]]
+
* Hall, Manly P. ''The Secret Teachings of All Ages''. San Francisco: H.S. Crocker Company, 1928.
[[Category:Lunar gods]]
+
* Meeks, Dimitri and Meeks-Favard, Christine. ''Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods''. Translated from the French by G.M. Goshgarian. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996. ISBN 0801431158.
[[Category:Predynastic Pharaohs]]
+
* Mercer, Samuel A. B. (Trans.). ''The Pyramid Texts''. 1952.
[[Category:Primordial Teachers]]
+
* Pinch, Geraldine. ''Handbook of Egyptian mythology''. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002. ISBN 1576072428.
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
+
* Shafer, Byron E. (ed.). ''Temples of ancient Egypt''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997. ISBN 0801433991.
[[Category:Underworld gods]]
+
* Wilkinson, Richard H. ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt''. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003. ISBN 0500051208.
[[Category:Magic gods]]
 
  
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 17:06, 15 January 2009

Thoth, depicted with an ibis head.

Thoth was considered one of the most important deities of the ancient Egyptian pantheon, who was often depicted with the head of an ibis. His chief shrine was at Khemennu, where he was the head of the local company of gods, later renamed Hermopolis by the Greeks (given his identification with the Greek God Hermes) and Eshmûnên by the Arabs. Shrines in his honor were also constructed in Abydos, Hesert, Urit, Per-Ab, Rekhui, Ta-ur, Sep, Hat, Pselket, Talmsis, Antcha-Mutet, Bah, Amen-heri-ab, and Ta-kens.

He was considered to be the heart and tongue of Ra, as well as the means by which Ra's will was translated into speech.[1] Given this association with divine speech/will, he has also been likened to the Logos of Plato and to the mind of God. In Egyptian mythology, he has played many vital and prominent roles, including being one of the two gods (the other being Ma'at) who stood on either side of Ra's boat during its daily circumnavigation of the human world and the underworld. Also, his relationship with the divine will meant that he was affiliated with arbitration (specifically with regards to the souls of the deceased), magic, writing, and science.[2]

Name

Etymology

Common names for Thoth[3]
in hieroglyphs
G26t
Z4
,
dHwt
Z4
R8
,
G26
t Z4

According to Theodor Hopfner, Thoth's Egyptian name written as ḏḥwty originated from ḏḥw, claimed to be the oldest known name for the ibis although normally written as hbj.[4] The addition of -ty (an associative suffix), which denotes the possession of attributes, means that his name could be roughly translated as "He who is like the ibis".[5]

The Egyptian pronunciation of ḏḥwty is not fully known, but may be reconstructed as *ḏiḥautī, based on the Ancient Greek borrowing Θωθ Thōth or Theut and the fact that it evolved into Sahidic Coptic variously as Thoout, Thōth, Thoot, Thaut as well as Bohairic Coptic Thōout. The final -y may even have been pronounced as a consonant, not a vowel.[6] However, many write "Djehuty," inserting the letter "e" automatically between consonants in Egyptian words, and writing "w" as "u," as a convention of convenience for English speakers, not the transliteration employed by Egyptologists.[7]

Alternate names

Djehuty is sometimes alternatively rendered as Tahuti, Tehuti, Zehuti, Techu, or Tetu. Thoth (also Thot or Thout) is the Greek version derived from the letters ḏḥwty.

Over and above differences in spelling, Thoth, like many other Egyptian deities, had many names and titles. Some of his alternate names included A, Sheps, Lord of Khemennu, Asten, Khenti, Mehi, Hab, and A'an. In addition, Thoth was also known by specific aspects of himself, for instance the moon god A'ah-Djehuty, representing the moon for the entire month, or as jt-nṯr "god father."[8]

Further, the Greeks related Thoth to their god Hermes, due to the similarities between their attributes and functions. One of Thoth's titles, "three times great" (see Titles) was translated to the Greek τρισμεγιστος (Trismegistos) which yielded the composite deity Hermes Trismegistus.[9]

Thoth in an Egyptian context

As an Egyptian deity, Thoth belonged to a religious, mythological and cosmological belief system that developed in the Nile river basin from earliest prehistory to around 525 B.C.E. (This particular "cut-off" date has been chosen because it corresponds to the Persian conquest of the kingdom, which marks the end of its existence as a discrete and (relatively) circumscribed cultural sphere. Indeed, as this period also saw an influx of immigrants from Greece, it was also at this point that the Hellenization of Egyptian religion began. While some scholars suggest that even when "these beliefs became remodeled by contact with Greece, in essentials they remained what they had always been" (Erman, 203), it still seems reasonable to address these traditions, as far as is possible, within their own cultural milieu.)

