Difference between revisions of "Telepathy" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Telepathy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] τῆλε, ''tele'', "distant"; and πάθεια, ''patheia'', "feeling") is defined in [[parapsychology]] as the paranormal  acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feelings or activity of another person.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>  The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the [[Society for Psychical Research]],<ref>
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{{cite web
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| url = http://skepdic.com/telepath.html
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| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy
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| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
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| year = 2005
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| publisher = SkepDic.com
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| accessdate = 2006-09-13
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}}</ref> and has superseded earlier expressions such as ''thought-transference''.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>  Telepathy is considered a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] or [[anomalous cognition]].<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#g See entry for "GENERAL EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION."  From the Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>  Telepathy is often associated with other [[paranormal phenomena]], such as [[precognition]], [[clairvoyance]], and [[psychokinesis]].
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==Types of telepathy==
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'''Latent Telepathy''' is telepathy in which a time lag is observed between the transmission and receipt of the telepathic communique.  '''Precognitive Telepathy''' occurs when a telepath obtains paranormal knowledge about what the state of another person's mind will be in the near or distant future.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>
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==Research results==
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[[Parapsychologists]] have conducted numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy.  Many of these experiments have yielded positive results,<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref> most notably using the [[Ganzfeld experiment|ganzfield procedure]].  However, a technique which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy with 100% reliability has yet to be discovered. This lack of reliable reproducibility has led skeptics to argue that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy at all.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in experimental design, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]], president of the [[Parapsychological Association]] argue that the sheer amount of positive results from reputable studies, particularly using [[meta-analysis]], provides strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> Detractors counter that Radin is too accepting of studies as "reputable".{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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{{POV-body}}
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Numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of [[telepathy]] have been conducted over more than a century. Many of these studies have yielded positive results, most notably using the [[Ganzfeld experiment|Ganzfield procedure]].  However, telepathy, as with all [[parapsychological]] subjects, remains [[Scientific investigation of telepathy#Controversy|controversial]].
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===Early investigations===
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[[Western culture|Western]] scientific investigation of telepathy is generally recognized as having begun with the initial program or research of the [[Society for Psychical Research]]. The apex of their early investigations was the report published in 1886 as the two-volume work ''Phantasms of the Living''. It was with this work that the term "telepathy" was introduced, replacing the earlier term "thought transference." Although much of the initial investigations consisted largely of gathering [[anecdotal evidence|anecdotal]] accounts with follow-up investigations, they also conducted [[experiment]]s with some of those who claimed telepathic abilities.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, their experimental protocols were far more lax than those used today.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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In 1917, psychologist John E. Coover from [[Stanford University]] conducted a series of telepathy tests involving transmitting/guessing playing cards. His participants were able to guess the identity of cards with overall odds against chance of 160 to 1;{{Fact|date=February 2007}} however, Coover did not consider the results to be significant enough to report this as a positive result. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} 
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The best-known early telepathy experiments were those of [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]] and his associates at [[Duke University]], beginning in the 1927 using the distinctive ''ESP Cards'' of [[Karl Zener]] (see also [[Zener Card]]s). These involved more rigorous and systematic experimental protocols than those from the [[19th century]], used what were assumed to be 'average' participants rather than those who claimed exceptional ability, and used new developments in the field of statistics to evaluate results. Results of these and other experiments were published by Rhine in his popular book ''Extra Sensory Perception'', which popularized the term. 
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Another influential book about telepathy was ''[[Mental Radio]]'', published in 1930 by the [[Pulitzer prize]]-winning author [[Upton Sinclair]] (with foreword by [[Albert Einstein]]). In it Sinclair describes the apparent ability of his wife at times to reproduce sketches made by himself and others, even when separated by several miles. They note in their book that the results could also be described by the more general term [[clairvoyance]], and they did some experiments whose results suggested that in fact no sender was necessary, and some drawings could be reproduced [[precognition|precognitively]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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By the 1960s, many parapsychologists had become dissatisfied with the ''forced-choice'' experiments of [[J. B. Rhine]], partly because of boredom on the part of test participants after many repetitions of monotonous card-guessing,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and partly because of the observed "decline effect" where the accuracy of card guessing would decrease over time for a given participant, which some parapsychologists attributed to this boredom.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Some parapsychologists turned to ''free response'' experimental formats where the target was not limited to a small finite predetermined set of responses (e.g., Zener cards), but rather could be any sort of picture, drawing, photograph, movie clip, piece of music etc.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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===Notable experiments===
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The following is a list of some notable experiments done on telepathy in modern history.
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====Zener card experiments====
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[[Image:Cartas Zener.svg.png|thumb|right|Zener cards]]
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'''Dates run:''' 1930's
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'''Experimental philosophy:''' A [[Zener Card]] deck is created, which consists of five cards each of five different symbols. The deck is shuffled, and the subject is asked to guess the identity of each card as it is drawn and viewed by a sender. In this experiment, telepathy is assumed to be weak, and only expected to give a small deviation towards correct answers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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'''Experimental design:''' [[J. B. Rhine]], the experimenter, would sit across a table from the subject. He would shuffle the Zener Card deck, and draw cards one at a time. For each card, he would look at it and ask the psychic to guess its identity by reading his mind. A hit rate of significantly more or less than 20% was considered to be evidence of telepathy. Hit rates significantly below 20% were reguarded [[psi-missing]], the phenomenon in which psi may cause missing due to the attitude of the experimenter or subject toward the situation or subject matter.<ref name="Varvoglis">http://www.parapsych.org/sheep_goat_effect.htm ''The Sheep - Goat Effect'' by Mario Varvoglis, Ph.D., from the website of the Parapsychological Association, retrieved December 27, 2006</ref>
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'''Results:''' Rhine's studies produced results which were significantly above or below chance in a statistical sense.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref> He noted, however, that this experiment couldn't adequately distinguish telepathy from [[clairvoyance]].<ref>
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{{cite book
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| last =
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| author = Randi, James
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| authorlink =
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| coauthors =
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| year = 1995
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| title = An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural
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| publisher = St. Martin's Press
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| location =
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| id = ISBN 0-312-15119-5
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}}</ref>
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====Ganzfeld experiments====
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'''Dates run:''' 1974 to present
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'''Experimental philosophy:''' The subject is placed in sensory deprivation, in hopes that this will make it easier to receive and notice incoming telepathic signals. In this experiment, telepathy is assumed to be weak, and only expected to give a small deviation towards correct answers.<ref>
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{{cite web
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| url = http://www.dina.kvl.dk/~abraham/psy1.html
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| title = Does Psi Exist?
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| author = Bem, Daryl J. and Honorton, Charles
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| last =
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| first =
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| authorlink =
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| coauthors =
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| date =
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| year = 1994
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| month =
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| format =
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| work =
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| publisher = Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18
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| pages =
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| language =
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| archiveurl =
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| archivedate =
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| accessdate = 2006-06-23
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}}</ref>
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'''Experimental design:''' The receiver (a possible [[psychic]], who is being tested) is placed in a soundproof room and sits reclining in a comfortable chair. The subject wears headphones which play continuous [[white noise]] or [[pink noise]]. Halves of [[Ping pong#The ball|ping pong ball]]s are placed over their eyes, and a red light is shined onto the subject's face. These conditions are designed to cause the receiver to enter a state similar to being in a [[sensory deprivation]] chamber.
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The sender is seated in another soundproof room, and is assigned one of four potential targets, randomly selected. Typically, these targets are pictures or video clips. The sender attempts to telepathically "send" information about the target to the receiver. The receiver is generally asked to speak throughout the sending process, and their voice is piped to the sender and experimenter. This is to assist the sender in determining if their method of "sending" information about the target is working, and adjust it if necessary. Breaks may be taken, and the sending process may be repeated multiple times.
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Once the sending process is complete, the experimenter removes the receiver from isolation. The receiver is then shown the four potential targets, and asked to choose which one they believe the sender saw. In order to avoid potential confounding factors, the experimenter must remain ignorant of which target was chosen until the receiver makes their choice, and multiple sets of the pictures of videos should be used in order to avoid handling cues (evidence, such smudges on a picture, that the picture was handled by the sender).{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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A statistical analysis is performed to find out whether the subject scored significantly above or below chance.<ref>''ibid''</ref>
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'''Results:''' Many [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] performed on multiple Ganzfeld experiments returned a hit rate of between 30% and 40%, which is significantly higher than the 25% expected by chance.<ref>''ibid''</ref><ref>
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{{cite web
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| url = http://www.csicop.org/si/9603/claims.html
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| title = The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality
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| author = Hyman, Ray
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| authorlink =
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| coauthors =
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| date = March/April, 1996
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| year =
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| publisher = Skeptical Inquirer
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| archivedate =
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| accessdate = 2006-06-23
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}}</ref>
  
