Difference between revisions of "Telepathy" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Telepathy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] τῆλε, ''tele'', "distant"; and πάθεια, ''patheia'', "feeling") is defined in [[parapsychology]] as the paranormal  acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feelings or activity of another person.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>  The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the [[Society for Psychical Research]],<ref>
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'''Telepathy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''tele'' (distant) and ''patheia'' (feeling)) is a type of [[extra sensory perception]], defined in [[parapsychology]] as the paranormal  acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feelings or activity of another person. The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the [[Society for Psychical Research]], and has superseded earlier expressions such as ''thought-transference''.<ref>[http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t "Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms"] Retrieved April 17, 2007</ref> Telepathy is often associated with other [[paranormal phenomena]], such as [[precognition]], [[clairvoyance]], and [[psychokinesis]].  
{{cite web
 
| url = http://skepdic.com/telepath.html
 
| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy
 
| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
 
| year = 2005
 
| publisher = SkepDic.com
 
| accessdate = 2006-09-13
 
}}</ref> and has superseded earlier expressions such as ''thought-transference''.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>  Telepathy is considered a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] or [[anomalous cognition]].<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#g See entry for "GENERAL EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION."  From the Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref> Telepathy is often associated with other [[paranormal phenomena]], such as [[precognition]], [[clairvoyance]], and [[psychokinesis]].  
 
  
 
==Types of telepathy==
 
==Types of telepathy==
  
'''Latent Telepathy''' is telepathy in which a time lag is observed between the transmission and receipt of the telepathic communique. '''Precognitive Telepathy''' occurs when a telepath obtains paranormal knowledge about what the state of another person's mind will be in the near or distant future.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>
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'''Latent Telepathy''' is telepathy in which a time lag is observed between the transmission and receipt of the telepathic communique. '''Precognitive Telepathy''' occurs when a telepath obtains paranormal knowledge about what the state of another person's mind will be in the near or distant future.<ref>[http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t "Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms"], Retrieved April 17, 2007</ref>
  
==Research results==
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==History of Telepathy==
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Unlike paranormal abilities such as [[precognition]], there are very few accounts of telepathy recorded by any ancient cultures. Primitive and ancient cultures often relate instances of [[prophecy]] and precognition, but there is little record of individuals sending and receiving messages from mind to mind. Where the idea of telepathy does appear, it is generally in the form of "dream telepathy", where communication occurs while individuals are in a dream state. The ancient [[Greek]] philosopher Democritus postulated the first physical theory of dream telepathy, which stated that emotionally charged images could be projected by living beings, and transmitted to a dreamer through the dreamer's pores.<ref>[http://artificialtelepathy.blogspot.com/2006/06/history-of-telepathy-chronology-to.html "Artificial Telepathy"] Retrieved April 17, 2007.</ref>
  
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Research interest in telepathy had its beginning in [[mesmerism]], where subjects would display telepathic abilities, carrying out unspoken instructions. Psychologists like Freud and Jung both observed telepathic phenomena, and the psychologist/philosopher William James encouraged more research to be done on the subject.<ref>[http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/t/telepathy.html "Telepathy"] The Mystica. Retrieved April 17, 2007.</ref> [[Western culture|Western]] scientific investigation of telepathy is generally recognized as having begun with the early research of the [[Society for Psychical Research]]. In 1886, the Society published their their findings in a two-volume work entitled ''Phantasms of the Living'', which included findings on telepathy. Most of the evidence gathered consisted of [[anecdotes]] and follow-up investigations, with some experiments on alleged telepaths. Experimental protocols, however, were not strict by current scientific standards.<ref>[http://www.crystalinks.com/telepathy.html "Telepathy"] Crystallinks. Retrieved April 17, 2007.</ref>
  
[[Parapsychologists]] have conducted numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy. Many of these experiments have yielded positive results,<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref> most notably using the [[Ganzfeld experiment|ganzfield procedure]].  However, a technique which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy with 100% reliability has yet to be discovered. This lack of reliable reproducibility has led skeptics to argue that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy at all.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in experimental design, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]], president of the [[Parapsychological Association]] argue that the sheer amount of positive results from reputable studies, particularly using [[meta-analysis]], provides strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> Detractors counter that Radin is too accepting of studies as "reputable".{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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The best-known early experiments in telepathy were those of [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]] and his associates at [[Duke University]], beginning in 1927. Rhine used the distinctive cards designed by his colleague [[Karl Zener]]. These experiments involved more rigorous and systematic experimental protocols than those from the [[19th century]], used what were assumed to be 'average' participants rather than those who claimed exceptional ability, and took advantage of new developments in the field of statistics to evaluate results. Results of these and other experiments were published by Rhine in his popular book ''Extra Sensory Perception''. Rhine determined that it was often difficult to determine if information was communicated through telepathy, [[clairvoyance]], or [[precognition]], and concluded that all are the same psychic function, albeit manifested differently.<ref>[http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/t/telepathy.html "Telepathy"] The Mystica. Retrieved April 18, 2007.</ref> 
  
{{POV-body}}
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In 1930, one of the most popular books about telepathy was ''[[Mental Radio]]'', written by the [[Pulitzer prize]]-winning author [[Upton Sinclair]] and his wife (with foreword by [[Albert Einstein]]). In it Sinclair includes his findings from reading hundreds of volumes on psychic research, as well as three years of hands-on investigation, and describes the apparent ability of his wife at times to reproduce sketches made by himself and others, even when separated by several miles.
  
Numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of [[telepathy]] have been conducted over more than a century. Many of these studies have yielded positive results, most notably using the [[Ganzfeld experiment|Ganzfield procedure]]. However, telepathy, as with all [[parapsychological]] subjects, remains [[Scientific investigation of telepathy#Controversy|controversial]].
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One of the most popular types of experiments to test for telepathy has been [[ganzfeld]] experimentation. Beginning in 1974 with the work of [[Charles Honorton]], ganzfeld (meaning "whole field") experiments have been widely used by parapsychological researchers. In ganzfeld tests, there is a receiver, who attempts to receive the telepathic message, and a sender who attempts to send the message. The receiver is placed in a soundproof room and sits reclining in a comfortable chair. He/she wears headphones which play continuous [[white noise]] or [[pink noise]]. Halves of [[Ping pong#The ball|ping pong ball]]s are placed over the receiver's eyes, and a red light is shined onto his/her face. These conditions are designed to cause the receiver to enter a state called the "ganzfeld state", similar to being in a [[sensory deprivation]] chamber. The sender, also isolated, is shown a video or still image, and asked to attempt to mentally send that image to the receiver for anywhere from twenty to forty minutes. Afterwards, the receiver is asked to pick which of four images was the "sent" image. After collecting the results of approximately 700 individual sessions conducted by about two dozen investigators, parapsychologists claim that the correct image is selected 34% of the time, significantly higher than the 25% that would be expected by chance alone.<ref>Radin, Dean. 1997. [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~sai/FAQpara2.htm#9.3 "Parapsychology FAQ: Part 2"] Retrieved April 18, 2007.</ref>
  
===Early investigations===
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==Testing and Controversy==
[[Western culture|Western]] scientific investigation of telepathy is generally recognized as having begun with the initial program or research of the [[Society for Psychical Research]]. The apex of their early investigations was the report published in 1886 as the two-volume work ''Phantasms of the Living''. It was with this work that the term "telepathy" was introduced, replacing the earlier term "thought transference." Although much of the initial investigations consisted largely of gathering [[anecdotal evidence|anecdotal]] accounts with follow-up investigations, they also conducted [[experiment]]s with some of those who claimed telepathic abilities.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, their experimental protocols were far more lax than those used today.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
  
In 1917, psychologist John E. Coover from [[Stanford University]] conducted a series of telepathy tests involving transmitting/guessing playing cards. His participants were able to guess the identity of cards with overall odds against chance of 160 to 1;{{Fact|date=February 2007}} however, Coover did not consider the results to be significant enough to report this as a positive result. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} 
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[[Parapsychologists]] have conducted numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy, and claim that many have yielded significant results supporting the existence of telepathy, particularly the ganzfeld experiments. However, a technique which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy with 100% reliability has yet to be discovered.  
  
The best-known early telepathy experiments were those of [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]] and his associates at [[Duke University]], beginning in the 1927 using the distinctive ''ESP Cards'' of [[Karl Zener]] (see also [[Zener Card]]s). These involved more rigorous and systematic experimental protocols than those from the [[19th century]], used what were assumed to be 'average' participants rather than those who claimed exceptional ability, and used new developments in the field of statistics to evaluate results. Results of these and other experiments were published by Rhine in his popular book ''Extra Sensory Perception'', which popularized the term.  
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In the area of telepathy research, ganzfeld experiments, being the most prominent means of testing for telepathy, are often the most criticized. Charles Honorton was the first to perform ganzfeld experiments for telepathy, and took great care in creating experimental protocol that would not be subject to criticism. Even so, critics have pointed out flaws that may have influenced Honorton's positive results: it may have been possible for the researchers scoring the experiments to have peeked at the film clips that were being shown, thereby subconsciously leading the receivers during scoring. The time needed to rewind the tapes may have also provided subliminal cues. Some critics state that Honorton's experiments provide the best evidence yet, but that telepathy still remains unproven.<ref>McCrone, John.  May 15, 1993. [http://www.science-frontiers.com/sf089/sf089p15.htm "Roll Up for the Telepathy Test"] New Scientist, p. 29. Retrieved April 18, 2007</ref>
  