Indeed, it was during this relatively late period in Egyptian cultural development, a time when they first felt their beliefs threatened by foreigners, that many of their myths, legends and religious beliefs were first recorded. (The numerous inscriptions, stelae and papyri that resulted from this sudden stress on historical posterity provide much of the evidence used by modern archeologists and Egyptologists to approach the ancient Egyptian tradition.)[10] The cults were generally fairly localized phenomena, with different deities having the place of honor in different communities.[11] Yet, the Egyptian gods (unlike those in many other pantheons) were relatively ill-defined. As Frankfort notes, “If we compare two of [the Egyptian gods] … we find, not two personages, but two sets of functions and emblems. … The hymns and prayers addressed to these gods differ only in the epithets and attributes used. There is no hint that the hymns were addressed to individuals differing in character.”[12] One reason for this was the undeniable fact that the Egyptian gods were seen as utterly immanent—they represented (and were continuous with) particular, discrete elements of the natural world.[13] Thus, those Egyptian gods who did develop characters and mythologies were generally quite portable, as they could retain their discrete forms without interfering with the various cults already in practice elsewhere. Furthermore, this flexibility was what permitted the development of multipartite cults (such as, the cult of Amun-Re, which unified the domains of Amun and Re), as the spheres of influence of these various deities were often complimentary.[14]

The worldview engendered by ancient Egyptian religion was uniquely defined by the geographical and calendrical realities of its believers' lives. The Egyptians viewed both history and cosmology as being well ordered, cyclical and dependable. As a result, all changes were interpreted as either inconsequential deviations from the cosmic plan or cyclical transformations required by it.[15] The major result of this perspective, in terms of the religious imagination, was to reduce the relevance of the present, as the entirety of history (when conceived of cyclically) was defined during the creation of the cosmos. The only other aporia in such an understanding is death, which seems to present a radical break with continuity. To maintain the integrity of this worldview, an intricate system of practices and beliefs (including the extensive mythic geographies of the afterlife, texts providing moral guidance (for this life and the next) and rituals designed to facilitate the transportation into the afterlife) was developed, whose primary purpose was to emphasize the unending continuation of existence.[16] Given these two cultural foci, it is understandable that the tales recorded within this mythological corpus tended to be either creation accounts or depictions of the world of the dead, with a particular focus on the relationship between the gods and their human constituents.

Mythology

Depictions

Throughout the development of Egyptian mythology, Thoth, like the majority of multi-faceted Egyptian gods, has been depicted in a variety of forms. Most often, he is portrayed as an humanoid figure with the head of an ibis, which is in keeping with the etymology of his name. When not depicted in this common form, he is sometimes represented entirely zoomorphically, as either an ibis or a baboon, or entirely anthropomorphically (as in the form of A'ah-Djehuty).[17]

In many of these forms, Thoth's identification with the moon is visually represented by the presence of the lunar disk atop his head. Conversely, when he is depicted as a form of Shu or Ankher, the god will often be portrayed wearing the respective god's headdress. Also, in some later images that stress the god's relationship with the ruling dynasty, he is sometimes shown wearing either the atef crown or the double crown (which symbolizes the rulership of both Upper and Lower Egypt).[18]

Attributes and mythological accounts

Egyptologists disagree on Thoth's nature depending upon their view of the Egyptian pantheon. Most egyptologists today side with Sir Flinders Petrie that Egyptian religion was strictly polytheistic, in which Thoth would be a separate god.[19] Corresponding to this characterization were some origin tales that described Thoth emerging fully-formed from the skull of Set.[20] His contemporary adversary, E. A. Wallis Budge, however, thought Egyptian religion to be primarily monotheistic where all the gods and goddesses were aspects of the God Ra, similar to the Trinity in Christianity and devas in Hinduism. In this view, Thoth was characterized as the heart and tongue of Ra, representing the both the cosmic order (Ma'at) and the means through which it was incanted into the created world. In this context, Thoth and Ma'at (both personifications of order) were understood to be passengers on Ra's celestial barque, regulating its regular, systematic progression through the heavens.[21]

Regardless of the overall characterization of the god, it is undeniable that his roles in Egyptian mythology were both numerous and varied. First, Thoth served as a mediating power, especially between the forces of good and evil, making sure neither had a decisive victory over the other. This aspect was particularly relevant in his arbitration of the conflict between Set and Horus. Likewise, Thoth's mediative role was also evident in his netherworldly alter ego A'an, the god of equilibrium, who monitored the posthumous judgment of deceased mortals and recorded the results in a celestial ledger.[22]