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=== Criticism===
  
  
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The following are common criticisms of some or all of the Ganzfeld experiments:
  
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''Isolation'' - Not all of the studies used soundproof rooms, so it is possible that when videos were playing, the experimenter (or even the receiver) could have heard it, and later given involuntary cues to the receiver during the selection process.<ref>
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{{cite web
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| url = http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809
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| title = Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments
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| author = Wiseman, R., Smith, M,. Kornrot, D.
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| authorlink =
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| coauthors =
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| date = June 1996
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| year =
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| format =
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| work =
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| publisher = Journal of Parapsychology
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| pages =
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}}</ref>  However, ganzfeld studies which did use soundproof rooms had a number of "hits" similar to those which did not.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> (Radin 1997: 77-89)
  
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''Handling cues'' - Only 36% of the studies performed used duplicate images or videos, so handling cues on the images or degradation of the videos may have occurred during the sending process.<ref>
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{{cite web
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| url = http://www.sciencenews.org/sn_arc99/7_31_99/fob4.htm
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| title = ESP findings send controversial message
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| author = Carpenter, S.
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| authorlink =
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| coauthors =
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| date = July 31, 1999
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| year =
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| publisher = Science News
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| accessdate = 2006-06-23
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}}</ref>  However, the results of studies were not found to correspond to this flaw.
  