Another influential book about telepathy was ''[[Mental Radio]]'', published in 1930 by the [[Pulitzer prize]]-winning author [[Upton Sinclair]] (with foreword by [[Albert Einstein]]). In it Sinclair describes the apparent ability of his wife at times to reproduce sketches made by himself and others, even when separated by several miles. They note in their book that the results could also be described by the more general term [[clairvoyance]], and they did some experiments whose results suggested that in fact no sender was necessary, and some drawings could be reproduced [[precognition|precognitively]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Other ganzfeld experiments were also critiqued for having potential design flaws. Some studies did not use truly soundproof rooms, and videos may have been heard by the experimenters, whose discussions may have then been overheard by the receiver. When presenting the group of the target image and three decoys, the target image may have subtle "handling cues" that give it away, such as smudges, creases, or other marks that were made by the sender while attempting to send the image. A lack of randomization of the images may have also constituted a problem. Many of these issues were later addressed with "autoganzfeld" experiments, where images were chosen and displayed by computer. The autoganzfeld experiments were considered to be significantly more reliable, even when examined by [[mentalists]] [[Ford Kross]] and [[Daryl Bem]], who agreed that the automated system provided "excellent security against deception". However, problems were still pointed out: with the automated video images, the target may have been played repeatedly during the sending session, thereby creating a slight decay in image quality that would be detectable by the receiver.<ref>Carroll, Robert. [http://skepdic.com/ganzfeld.html "ganzfeld"] The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved April 18, 2007.</ref> On the whole, reported rates of success among all ganzfeld experiments have been remarkably consistent. There have been numerous meta-analyses done, combining groups of experiments that provide evidence for telepathy. Critics argue that some of these meta-analyses are too accepting of studies as "reputable".  
  
By the 1960s, many parapsychologists had become dissatisfied with the ''forced-choice'' experiments of [[J. B. Rhine]], partly because of boredom on the part of test participants after many repetitions of monotonous card-guessing,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and partly because of the observed "decline effect" where the accuracy of card guessing would decrease over time for a given participant, which some parapsychologists attributed to this boredom.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Another argument against the so-called "successes" of telepathic experiments is that it is not necessarily accurate to assume that any statistical deviation from chance is evidence for telepathy. While a moderate deviation from chance may be evidence of psi phenomena, it could also simply be evidence of a rare, statistically unlikely occurrence, and therefore not a significant indicator of telepathy.
  
Some parapsychologists turned to ''free response'' experimental formats where the target was not limited to a small finite predetermined set of responses (e.g., Zener cards), but rather could be any sort of picture, drawing, photograph, movie clip, piece of music etc.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Tests have also been done for telepathy using [[EEG]] and [[fMRI]] equipment. Tests done by Bastyr University and the University of Washington focused on identifying similar brain patterns, and produced similar results to tests done at other labs: correlated EEG and fMRI signals occurred in fifteen to thirty percent of the participating pairs of subjects.<ref>[http://www.bastyr.edu/development/newsletter/fall04.asp?jump=5 "Bastyr Research: Under the Microscope"] Fall: 2004 Vol 2, Number 1. Retrieved April 19, 2007.</ref>
  
===Notable experiments===
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==Telepathy and Quantum Theory==
The following is a list of some notable experiments done on telepathy in modern history.
 
  
====Zener card experiments====
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In seeking a theory to explain telepathy, some [[parapsychology|parapsychologists]] have looked to aspects of [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] as a possible explanation. Apparent parallels with telepathy exist in the quantum world; two quantum particles that bump into one another become "entangled", and afterwards retain a connection despite being a great distance apart. A change in one half of the entangled pair instantaneously effects a change in the other half. This quality, known as "non-locality", was dubbed "spooky action at a distance" by [[Albert Einstein]], who had difficulty accepting such a concept.<ref>Brooks, Michael. March 27, 2004. [http://www.biophysica.com/quantum.htm "Entanglement: The Weirdest Link"] New Scientist, vol 181 issue 2449 page 32. Retrieved April 19, 2007.</ref> If quantum particles can seemingly communicate to each other instantaneously, the question is raised, "why can't humans also do so?".
[[Image:Cartas Zener.svg.png|thumb|right|Zener cards]]
 
  
'''Dates run:''' 1930's
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Some physicists, such as Nick Herbert, have pondered whether quantum mechanical effects would permit forms of communication, perhaps including telepathy. Herbert expressed the view that, according to quantum theory, it may be possible to share raw awareness or emotion, but be unable to transfer data.<ref>1998. [http://twm.co.nz/herbert.htm "Consciousness and Quantum Reality"] Thinking Aloud. Retrieved April 19, 2007.</ref>
  
'''Experimental philosophy:''' A [[Zener Card]] deck is created, which consists of five cards each of five different symbols. The deck is shuffled, and the subject is asked to guess the identity of each card as it is drawn and viewed by a sender. In this experiment, telepathy is assumed to be weak, and only expected to give a small deviation towards correct answers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
 
'''Experimental design:''' [[J. B. Rhine]], the experimenter, would sit across a table from the subject. He would shuffle the Zener Card deck, and draw cards one at a time. For each card, he would look at it and ask the psychic to guess its identity by reading his mind. A hit rate of significantly more or less than 20% was considered to be evidence of telepathy. Hit rates significantly below 20% were reguarded [[psi-missing]], the phenomenon in which psi may cause missing due to the attitude of the experimenter or subject toward the situation or subject matter.<ref name="Varvoglis">http://www.parapsych.org/sheep_goat_effect.htm ''The Sheep - Goat Effect'' by Mario Varvoglis, Ph.D., from the website of the Parapsychological Association, retrieved December 27, 2006</ref>
 
 
'''Results:''' Rhine's studies produced results which were significantly above or below chance in a statistical sense.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref> He noted, however, that this experiment couldn't adequately distinguish telepathy from [[clairvoyance]].<ref>
 