Thoth was also understood to serve as the scribe of the gods, and was resultantly credited with the invention of writing and alphabets. As a result, he was also acknowledged as the progenitor of all works of science, religion, philosophy, and magic. In the Hellenistic period, the Greeks further declared him the inventor of astronomy, astrology, numerology, mathematics, geometry, surveying, medicine, botany, theology, civilized government, the alphabet, reading, writing, and oratory. They further claimed he was the true author of every work of every branch of knowledge, human and divine.[23]

In the cultic system centered in Hermopolis (the Ogdoad), Thoth was also characterized as a creator deity: the self-begotten and self-produced One. In this context, he was understood to be the master of both physical and moral law, both of which corresponded to the proper understanding and application of Ma'at. As such, he was credited with making the calculations for the establishment of the heavens, stars, Earth, and everything in them, and to direct the motions of the heavenly bodies.[24] In this particular construal of the Egyptian pantheon, Thoth's this-worldly and other-worldly power was almost unlimited, rivaling both Ra and Osiris. Also, this cosmogony creditec him with giving birth to Ra, Atum, Nefertum, and Khepri by laying an egg while in the form of an ibis (or, according to some accounts, a goose).[25]

Thoth was also prominent in the Osiris myth, being of great aid to Isis. After Isis gathered together the pieces of Osiris' dismembered body, he gave her the words to resurrect him so she could be impregnated and bring forth Horus, named for his uncle. When Horus was slain, Thoth gave the formulae to resurrect him as well.[26]

Mythological accounts also assign him credit for the creation of the 365 day calendar. According to this tale, the sky goddess Nut was cursed with barrenness by Shu, who declared that she would be unable to conceive during any of the months of the year. Coming to her aid, Thoth, the crafty god, discovered a loophole—since the calendrical (lunar) year was only 360 days long, the addition of days that were not contained in any given month (epagomenal days) would circumvent the hex. Thus, Thoth gambled with Khonsu, the moon, for 1/72nd of its light (five days) and won. During these five days, the goddess conceived and gave birth to Osiris, Set, Isis, Nepthys, and (in some versions) Kheru-ur (Horus the Elder, Face of Heaven). For his exploits, Thoth was acknowledged as "Lord of Time."[27]

Cultic history

Thoth, in his ibis-headed form, enthroned.

As mentioned above, Thoth was, from the earliest mythic accounts, associated with the scribal profession. For this reason, Thoth was universally worshiped by ancient Egyptian administrators, scribes, librarians, and copyists, who viewed him as their patron. This identification was also a "two-way" phenomenon, as the ibis (the sacred bird of Thoth) came to be a visual shorthand for scribes.[28] In a more general context, "the wisdom and magical powers ascribed to Thoth meant that he was naturally invoked in many spells utilized in popular magic and religion."[29]

During the [late period of Egyptian history, a cult of Thoth gained prominence, due to its main center, Khnum (Hermopolis Magna) becoming the capital. This led to millions of ibises being sacrificed, mummified and buried in his honor. The rise of his cult also led his followers to adjust the mythological corpus to give Thoth a greater role. One of these developments can be seen in the Book of the Dead, where the god's affiliation with natural/social law (ma'at) allows him to be seen as the scribe of the underworld, recording the results of each individual's judgment in a celestial register.[30] Likewise, Thoth was seen as the author of the entire corpus of spells and charms designed to aid the dead in their traversal of the underworld.[31] The increasing importance of the cult of Thoth is also attested to by the fact that Djehuty (Thoth), a Sixteenth Dynasty pharaoh (ca. 1650 B.C.E.), took the god's name as his own. This augmented veneration of Thoth remained a relative constant of Egyptian religion until well into the Hellenistic period.

Titles

Titles belonging to Thoth[32]
in hieroglyphs
Scribe of Ma'at in the Company of the Gods
Y4Aa11
t
C10N10
t
R8


Lord of Ma'at
V30
Aa11


Lord of Divine Words
R8S43D46
t Z1 Z1 Z1


Judge of the Two Combatant Gods
F13rV28Z4G43A40A40


Judge of the Rekhekhui,
the Pacifier of the Gods,
who Dwelleth in Unnu,
the Great God in the Temple of Abtiti


G26
t Z4
A40F13
r
V28V28Z7
Z4
A40A40Z1
Z1
Z1
sY2
t p
Z4
Y1
R8R8R8A40Z1
Z1
Z1
G17W6 O1
n
E34
n
W6
t Z1
O49R8
A40O29
D36
Y1
G17O6t
O1
ibt
Z4
T26t
O49