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''Randomization'' - When subjects are asked to choose from a variety of selections, there is an inherent bias to not choose the first selection they are shown. If the order in which are shown the selections is randomized each time, this bias will be averaged out. However, this was often not done in the Ganzfeld experiments.<ref>
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{{cite journal
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| author = Hyman, Ray
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| year = 1985
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| month =
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| title = The ganzfeld psi experiment: A critical appraisal
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| journal = Journal of Parapsychology
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| volume =
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| issue = 49
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| pages = 3-49
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| doi =
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}}</ref><ref>
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{{cite journal
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| author = Honorton, C
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| year = 1985
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| month =
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| title = Meta-analysis of psi ganzfeld research: A response to Hyman
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| journal = Journal of Parapsychology
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| volume =
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| issue = 49
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| pages = 51-91
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| doi =
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| id =
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| url =
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| format =
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| accessdate =
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}}</ref>
  
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'''Telepathy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] τῆλε, ''tele'', "distant"; and πάθεια, ''patheia'', "feeling") is defined in [[parapsychology]] as the paranormal acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feelings or activity of another person.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref> The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the [[Society for Psychical Research]],<ref>
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''The psi assumption'' - The assumption that any statistical deviation from chance is evidence for telepathy is highly controversial, and often compared to the [[God of the gaps]] argument. Strictly speaking, a deviation from chance is only evidence that either this was a rare, statistically unlikely occurrence that happened by chance, or ''something'' was causing a deviation from chance. Flaws in the experimental design are a common cause of this, and so the assumption that it must be telepathy is [[fallacy|fallacious]]. This does not rule out, however, that it could be telepathy.<ref>
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{{cite web
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| url = http://skepdic.com/psiassumption.html
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| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary: Psi Assumption
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| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
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| authorlink =
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| coauthors =
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| date =
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| year = 2005
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| month =
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| format =
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| work =
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| publisher =
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| pages =
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| accessdate = 2006-06-23
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}}</ref>
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Parapsychologists respond, however that while there are many potential theoretical explanations of psi, parapsychology as a science does not claim to understand what psi is, but
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<blockquote>
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Instead, [parapsychologists] design experiments to test experiences that people have reported throughout history. If rigorous tests for what we have called [say] "telepathy" result in effects that look like, sound like, and feel like the [often more impressive <ref>http://twm.co.nz/FAQpara2.htm#9.5 Parapsychology FAQ, Compiled by Dean Radin, PhD of UNLV's Cognitive Research Division ''A helpful guide to parapsychology and the facts regarding that field'', Retrieved December 26, 2006</ref>] experiences reported in real life, then call it what you will, but the experiments confirm that this common experience is not an illusion.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> (Radin 1997: 210)
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</blockquote>
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"Psi" is the name for an unknown factor, not necessarily for a force or factor outside the current range of scientific knowledge.
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==Controversy==
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The existence of telepathy is still a matter of extreme controversy, with many [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] stating that evidence for it does not exist.  A scientific methodology which always shows [[Reliability (statistics)|statistically significant]] evidence of telepathy has yet to be discovered.  Skeptics argue that the lack of a definitive experiment whose [[reproducibility]] is near 100% (e.g. those which exist for [[magnetism]]) may indicate that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy.  Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
{{cite web
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| url = http://skepdic.com/telepath.html
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| url = http://skepdic.com/esp.html
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| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy
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| title = The Skeptic's Dictionary; ESP (extrasensory perception)
 
| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
 
| author = Carroll, Robert Todd
 
| year = 2005
 
| year = 2005
 
| publisher = SkepDic.com
 
| publisher = SkepDic.com
 
| accessdate = 2006-09-13
 
| accessdate = 2006-09-13
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}}</ref> and has superseded earlier expressions such as ''thought-transference''.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>  Telepathy is considered a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] or [[anomalous cognition]].<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#g See entry for "GENERAL EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION".  From the Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref> Telepathy is often associated with other [[paranormal phenomena]], such as [[precognition]], [[clairvoyance]], and [[psychokinesis]].  
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}}</ref><ref>"Most academic psychologists do not yet accept the existence of psi..."
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{{cite web
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| url = http://www.dina.kvl.dk/~abraham/psy1.html
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| title = Does Psi Exist?
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| author = Bem, Daryl J. and Honorton, Charles
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| year = 1994
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| publisher = Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18
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| accessdate = 2006-09-13
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}}</ref>  Those who believe that telepathy may exist say that very few experiments in psychology, biology, or medicine can be reproduced at will with consistent results.  Parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]] argue that the extremely positive results from reputable studies, when analyzed using [[meta-analysis]], provide strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref>.
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==Fraud==
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Some critics say that some positive results of [[parapsychological]] experiments, where they are not due to design flaws, may be due to deliberate fraud.
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<blockquote>
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There are at least half a dozen peer-reviewed journals of parapsychology. However, research in this area has been characterized by deception, fraud, and incompetence in setting up properly controlled experiments and evaluating statistical data (Alcock 1990; Gardner 1981; Gordon 1987; Hansel 1989; Hines 1990; Hyman 1989; Park 2000; Randi 1982)."<ref>http://skepdic.com/parapsy.html Skeptics Dictionary on Parapsychology</ref>
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</blockquote>
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Some parapsychological studies have been badly designed, in such a way as to permit fraud.  In the case of [[Project Alpha]], magician James Randi planted magicians as subjects of a parapsychological experiment, and they were able to fool the researchers over a prolonged period.<ref>http://www.banachek.org/nonflash/project_alpha.htm Project Alpha, The Skeptical Inquirer Summer 1983 ''The Project Alpha Experiment: Part one. The First Two Years'' by James Randi</ref> Such methodological failures have been cited by skeptics as evidence of the probability that many parapsychological results derive from error or fraud.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
  