{{cite book
 
| last =
 
| first =
 
| author = Randi, James
 
| authorlink =
 
| coauthors =
 
| year = 1995
 
| title = An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural
 
| publisher = St. Martin's Press
 
| location =
 
| id = ISBN 0-312-15119-5
 
}}</ref>
 
 
====Ganzfeld experiments====
 
 
 
'''Dates run:''' 1974 to present
 
 
'''Experimental philosophy:''' The subject is placed in sensory deprivation, in hopes that this will make it easier to receive and notice incoming telepathic signals. In this experiment, telepathy is assumed to be weak, and only expected to give a small deviation towards correct answers.<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://www.dina.kvl.dk/~abraham/psy1.html
 
| title = Does Psi Exist?
 
| author = Bem, Daryl J. and Honorton, Charles
 
| last =
 
| first =
 
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| coauthors =
 
| date =
 
| year = 1994
 
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| publisher = Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18
 
| pages =
 
| language =
 
| archiveurl =
 
| archivedate =
 
| accessdate = 2006-06-23
 
}}</ref>
 
 
'''Experimental design:''' The receiver (a possible [[psychic]], who is being tested) is placed in a soundproof room and sits reclining in a comfortable chair. The subject wears headphones which play continuous [[white noise]] or [[pink noise]]. Halves of [[Ping pong#The ball|ping pong ball]]s are placed over their eyes, and a red light is shined onto the subject's face. These conditions are designed to cause the receiver to enter a state similar to being in a [[sensory deprivation]] chamber.
 
 
The sender is seated in another soundproof room, and is assigned one of four potential targets, randomly selected. Typically, these targets are pictures or video clips. The sender attempts to telepathically "send" information about the target to the receiver. The receiver is generally asked to speak throughout the sending process, and their voice is piped to the sender and experimenter. This is to assist the sender in determining if their method of "sending" information about the target is working, and adjust it if necessary. Breaks may be taken, and the sending process may be repeated multiple times.
 
 
Once the sending process is complete, the experimenter removes the receiver from isolation. The receiver is then shown the four potential targets, and asked to choose which one they believe the sender saw. In order to avoid potential confounding factors, the experimenter must remain ignorant of which target was chosen until the receiver makes their choice, and multiple sets of the pictures of videos should be used in order to avoid handling cues (evidence, such smudges on a picture, that the picture was handled by the sender).{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
 
A statistical analysis is performed to find out whether the subject scored significantly above or below chance.<ref>''ibid''</ref>
 
 
'''Results:''' Many [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] performed on multiple Ganzfeld experiments returned a hit rate of between 30% and 40%, which is significantly higher than the 25% expected by chance.<ref>''ibid''</ref><ref>
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://www.csicop.org/si/9603/claims.html
 
| title = The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality
 
| author = Hyman, Ray
 
| authorlink =
 
| coauthors =
 
| date = March/April, 1996
 
| year =
 
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| format =
 
| work =
 
| publisher = Skeptical Inquirer
 
| pages =
 
| language =
 
| archiveurl =
 
| archivedate =
 
| accessdate = 2006-06-23
 
}}</ref>
 
 
=== Criticism===
 
 
 
The following are common criticisms of some or all of the Ganzfeld experiments:
 
 
''Isolation'' - Not all of the studies used soundproof rooms, so it is possible that when videos were playing, the experimenter (or even the receiver) could have heard it, and later given involuntary cues to the receiver during the selection process.<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809
 
| title = Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments
 
| author = Wiseman, R., Smith, M,. Kornrot, D.
 
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| date = June 1996
 
| year =
 
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| work =
 
| publisher = Journal of Parapsychology
 
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| accessdate =
 
}}</ref>  However, ganzfeld studies which did use soundproof rooms had a number of "hits" similar to those which did not.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> (Radin 1997: 77-89)
 
 
''Handling cues'' - Only 36% of the studies performed used duplicate images or videos, so handling cues on the images or degradation of the videos may have occurred during the sending process.<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://www.sciencenews.org/sn_arc99/7_31_99/fob4.htm
 
| title = ESP findings send controversial message
 
| author = Carpenter, S.
 
| authorlink =
 
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| date = July 31, 1999
 
| year =
 
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| work =
 
| publisher = Science News
 
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}}</ref>  However, the results of studies were not found to correspond to this flaw.
 
 
''Randomization'' - When subjects are asked to choose from a variety of selections, there is an inherent bias to not choose the first selection they are shown. If the order in which are shown the selections is randomized each time, this bias will be averaged out. However, this was often not done in the Ganzfeld experiments.<ref>
 