Twice Great
O29
O29


Thrice Great
G29O29
O29
O29


Three Times Great, Great
O29
O29
O29
G36
r
Y1

Thoth, like many Egyptian gods and nobility, held many titles. Among these were "Scribe of Ma'at in the Company of the Gods," "Lord of Ma'at," "Lord of Divine Words," "Judge of the Two Combatant Gods," "Judge of the Rekhekhui, the pacifier of the Gods, who Dwelleth in Unnu, the Great God in the Temple of Abtiti," "Twice Great," "Thrice Great," and "Three Times Great, Great."[33]

Notes

  1. Budge (1969), 401.
  2. Budge (1969), 400, 401, 403, 405, 407, 415; Pinch, 209-211.
  3. Hieroglyphs verified in Budge (1969), Vol. I, 402; Collier and Manley, 161.
  4. Theodor Hopfner, Der tierkult der alten Agypter nach den griechisch-romischen berichten und den wichtigeren denkmalern, in kommission bei A. (Holder, 1913).
  5. Budge (1969), 402.
  6. Collier and Manley 2-4, 161.
  7. Collier and Manley, 4.
  8. Budge (1969), 402-403, 412-3.
  9. Budge (1969), 402, 415; Wilkinson, 216.
  10. Pinch, 31-32.
  11. Meeks and Meeks-Favard, 34-37.
  12. Frankfort, 25-26.
  13. Zivie-Coche, 40-41; Frankfort, 23, 28-29.
  14. Frankfort, 20-21.
  15. Assmann, 73-80; Zivie-Coche, 65-67.
  16. Frankfort, 117-124; Zivie-Coche, 154-166.
  17. Budge (1969), Vol. I, 401, 403. Wilkinson, 216-217; Frankfort, 10-11.
  18. Budge (1969), Vol. I, 402.
  19. The Religion of Ancient Egypt (London: Archibald Constable & Co, 1906), 2-7.
  20. Wilkinson, 215.
  21. Budge, Egyptian Religion, 17-18, 29; Pinch, 210.
  22. Budge (1969), Vol. I, 403, 405, 408, 414; Pinch, 209-211.
  23. Hall, 224; Budge (1969), Vol. I, 414; Wilkinson, 216; Zivie-Coche, 61.
  24. Budge (1969), Vol. I, 408.
  25. Budge (1969), Vol. I, 401, 407-408; Pinch, 209-210.
  26. Pinch, 210.
  27. saxakali.com, COLOR: The Egyptian Calendar. Retrieved September 3, 2007.
  28. Wilkinson, 216-217. Frankfort, 77, 79-80; Wilkinson, 217.
  29. Wilkinson, 217.
  30. Pinch, 210-211.
  31. Pinch, 211; Wilkinson, 217.
  32. Hieroglyphs verified in Budge (1969), Vol. I, 401, 405, 415.
  33. Budge, Vol. I, 401, 405, 415.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Assmann, Jan. In Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithica: Cornell University Press, 2001. ISBN 0801487293.
  • Bleeker, Claas Jouco. "Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the Ancient Egyptian Religion." Studies in the History of Religions 26. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973.
  • Boylan, Patrick. Thot, the Hermes of Egypt: A Study of Some Aspects of Theological Thought in Ancient Egypt. London: Oxford University Press, 1922.
  • Breasted, James Henry. Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. ISBN 0812210454.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). The Egyptian Book of the Dead. 1895.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). The Egyptian Heaven and Hell. 1905.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians; or, Studies in Egyptian Mythology. A Study in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications, 1969.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). Legends of the Gods: The Egyptian Texts. 1912.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (Trans.). The Rosetta Stone. 1893, 1905.
  • Černý, Jaroslav. "Thoth as Creator of Languages." Journal of Egyptian Archæology 34 (1948): 121–122.
  • Dunand, Françoise and Zivie-Coche, Christiane. Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 B.C.E. to 395 C.E.. Translated from the French by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004. ISBN 080144165X.
  • Erman, Adolf. A handbook of Egyptian religion. Translated by A. S. Griffith. London: Archibald Constable, 1907.
  • Fowden, Garth. The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Mind. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-691-02498-7
  • Frankfort, Henri. Ancient Egyptian Religion. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961. ISBN 0061300772.
  • Griffith, F. Ll. and Thompson, Herbert (Trans.). The Leyden Papyrus. 1904.
  • Hall, Manly P. The Secret Teachings of All Ages. San Francisco: H.S. Crocker Company, 1928.
  • Meeks, Dimitri and Meeks-Favard, Christine. Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods. Translated from the French by G.M. Goshgarian. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996. ISBN 0801431158.
  • Mercer, Samuel A. B. (Trans.). The Pyramid Texts. 1952.
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