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==Types of telepathy==
 
  
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'''Latent Telepathy''' is telepathy in which a time lag is observed between the transmission and receipt of the telepathic communique.  '''Precognitive Telepathy''' occurs when a telepath obtains paranormal knowledge about what the state of another person's mind will be in the near or distant future.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006</ref>
 
  
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==Research results==
 
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{{main|Scientific investigation of telepathy|Ganzfeld experiment|Parapsychology}}
 
  
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[[Parapsychologists]] have conducted numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy.  Many of these experiments have yielded positive results,<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"> ''The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena'' by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0</ref> most notably using the [[Ganzfeld experiment|ganzfield procedure]].  However, a technique which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy with 100% reliability has yet to be discovered. This lack of reliable reproducibility has led skeptics to argue that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy at all.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in experimental design, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]], president of the [[Parapsychological Association]] argue that the sheer amount of positive results from reputable studies, particularly using [[meta-analysis]], provides strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means.<ref name="ConsciousUniverse"/> Detractors counter that Radin is too accepting of studies as "reputable".{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
  
 
==Theories of telepathy==
 
==Theories of telepathy==
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[[Image:Converging technologies.png|thumb|200px|right|[http://www.wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies/'''''Converging Technologies'''''], a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance.]]
 
[[Image:Converging technologies.png|thumb|200px|right|[http://www.wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies/'''''Converging Technologies'''''], a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance.]]
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Some people, occasionally referred to by themselves or others as "[[Transhumanism|transhumanists]]", believe that technologically enabled telepathy, coined "'''techlepathy'''", will be the inevitable future of humanity. [[Kevin Warwick]] of the [[University of Reading]], [[England]] is one of the leading [[Professor|expert]] proponents of this view, and has based all of his recent [[Cybernetics]] research around developing practical, safe devices for directly connecting human nervous systems together with computers and with each other. He believes techno-enabled telepathy will become the sole or at least the primary form of human communication in the future. He asserts that this will happen by means of the principle of [[natural selection]], which he predicts will force nearly everybody to make use of the technology for economic and social reasons once it becomes available to all.<ref>{{cite web
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Some people, occasionally referred to by themselves or others as "[[Transhumanism|transhumanists]]," believe that technologically enabled telepathy, coined "'''techlepathy'''," will be the inevitable future of humanity. [[Kevin Warwick]] of the [[University of Reading]], [[England]] is one of the leading [[Professor|expert]] proponents of this view, and has based all of his recent [[Cybernetics]] research around developing practical, safe devices for directly connecting human nervous systems together with computers and with each other. He believes techno-enabled telepathy will become the sole or at least the primary form of human communication in the future. He asserts that this will happen by means of the principle of [[natural selection]], which he predicts will force nearly everybody to make use of the technology for economic and social reasons once it becomes available to all.<ref>{{cite web
 
| url = http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/267/Default.aspx
 
| url = http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/267/Default.aspx
 
| title = Evolving Towards Telepathy
 
| title = Evolving Towards Telepathy
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==Telepathy in fiction==
 
==Telepathy in fiction==
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<!--Please don't add specific examples of telepathy in books/stories/movies/comics/games here. There are too many such examples and the section would grow indefinitely —>
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A number of [[superhero]]es and [[supervillain]]s, as well as figures in many science fiction novels, etc., use telepathy. Notable telepaths include the [[Jedi]] in ''[[Star Wars]]'', [[Betazoids]] and [[Vulcans]] (among others) in ''[[Star Trek]]''; [[Talia Winters]], [[Lyta Alexander]],[[Alfred Bester (Babylon 5)|Alfred Bester]], and the rest of the [[Psi Corps]] of ''[[Babylon 5]]''; the [[dragons]] of [[Pern]]; [[Wendy Smith (seaQuest DSV)|Dr. Wendy Smith]] of ''[[seaQuest DSV]]''; J'onn J'onnz, the [[Martian Manhunter]] of the [[Justice League]]; [[Professor X|Charles Xavier]], [[Jean Grey]], [[Psylocke|Betsy Braddock]] and [[Emma Frost]] of the [[X-Men]], and the [[Magicians in fantasy|wizards]] of the Young Wizards Series.
 
A number of [[superhero]]es and [[supervillain]]s, as well as figures in many science fiction novels, etc., use telepathy. Notable telepaths include the [[Jedi]] in ''[[Star Wars]]'', [[Betazoids]] and [[Vulcans]] (among others) in ''[[Star Trek]]''; [[Talia Winters]], [[Lyta Alexander]],[[Alfred Bester (Babylon 5)|Alfred Bester]], and the rest of the [[Psi Corps]] of ''[[Babylon 5]]''; the [[dragons]] of [[Pern]]; [[Wendy Smith (seaQuest DSV)|Dr. Wendy Smith]] of ''[[seaQuest DSV]]''; J'onn J'onnz, the [[Martian Manhunter]] of the [[Justice League]]; [[Professor X|Charles Xavier]], [[Jean Grey]], [[Psylocke|Betsy Braddock]] and [[Emma Frost]] of the [[X-Men]], and the [[Magicians in fantasy|wizards]] of the Young Wizards Series.
  