{{cite journal
 
| author = Hyman, Ray
 
| year = 1985
 
| month =
 
| title = The ganzfeld psi experiment: A critical appraisal
 
| journal = Journal of Parapsychology
 
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}}</ref><ref>
 
{{cite journal
 
| author = Honorton, C
 
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| title = Meta-analysis of psi ganzfeld research: A response to Hyman
 
| journal = Journal of Parapsychology
 
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}}</ref>
 
 
''The psi assumption'' - The assumption that any statistical deviation from chance is evidence for telepathy is highly controversial, and often compared to the [[God of the gaps]] argument. Strictly speaking, a deviation from chance is only evidence that either this was a rare, statistically unlikely occurrence that happened by chance, or ''something'' was causing a deviation from chance. Flaws in the experimental design are a common cause of this, and so the assumption that it must be telepathy is [[fallacy|fallacious]]. This does not rule out, however, that it could be telepathy.<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://skepdic.com/psiassumption.html
 
| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary: Psi Assumption
 
| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
 
| authorlink =
 
| coauthors =
 
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}}</ref>
 
 
Parapsychologists respond, however that while there are many potential theoretical explanations of psi, parapsychology as a science does not claim to understand what psi is, but
 
 
<blockquote>
 
Instead, [parapsychologists] design experiments to test experiences that people have reported throughout history.  If rigorous tests for what we have called [say] "telepathy" result in effects that look like, sound like, and feel like the [often more impressive <ref>http://twm.co.nz/FAQpara2.htm#9.5 Parapsychology FAQ, Compiled by Dean Radin, PhD of UNLV's Cognitive Research Division ''A helpful guide to parapsychology and the facts regarding that field'', Retrieved December 26, 2006</ref>] experiences reported in real life, then call it what you will, but the experiments confirm that this common experience is not an illusion.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> (Radin 1997: 210)
 
</blockquote>
 
 
"Psi" is the name for an unknown factor, not necessarily for a force or factor outside the current range of scientific knowledge.
 
 
==Controversy==
 
 
The existence of telepathy is still a matter of extreme controversy, with many [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] stating that evidence for it does not exist.  A scientific methodology which always shows [[Reliability (statistics)|statistically significant]] evidence of telepathy has yet to be discovered.  Skeptics argue that the lack of a definitive experiment whose [[reproducibility]] is near 100% (e.g. those which exist for [[magnetism]]) may indicate that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy.  Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://skepdic.com/esp.html
 
| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary; ESP (extrasensory perception)
 
| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
 
| year = 2005
 
| publisher = SkepDic.com
 
| accessdate = 2006-09-13
 
}}</ref><ref>"Most academic psychologists do not yet accept the existence of psi..."
 
{{cite web
 
| url = http://www.dina.kvl.dk/~abraham/psy1.html
 
| title = Does Psi Exist?
 
| author = Bem, Daryl J. and Honorton, Charles
 
| year = 1994
 
| publisher = Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18
 
| accessdate = 2006-09-13
 
}}</ref>  Those who believe that telepathy may exist say that very few experiments in psychology, biology, or medicine can be reproduced at will with consistent results.  Parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]] argue that the extremely positive results from reputable studies, when analyzed using [[meta-analysis]], provide strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref>.
 
 
==Fraud==
 
 
 
Some critics say that some positive results of [[parapsychological]] experiments, where they are not due to design flaws, may be due to deliberate fraud. 
 
 
<blockquote>
 
There are at least half a dozen peer-reviewed journals of parapsychology. However, research in this area has been characterized by deception, fraud, and incompetence in setting up properly controlled experiments and evaluating statistical data (Alcock 1990; Gardner 1981; Gordon 1987; Hansel 1989; Hines 1990; Hyman 1989; Park 2000; Randi 1982)."<ref>http://skepdic.com/parapsy.html Skeptics Dictionary on Parapsychology</ref>
 
</blockquote>
 
 
Some parapsychological studies have been badly designed, in such a way as to permit fraud.  In the case of [[Project Alpha]], magician James Randi planted magicians as subjects of a parapsychological experiment, and they were able to fool the researchers over a prolonged period.<ref>http://www.banachek.org/nonflash/project_alpha.htm Project Alpha, The Skeptical Inquirer Summer 1983 ''The Project Alpha Experiment: Part one. The First Two Years'' by James Randi</ref> Such methodological failures have been cited by skeptics as evidence of the probability that many parapsychological results derive from error or fraud.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
 
 
 
 
 
==Theories of telepathy==
 
 
In seeking a theory to explain telepathy, some [[parapsychology|parapsychologists]] have looked to aspects of [[Quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] as a possible explanation.  Some physicists, such as Nick Herbert, have pondered whether quantum mechanical effects would permit forms of communication, perhaps including telepathy, that aren't dependent on "classical" mechanisms such as electromagnetic radiation.<ref>http://twm.co.nz/herbert.htm Retrieved January 3, 2007</ref> Experiments have been conducted by scientists such as Gao Shen at the Institute of Quantum Physics in Beijing,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} China to study whether [[quantum entanglement]]s can be verified between human minds.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Such experiments usually include monitoring for synchronous EEG patterns between two hypothetically "entangled" minds. Thus far, no conclusive evidence has been revealed.<ref>http://www.parapsych.org/papers/44.pdf Retrieved January 3, 2007</ref> Telepathy has been proposed to take place when two people's minds give off [[alpha wave]]s at a cyclic rate between nine and eleven per second{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
 
 
==Controversy==
 
 
Image:Cartas Zener.svg|thumb|200px|right|'''[[Zener card|Zener cards]]'''
 
Image:Cartas Zener.svg|thumb|200px|right|'''[[Zener card|Zener cards]]'''
 
Parapsychologists and skeptics agree that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena such as [[mediumship| mediumism]], can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as [[cold reading]].<ref>http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology - An Overview By Eberhard Bauer, Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, in the European Journal of Parapsychology, 1984, 5, 141-166, Retrieved February 09, 2007</ref>
 
<ref>O',Keeffe, Ciarán and Wiseman Richard: Testing alleged mediumship: Methods and results. British Journal of Psychology (2005), 96, 165–17. http://www.psy.herts.ac.uk/wiseman/papers/MediumBJP.pdf</ref> <ref>Rowland, Ian: The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading. http://ianrowland.com/ItemsToBuy/ColdReading/ColdReadingMain1.html</ref>  Magicians such as [[Ian Rowland]] and [[Derren Brown]] have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, but they proffer psychological explanations instead of paranormal ones. They have identified, described and developed complex psychological techniques of [[cold reading]] and [[hot reading]].
 
 
==The future of telepathy==
 
 
[[Image:Converging technologies.png|thumb|200px|right|[http://www.wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies/'''''Converging Technologies'''''], a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance.]]
 
Some people, occasionally referred to by themselves or others as "[[Transhumanism|transhumanists]]," believe that technologically enabled telepathy, coined "'''techlepathy'''," will be the inevitable future of humanity. [[Kevin Warwick]] of the [[University of Reading]], [[England]] is one of the leading [[Professor|expert]] proponents of this view, and has based all of his recent [[Cybernetics]] research around developing practical, safe devices for directly connecting human nervous systems together with computers and with each other. He believes techno-enabled telepathy will become the sole or at least the primary form of human communication in the future. He asserts that this will happen by means of the principle of [[natural selection]], which he predicts will force nearly everybody to make use of the technology for economic and social reasons once it becomes available to all.<ref>{{cite web
 
| url = http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/267/Default.aspx
 
| title = Evolving Towards Telepathy
 
| author = Dvorsky, George
 
| year = 2004
 
| publisher = Betterhumans.com
 
| accessdate = 2006-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 
|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/special_report/1999/12/99/back_to_the_future/kevin_warwick.stm
 
| title = "Leviathan: Back to the Future: An interview with Kevin Warwick"
 
| author = TakeAway Media
 
| year = 2000
 
| publisher = BBC Two
 
| accessdate = 2006-10-24}}</ref>
 
 
==Telepathy in fiction==
 
 
A number of [[superhero]]es and [[supervillain]]s, as well as figures in many science fiction novels, etc., use telepathy. Notable telepaths include the [[Jedi]] in ''[[Star Wars]]'', [[Betazoids]] and [[Vulcans]] (among others) in ''[[Star Trek]]''; [[Talia Winters]], [[Lyta Alexander]],[[Alfred Bester (Babylon 5)|Alfred Bester]], and the rest of the [[Psi Corps]] of ''[[Babylon 5]]''; the [[dragons]] of [[Pern]]; [[Wendy Smith (seaQuest DSV)|Dr. Wendy Smith]] of ''[[seaQuest DSV]]''; J'onn J'onnz, the [[Martian Manhunter]] of the [[Justice League]]; [[Professor X|Charles Xavier]], [[Jean Grey]], [[Psylocke|Betsy Braddock]] and [[Emma Frost]] of the [[X-Men]], and the [[Magicians in fantasy|wizards]] of the Young Wizards Series.
 
 
The mechanics of telepathy in fiction vary widely.  Some fictional telepaths are limited to receiving only thoughts that are deliberately sent by other telepaths, or even to receiving thoughts from a specific other person.  For example, in [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s 1956 novel [[Time for the Stars]], certain pairs of [[twins]] are able to send telepathic messages to each other.  Some telepaths can read the thoughts only of those they touch.  At the opposite end of the spectrum, some telepathic characters continuously sense the thoughts of those around them and may control or dampen this ability only with difficulty, or not at all.  In such cases, telepathy is often portrayed as a mixed blessing or as a curse.
 
 
Some fictional telepaths possess [[mind control]] abilities, which can include "pushing" thoughts, feelings, or hallucinatory visions into the mind of another person, causing pain, paralysis, or unconsciousness, altering or erasing memories, or completely taking over another person's mind and body (similar to [[spiritual possession]]).  Characters with this ability may or may not also have the ability to read thoughts.
 
 
Here is a composite list of [[:Category:Fictional telepaths|fictional characters with telepathy]].
 