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*[[Magnetoencephalography]], measuring the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain
 
*[[Magnetoencephalography]], measuring the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain
 
*[[Neural oscillations]], a concept similar to brain waves
 
*[[Neural oscillations]], a concept similar to brain waves
−
*[[Extended mind]], the concept that things frequently used by the mind become part of it
 
 
*[[Clairvoyance]], a form of extra-sensory perception
 
*[[Clairvoyance]], a form of extra-sensory perception
−
*[[Mentalist]], claims to manipulate and change spiritual reality
 
−
*[[Willing game]], a telepathy-related Victorian parlour game
 
−
*[[Clever Hans]], a horse that appeared to answer questions
 
−
*[[Body language]], another form of paralinguistics
 
−
*[[Seven Experiments That Could Change the World]], proposals for future research
 
−
*[[Rupert Sheldrake]], a pioneer in [[morphic resonance]]
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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<references/>
 
<references/>
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==References==
 +
 +
*{{Harvard reference
 +
|Surname1=Alcock|Given1=James
 +
|Year=1981
 +
|Title=Parapsychology: Science or Magic?  A Psychological Perspective
 +
|Publisher=[[Pergamon Press]]
 +
|ID=ISBN 0-08-025772-0 }}
 +
 +
*{{Harvard reference
 +
|Surname1=Alcock|Given1=James E.
 +
|Year=1990
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|Title=Science and Supernature: A Critical Appraisal of Parapsychology
 +
|Publisher=[[Prometheus Books]]
 +
|ID=ISBN 0-87975-516-4}}
 +
 +
*{{Harvard reference
 +
|Surname1=Hansel|Given1=C. E. M.
 +
|Year=1966
 +
|Title=ESP: A Scientific Evaluation
 +
|Publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]]
 +
|ID=ISBN 0684310503 }}
 +
 +
*{{Harvard reference
 +
|Surname1=Hansel|Given1=C.E.M.
 +
|Year=1989
 +
|Title=The Search for Psychic Power: ESP & Parapsychology Revisited
 +
|Publisher=Prometheus Books
 +
|ID=ISBN 0-87975-533-4}}
 +
 +
*{{Harvard reference
 +
|Surname1=Hyman|Given1=Ray|Authorlink1=Ray Hyman
 +
|Year=1989
 +
|Title=The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research
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|Publisher=Prometheus Books
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|ID=ISBN 0-87975-504-0}}
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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{{Credits|Telepathy|115484773|Scientific_investigation_of_telepathy|116098239|}}

Revision as of 21:33, 30 March 2007


Telepathy (from the Greek τῆλε, tele, "distant"; and πάθεια, patheia, "feeling") is defined in parapsychology as the paranormal acquisition of information concerning the thoughts, feelings or activity of another person.[1] The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research,[2] and has superseded earlier expressions such as thought-transference.[3] Telepathy is considered a form of extra-sensory perception or anomalous cognition.[4] Telepathy is often associated with other paranormal phenomena, such as precognition, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis.

Types of telepathy

Latent Telepathy is telepathy in which a time lag is observed between the transmission and receipt of the telepathic communique. Precognitive Telepathy occurs when a telepath obtains paranormal knowledge about what the state of another person's mind will be in the near or distant future.[5]

Research results

Parapsychologists have conducted numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy. Many of these experiments have yielded positive results,[6] most notably using the ganzfield procedure. However, a technique which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy with 100% reliability has yet to be discovered. This lack of reliable reproducibility has led skeptics to argue that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy at all.[citation needed] Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in experimental design, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.[citation needed] Parapsychologists such as Dean Radin, president of the Parapsychological Association argue that the sheer amount of positive results from reputable studies, particularly using meta-analysis, provides strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means.[6] Detractors counter that Radin is too accepting of studies as "reputable".[citation needed]

Template:POV-body

Numerous scientific experiments seeking evidence of telepathy have been conducted over more than a century. Many of these studies have yielded positive results, most notably using the Ganzfield procedure. However, telepathy, as with all parapsychological subjects, remains controversial.

Early investigations

Western scientific investigation of telepathy is generally recognized as having begun with the initial program or research of the Society for Psychical Research. The apex of their early investigations was the report published in 1886 as the two-volume work Phantasms of the Living. It was with this work that the term "telepathy" was introduced, replacing the earlier term "thought transference." Although much of the initial investigations consisted largely of gathering anecdotal accounts with follow-up investigations, they also conducted experiments with some of those who claimed telepathic abilities.[citation needed] However, their experimental protocols were far more lax than those used today.[citation needed]

In 1917, psychologist John E. Coover from Stanford University conducted a series of telepathy tests involving transmitting/guessing playing cards. His participants were able to guess the identity of cards with overall odds against chance of 160 to 1;[citation needed] however, Coover did not consider the results to be significant enough to report this as a positive result. [citation needed]

The best-known early telepathy experiments were those of J. B. Rhine and his associates at Duke University, beginning in the 1927 using the distinctive ESP Cards of Karl Zener (see also Zener Cards). These involved more rigorous and systematic experimental protocols than those from the 19th century, used what were assumed to be 'average' participants rather than those who claimed exceptional ability, and used new developments in the field of statistics to evaluate results. Results of these and other experiments were published by Rhine in his popular book Extra Sensory Perception, which popularized the term.

Another influential book about telepathy was Mental Radio, published in 1930 by the Pulitzer prize-winning author Upton Sinclair (with foreword by Albert Einstein). In it Sinclair describes the apparent ability of his wife at times to reproduce sketches made by himself and others, even when separated by several miles. They note in their book that the results could also be described by the more general term clairvoyance, and they did some experiments whose results suggested that in fact no sender was necessary, and some drawings could be reproduced precognitively.[citation needed]

By the 1960s, many parapsychologists had become dissatisfied with the forced-choice experiments of J. B. Rhine, partly because of boredom on the part of test participants after many repetitions of monotonous card-guessing,[citation needed] and partly because of the observed "decline effect" where the accuracy of card guessing would decrease over time for a given participant, which some parapsychologists attributed to this boredom.[citation needed]

Some parapsychologists turned to free response experimental formats where the target was not limited to a small finite predetermined set of responses (e.g., Zener cards), but rather could be any sort of picture, drawing, photograph, movie clip, piece of music etc.[citation needed]

Notable experiments

The following is a list of some notable experiments done on telepathy in modern history.

Zener card experiments

File:Cartas Zener.svg.png
Zener cards

Dates run: 1930's

Experimental philosophy: A Zener Card deck is created, which consists of five cards each of five different symbols. The deck is shuffled, and the subject is asked to guess the identity of each card as it is drawn and viewed by a sender. In this experiment, telepathy is assumed to be weak, and only expected to give a small deviation towards correct answers.[citation needed]

Experimental design: J. B. Rhine, the experimenter, would sit across a table from the subject. He would shuffle the Zener Card deck, and draw cards one at a time. For each card, he would look at it and ask the psychic to guess its identity by reading his mind. A hit rate of significantly more or less than 20% was considered to be evidence of telepathy. Hit rates significantly below 20% were reguarded psi-missing, the phenomenon in which psi may cause missing due to the attitude of the experimenter or subject toward the situation or subject matter.[7]

Results: Rhine's studies produced results which were significantly above or below chance in a statistical sense.[6] He noted, however, that this experiment couldn't adequately distinguish telepathy from clairvoyance.[8]

Ganzfeld experiments

Dates run: 1974 to present

Experimental philosophy: The subject is placed in sensory deprivation, in hopes that this will make it easier to receive and notice incoming telepathic signals. In this experiment, telepathy is assumed to be weak, and only expected to give a small deviation towards correct answers.[9]

Experimental design: The receiver (a possible psychic, who is being tested) is placed in a soundproof room and sits reclining in a comfortable chair. The subject wears headphones which play continuous white noise or pink noise. Halves of ping pong balls are placed over their eyes, and a red light is shined onto the subject's face. These conditions are designed to cause the receiver to enter a state similar to being in a sensory deprivation chamber.

The sender is seated in another soundproof room, and is assigned one of four potential targets, randomly selected. Typically, these targets are pictures or video clips. The sender attempts to telepathically "send" information about the target to the receiver. The receiver is generally asked to speak throughout the sending process, and their voice is piped to the sender and experimenter. This is to assist the sender in determining if their method of "sending" information about the target is working, and adjust it if necessary. Breaks may be taken, and the sending process may be repeated multiple times.

Once the sending process is complete, the experimenter removes the receiver from isolation. The receiver is then shown the four potential targets, and asked to choose which one they believe the sender saw. In order to avoid potential confounding factors, the experimenter must remain ignorant of which target was chosen until the receiver makes their choice, and multiple sets of the pictures of videos should be used in order to avoid handling cues (evidence, such smudges on a picture, that the picture was handled by the sender).[citation needed]

A statistical analysis is performed to find out whether the subject scored significantly above or below chance.[10]

Results: Many meta-analyses performed on multiple Ganzfeld experiments returned a hit rate of between 30% and 40%, which is significantly higher than the 25% expected by chance.[11][12]

Criticism

The following are common criticisms of some or all of the Ganzfeld experiments:

Isolation - Not all of the studies used soundproof rooms, so it is possible that when videos were playing, the experimenter (or even the receiver) could have heard it, and later given involuntary cues to the receiver during the selection process.[13] However, ganzfeld studies which did use soundproof rooms had a number of "hits" similar to those which did not.[6] (Radin 1997: 77-89)

Handling cues - Only 36% of the studies performed used duplicate images or videos, so handling cues on the images or degradation of the videos may have occurred during the sending process.[14] However, the results of studies were not found to correspond to this flaw.