 
==See also==
 
[[Image:Magnetoencephalography.png|thumbnail|200px|right|'''Origin of the brain's magnetic field''']]
 
*[[Empathy]], one's ability to recognize, perceive and directly experientially feel the emotion of another
 
*[[Precognition]], a form of extra-sensory perception involving seeing future events
 
*[[Parapsychology]], the study of paranormal phenomena
 
*[[Psychokinesis]], the use of mental power to move or affect objects
 
*[[Magnetoencephalography]], measuring the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain
 
*[[Neural oscillations]], a concept similar to brain waves
 
*[[Clairvoyance]], a form of extra-sensory perception
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 350: Line 83:
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/267/Default.aspx Evolving Towards Telepathy] &ndash; an article on the potential for technologically endowed telepathy, or "techlepathy"
+
*[http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/267/Default.aspx Evolving Towards Telepathy] an article on the potential for technologically endowed telepathy, or "techlepathy"
 
*[http://pr.caltech.edu/media/Press_Releases/PR12660.html California Institute of Technology] study using implanted electrodes in the [[ventrolateral prefrontal cortex]] ([[vPF]]), yielding findings on predicting the intentions of subjects to make movements
 
*[http://pr.caltech.edu/media/Press_Releases/PR12660.html California Institute of Technology] study using implanted electrodes in the [[ventrolateral prefrontal cortex]] ([[vPF]]), yielding findings on predicting the intentions of subjects to make movements
*[http://www.its.caltech.edu/~rizzuto/publications/RizzutoEtal05.pdf PDF article in Nature Neuroscience] on "Spatial selectivity in human ventrolateral prefrontal cortex"
 
 
*[http://twm.co.nz/herbert.htm Quantum Physicist Nick Herbert Ponders Instantaneous Communication]  
 
*[http://twm.co.nz/herbert.htm Quantum Physicist Nick Herbert Ponders Instantaneous Communication]  
 
*[http://www.parapsych.org/papers/44.pdf Primary Quantum Model of Telepathy (PDF)]
 
*[http://www.parapsych.org/papers/44.pdf Primary Quantum Model of Telepathy (PDF)]

Revision as of 17:53, 19 April 2007


Telepathy (from the Greek tele (distant) and patheia (feeling)) is a type of extra sensory perception, defined in parapsychology as the paranormal acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feelings or activity of another person. The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research, and has superseded earlier expressions such as thought-transference.[1] Telepathy is often associated with other paranormal phenomena, such as precognition, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis.

Types of telepathy

Latent Telepathy is telepathy in which a time lag is observed between the transmission and receipt of the telepathic communique. Precognitive Telepathy occurs when a telepath obtains paranormal knowledge about what the state of another person's mind will be in the near or distant future.[2]

History of Telepathy

Unlike paranormal abilities such as precognition, there are very few accounts of telepathy recorded by any ancient cultures. Primitive and ancient cultures often relate instances of prophecy and precognition, but there is little record of individuals sending and receiving messages from mind to mind. Where the idea of telepathy does appear, it is generally in the form of "dream telepathy", where communication occurs while individuals are in a dream state. The ancient Greek philosopher Democritus postulated the first physical theory of dream telepathy, which stated that emotionally charged images could be projected by living beings, and transmitted to a dreamer through the dreamer's pores.[3]

Research interest in telepathy had its beginning in mesmerism, where subjects would display telepathic abilities, carrying out unspoken instructions. Psychologists like Freud and Jung both observed telepathic phenomena, and the psychologist/philosopher William James encouraged more research to be done on the subject.[4] Western scientific investigation of telepathy is generally recognized as having begun with the early research of the Society for Psychical Research. In 1886, the Society published their their findings in a two-volume work entitled Phantasms of the Living, which included findings on telepathy. Most of the evidence gathered consisted of anecdotes and follow-up investigations, with some experiments on alleged telepaths. Experimental protocols, however, were not strict by current scientific standards.[5]

The best-known early experiments in telepathy were those of J. B. Rhine and his associates at Duke University, beginning in 1927. Rhine used the distinctive cards designed by his colleague Karl Zener. These experiments involved more rigorous and systematic experimental protocols than those from the 19th century, used what were assumed to be 'average' participants rather than those who claimed exceptional ability, and took advantage of new developments in the field of statistics to evaluate results. Results of these and other experiments were published by Rhine in his popular book Extra Sensory Perception. Rhine determined that it was often difficult to determine if information was communicated through telepathy, clairvoyance, or precognition, and concluded that all are the same psychic function, albeit manifested differently.[6]

In 1930, one of the most popular books about telepathy was Mental Radio, written by the Pulitzer prize-winning author Upton Sinclair and his wife (with foreword by Albert Einstein). In it Sinclair includes his findings from reading hundreds of volumes on psychic research, as well as three years of hands-on investigation, and describes the apparent ability of his wife at times to reproduce sketches made by himself and others, even when separated by several miles.

One of the most popular types of experiments to test for telepathy has been ganzfeld experimentation. Beginning in 1974 with the work of Charles Honorton, ganzfeld (meaning "whole field") experiments have been widely used by parapsychological researchers. In ganzfeld tests, there is a receiver, who attempts to receive the telepathic message, and a sender who attempts to send the message. The receiver is placed in a soundproof room and sits reclining in a comfortable chair. He/she wears headphones which play continuous white noise or pink noise. Halves of ping pong balls are placed over the receiver's eyes, and a red light is shined onto his/her face. These conditions are designed to cause the receiver to enter a state called the "ganzfeld state", similar to being in a sensory deprivation chamber. The sender, also isolated, is shown a video or still image, and asked to attempt to mentally send that image to the receiver for anywhere from twenty to forty minutes. Afterwards, the receiver is asked to pick which of four images was the "sent" image. After collecting the results of approximately 700 individual sessions conducted by about two dozen investigators, parapsychologists claim that the correct image is selected 34% of the time, significantly higher than the 25% that would be expected by chance alone.[7]

Testing and Controversy

Parapsychologists have conducted numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy, and claim that many have yielded significant results supporting the existence of telepathy, particularly the ganzfeld experiments. However, a technique which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy with 100% reliability has yet to be discovered.