Randomization - When subjects are asked to choose from a variety of selections, there is an inherent bias to not choose the first selection they are shown. If the order in which are shown the selections is randomized each time, this bias will be averaged out. However, this was often not done in the Ganzfeld experiments.[15][16]

The psi assumption - The assumption that any statistical deviation from chance is evidence for telepathy is highly controversial, and often compared to the God of the gaps argument. Strictly speaking, a deviation from chance is only evidence that either this was a rare, statistically unlikely occurrence that happened by chance, or something was causing a deviation from chance. Flaws in the experimental design are a common cause of this, and so the assumption that it must be telepathy is fallacious. This does not rule out, however, that it could be telepathy.[17]

Parapsychologists respond, however that while there are many potential theoretical explanations of psi, parapsychology as a science does not claim to understand what psi is, but

Instead, [parapsychologists] design experiments to test experiences that people have reported throughout history. If rigorous tests for what we have called [say] "telepathy" result in effects that look like, sound like, and feel like the [often more impressive [18]] experiences reported in real life, then call it what you will, but the experiments confirm that this common experience is not an illusion.[6] (Radin 1997: 210)

"Psi" is the name for an unknown factor, not necessarily for a force or factor outside the current range of scientific knowledge.

Controversy

The existence of telepathy is still a matter of extreme controversy, with many skeptics stating that evidence for it does not exist. A scientific methodology which always shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy has yet to be discovered. Skeptics argue that the lack of a definitive experiment whose reproducibility is near 100% (e.g. those which exist for magnetism) may indicate that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy. Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies, and the occasional cases of fraud which have marred the field.[19][20] Those who believe that telepathy may exist say that very few experiments in psychology, biology, or medicine can be reproduced at will with consistent results. Parapsychologists such as Dean Radin argue that the extremely positive results from reputable studies, when analyzed using meta-analysis, provide strong evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means[6].

Fraud

Some critics say that some positive results of parapsychological experiments, where they are not due to design flaws, may be due to deliberate fraud.

There are at least half a dozen peer-reviewed journals of parapsychology. However, research in this area has been characterized by deception, fraud, and incompetence in setting up properly controlled experiments and evaluating statistical data (Alcock 1990; Gardner 1981; Gordon 1987; Hansel 1989; Hines 1990; Hyman 1989; Park 2000; Randi 1982)."[21]

Some parapsychological studies have been badly designed, in such a way as to permit fraud. In the case of Project Alpha, magician James Randi planted magicians as subjects of a parapsychological experiment, and they were able to fool the researchers over a prolonged period.[22] Such methodological failures have been cited by skeptics as evidence of the probability that many parapsychological results derive from error or fraud.[citation needed]


Theories of telepathy

In seeking a theory to explain telepathy, some parapsychologists have looked to aspects of quantum theory as a possible explanation. Some physicists, such as Nick Herbert, have pondered whether quantum mechanical effects would permit forms of communication, perhaps including telepathy, that aren't dependent on "classical" mechanisms such as electromagnetic radiation.[23] Experiments have been conducted by scientists such as Gao Shen at the Institute of Quantum Physics in Beijing,[citation needed] China to study whether quantum entanglements can be verified between human minds.[citation needed] Such experiments usually include monitoring for synchronous EEG patterns between two hypothetically "entangled" minds. Thus far, no conclusive evidence has been revealed.[24] Telepathy has been proposed to take place when two people's minds give off alpha waves at a cyclic rate between nine and eleven per second[citation needed].

Controversy

Image:Cartas Zener.svg|thumb|200px|right|Zener cards

Parapsychologists and skeptics agree that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena such as mediumism, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading.[25] [26] [27] Magicians such as Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, but they proffer psychological explanations instead of paranormal ones. They have identified, described and developed complex psychological techniques of cold reading and hot reading.

The future of telepathy

File:Converging technologies.png
Converging Technologies, a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance.

Some people, occasionally referred to by themselves or others as "transhumanists," believe that technologically enabled telepathy, coined "techlepathy," will be the inevitable future of humanity. Kevin Warwick of the University of Reading, England is one of the leading expert proponents of this view, and has based all of his recent Cybernetics research around developing practical, safe devices for directly connecting human nervous systems together with computers and with each other. He believes techno-enabled telepathy will become the sole or at least the primary form of human communication in the future. He asserts that this will happen by means of the principle of natural selection, which he predicts will force nearly everybody to make use of the technology for economic and social reasons once it becomes available to all.[28][29]

Telepathy in fiction

A number of superheroes and supervillains, as well as figures in many science fiction novels, etc., use telepathy. Notable telepaths include the Jedi in Star Wars, Betazoids and Vulcans (among others) in Star Trek; Talia Winters, Lyta Alexander,Alfred Bester, and the rest of the Psi Corps of Babylon 5; the dragons of Pern; Dr. Wendy Smith of seaQuest DSV; J'onn J'onnz, the Martian Manhunter of the Justice League; Charles Xavier, Jean Grey, Betsy Braddock and Emma Frost of the X-Men, and the wizards of the Young Wizards Series.