In the area of telepathy research, ganzfeld experiments, being the most prominent means of testing for telepathy, are often the most criticized. Charles Honorton was the first to perform ganzfeld experiments for telepathy, and took great care in creating experimental protocol that would not be subject to criticism. Even so, critics have pointed out flaws that may have influenced Honorton's positive results: it may have been possible for the researchers scoring the experiments to have peeked at the film clips that were being shown, thereby subconsciously leading the receivers during scoring. The time needed to rewind the tapes may have also provided subliminal cues. Some critics state that Honorton's experiments provide the best evidence yet, but that telepathy still remains unproven.[8]

Other ganzfeld experiments were also critiqued for having potential design flaws. Some studies did not use truly soundproof rooms, and videos may have been heard by the experimenters, whose discussions may have then been overheard by the receiver. When presenting the group of the target image and three decoys, the target image may have subtle "handling cues" that give it away, such as smudges, creases, or other marks that were made by the sender while attempting to send the image. A lack of randomization of the images may have also constituted a problem. Many of these issues were later addressed with "autoganzfeld" experiments, where images were chosen and displayed by computer. The autoganzfeld experiments were considered to be significantly more reliable, even when examined by mentalists Ford Kross and Daryl Bem, who agreed that the automated system provided "excellent security against deception". However, problems were still pointed out: with the automated video images, the target may have been played repeatedly during the sending session, thereby creating a slight decay in image quality that would be detectable by the receiver.[9] On the whole, reported rates of success among all ganzfeld experiments have been remarkably consistent. There have been numerous meta-analyses done, combining groups of experiments that provide evidence for telepathy. Critics argue that some of these meta-analyses are too accepting of studies as "reputable".

Another argument against the so-called "successes" of telepathic experiments is that it is not necessarily accurate to assume that any statistical deviation from chance is evidence for telepathy. While a moderate deviation from chance may be evidence of psi phenomena, it could also simply be evidence of a rare, statistically unlikely occurrence, and therefore not a significant indicator of telepathy.

Tests have also been done for telepathy using EEG and fMRI equipment. Tests done by Bastyr University and the University of Washington focused on identifying similar brain patterns, and produced similar results to tests done at other labs: correlated EEG and fMRI signals occurred in fifteen to thirty percent of the participating pairs of subjects.[10]

Telepathy and Quantum Theory

In seeking a theory to explain telepathy, some parapsychologists have looked to aspects of quantum theory as a possible explanation. Apparent parallels with telepathy exist in the quantum world; two quantum particles that bump into one another become "entangled", and afterwards retain a connection despite being a great distance apart. A change in one half of the entangled pair instantaneously effects a change in the other half. This quality, known as "non-locality", was dubbed "spooky action at a distance" by Albert Einstein, who had difficulty accepting such a concept.[11] If quantum particles can seemingly communicate to each other instantaneously, the question is raised, "why can't humans also do so?".

Some physicists, such as Nick Herbert, have pondered whether quantum mechanical effects would permit forms of communication, perhaps including telepathy. Herbert expressed the view that, according to quantum theory, it may be possible to share raw awareness or emotion, but be unable to transfer data.[12]

Image:Cartas Zener.svg|thumb|200px|right|Zener cards

Notes

  1. "Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms" Retrieved April 17, 2007
  2. "Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms", Retrieved April 17, 2007
  3. "Artificial Telepathy" Retrieved April 17, 2007.
  4. "Telepathy" The Mystica. Retrieved April 17, 2007.
  5. "Telepathy" Crystallinks. Retrieved April 17, 2007.
  6. "Telepathy" The Mystica. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  7. Radin, Dean. 1997. "Parapsychology FAQ: Part 2" Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  8. McCrone, John. May 15, 1993. "Roll Up for the Telepathy Test" New Scientist, p. 29. Retrieved April 18, 2007
  9. Carroll, Robert. "ganzfeld" The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  10. "Bastyr Research: Under the Microscope" Fall: 2004 Vol 2, Number 1. Retrieved April 19, 2007.
  11. Brooks, Michael. March 27, 2004. "Entanglement: The Weirdest Link" New Scientist, vol 181 issue 2449 page 32. Retrieved April 19, 2007.
  12. 1998. "Consciousness and Quantum Reality" Thinking Aloud. Retrieved April 19, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Alcock, James (1981), Parapsychology: Science or Magic? A Psychological Perspective, Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-025772-0
  • Alcock, James E. (1990), Science and Supernature: A Critical Appraisal of Parapsychology, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-516-4
  • Hansel, C. E. M. (1966), ESP: A Scientific Evaluation, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0684310503
  • Hansel, C.E.M. (1989), The Search for Psychic Power: ESP & Parapsychology Revisited, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-533-4
  • Hyman, Ray (1989), The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-504-0

External links


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