The mechanics of telepathy in fiction vary widely. Some fictional telepaths are limited to receiving only thoughts that are deliberately sent by other telepaths, or even to receiving thoughts from a specific other person. For example, in Robert A. Heinlein's 1956 novel Time for the Stars, certain pairs of twins are able to send telepathic messages to each other. Some telepaths can read the thoughts only of those they touch. At the opposite end of the spectrum, some telepathic characters continuously sense the thoughts of those around them and may control or dampen this ability only with difficulty, or not at all. In such cases, telepathy is often portrayed as a mixed blessing or as a curse.

Some fictional telepaths possess mind control abilities, which can include "pushing" thoughts, feelings, or hallucinatory visions into the mind of another person, causing pain, paralysis, or unconsciousness, altering or erasing memories, or completely taking over another person's mind and body (similar to spiritual possession). Characters with this ability may or may not also have the ability to read thoughts.

Here is a composite list of fictional characters with telepathy.

See also

File:Magnetoencephalography.png
Origin of the brain's magnetic field
  • Empathy, one's ability to recognize, perceive and directly experientially feel the emotion of another
  • Precognition, a form of extra-sensory perception involving seeing future events
  • Parapsychology, the study of paranormal phenomena
  • Psychokinesis, the use of mental power to move or affect objects
  • Magnetoencephalography, measuring the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain
  • Neural oscillations, a concept similar to brain waves
  • Clairvoyance, a form of extra-sensory perception

Notes

  1. ↑ http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006
  2. ↑ Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy. SkepDic.com. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
  3. ↑ http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006
  4. ↑ http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#g See entry for "GENERAL EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION." From the Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006
  5. ↑ http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved Dec 19, 2006
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0-06-251502-0
  7. ↑ http://www.parapsych.org/sheep_goat_effect.htm The Sheep - Goat Effect by Mario Varvoglis, Ph.D., from the website of the Parapsychological Association, retrieved December 27, 2006
  8. ↑ Randi, James (1995). An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-15119-5. 
  9. ↑ Bem, Daryl J. and Honorton, Charles (1994). Does Psi Exist?. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18. Retrieved 2006-06-23.
  10. ↑ ibid
  11. ↑ ibid
  12. ↑ Hyman, Ray (March/April, 1996). The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality. Skeptical Inquirer. Retrieved 2006-06-23.
  13. ↑ Wiseman, R., Smith, M,. Kornrot, D. (June 1996). Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments. Journal of Parapsychology.
  14. ↑ Carpenter, S. (July 31, 1999). ESP findings send controversial message. Science News. Retrieved 2006-06-23.
  15. ↑ Hyman, Ray (1985). The ganzfeld psi experiment: A critical appraisal. Journal of Parapsychology (49): 3-49.
  16. ↑ Honorton, C (1985). Meta-analysis of psi ganzfeld research: A response to Hyman. Journal of Parapsychology (49): 51-91.
  17. ↑ Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). The Skeptic's Dictionary: Psi Assumption. Retrieved 2006-06-23.
  18. ↑ http://twm.co.nz/FAQpara2.htm#9.5 Parapsychology FAQ, Compiled by Dean Radin, PhD of UNLV's Cognitive Research Division A helpful guide to parapsychology and the facts regarding that field, Retrieved December 26, 2006
  19. ↑ Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). The Skeptic's Dictionary; ESP (extrasensory perception). SkepDic.com. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
  20. ↑ "Most academic psychologists do not yet accept the existence of psi..." Bem, Daryl J. and Honorton, Charles (1994). Does Psi Exist?. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 1, 4-18. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
  21. ↑ http://skepdic.com/parapsy.html Skeptics Dictionary on Parapsychology
  22. ↑ http://www.banachek.org/nonflash/project_alpha.htm Project Alpha, The Skeptical Inquirer Summer 1983 The Project Alpha Experiment: Part one. The First Two Years by James Randi
  23. ↑ http://twm.co.nz/herbert.htm Retrieved January 3, 2007
  24. ↑ http://www.parapsych.org/papers/44.pdf Retrieved January 3, 2007
  25. ↑ http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology - An Overview By Eberhard Bauer, Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, in the European Journal of Parapsychology, 1984, 5, 141-166, Retrieved February 09, 2007
  26. ↑ O',Keeffe, Ciarán and Wiseman Richard: Testing alleged mediumship: Methods and results. British Journal of Psychology (2005), 96, 165–17. http://www.psy.herts.ac.uk/wiseman/papers/MediumBJP.pdf
  27. ↑ Rowland, Ian: The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading. http://ianrowland.com/ItemsToBuy/ColdReading/ColdReadingMain1.html
  28. ↑ Dvorsky, George (2004). Evolving Towards Telepathy. Betterhumans.com. Retrieved 2006-10-24.
  29. ↑ TakeAway Media (2000). "Leviathan: Back to the Future: An interview with Kevin Warwick". BBC Two. Retrieved 2006-10-24.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Alcock, James (1981), Parapsychology: Science or Magic? A Psychological Perspective, Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-025772-0
  • Alcock, James E. (1990), Science and Supernature: A Critical Appraisal of Parapsychology, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-516-4
  • Hansel, C. E. M. (1966), ESP: A Scientific Evaluation, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0684310503
  • Hansel, C.E.M. (1989), The Search for Psychic Power: ESP & Parapsychology Revisited, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-533-4
  • Hyman, Ray (1989), The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-504-0

External links


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