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| − | [[Image:Talmud Babli bokhylle.jpg|thumb|200px|The Babylonian Talmud]]
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| − | The '''Talmud''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: תלמוד) is a record of [[rabbi]]nical discussions pertaining to [[Halakha|Jewish law]], biblical interpretation, [[Jewish ethics|ethics]], customs, and history. It is the basis for all codes of rabbinical law and is much quoted in other [[Jewish literature]].
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| − | The Talmud has two basic components: the ''[[Mishnah]]'' (c. 200 C.E.), the first written compendium of [[Judaism]]'s [[Oral Law]]; and the ''[[Gemara]]'' (c. 500 C.E.), a rabbinical discussion of the Mishnah and related writings that often ventures into other subjects and expounds broadly on the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Printed editions of the Talmud also contain later commentaries from rabbinical authorities through the Middle Ages. The terms ''Talmud'' and ''Gemara'' are often used interchangeably.
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| − | There are two versions of the Talmud—the [[Babylonian Talmud]] and the [[Jerusalem Talmud]]—each containing basically the same ''Mishnah'' but a different ''Gemara''. Of these, the Babylonian Talmud is larger, better edited, and more influential. Other commentaries were also added to later editions of the Talmud.
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| − | In European history, the Talmud was sometimes suppressed by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], and it became a source of [[anti-semitism|anti-semitic]] literature in modern times, when excerpts from it were quoted to "prove" ideas of Jewish arrogance and hatred toward [[Gentiles]]. In fact, the Talmud contains the opinions of hundreds of rabbis, often including strong disagreements on many subjects. Like the [[Bible]] itself, it can be used to support varying positions on many subjects.
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| − | == History ==
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| − | [[Image:José de Ribera 041.jpg|thumb|150px|According to Jewish tradition, God revealed the Oral Law to Moses at Sinai, as well as the Written Law. The Talmud is the expression of the Oral Law.]]
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| − | ===Oral Law===
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| − | Rabbinical tradition holds that the Talmud expresses a sacred [[Oral Torah]], equally authoritative to the Written Law given to [[Moses]] at Sinai. Originally, Jewish legal and biblical scholarship was also oral. This situation changed drastically, however, mainly as the result of the defeat of the [[Jewish Revolt]] against Rome in the year 70 C.E. and the consequent upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. As the rabbis were required to face a new reality—especially the fact of [[Judaism]] without a [[Temple of Jerusalem|Temple]]—there was a flurry of legal discourse and the tradition of oral scholarship was committed to writing.
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| − | The earliest recorded Oral Law may have been of the [[midrash|midrashic]] form, in which Jewish legal discussion was structured as [[exegesis|exegetical]] commentary on the [[Torah|Pentateuch]]. An alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 C.E., when [[Judah haNasi|Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi]] redacted the [[Mishnah]].
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| − | ===Mishnah===
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| − | The ''[[Mishnah]]'' forms the core of the Talmud. It is a compilation of legal opinions and debates of leading rabbis of the second century. The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as ''[[tannaim]]'', meaning roughly "sages." Since it sequences its laws by subject matter instead of by biblical context, the Mishnah discusses individual subjects more thoroughly than the [[Midrash]], and it includes a much broader selection of ''halakhic'' (legal) subjects than the Midrash. The Mishnah's topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole.
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| − | In addition to the Mishnah, other rabbinical works were recorded at about the same time or shortly thereafter. The Talmud frequently refers to these tannaic statements in order to compare them to those contained in the Mishnah and to support or refute the propositions of various rabbinical authorities. All such non-Mishnaic sources of the ''tannaim'' are termed [[beraita|''baraitot'']] (lit. outside material, "Works external to the Mishnah"; sing. baraita ברייתא).
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| − | [[Image:Talmud.jpg|thumb|A page of the Vilna Edition of the [[Babylonian Talmud]], Tractate Berachot, folio 2a, featuring a ''Mishnah'' passage in the center and the ''Gemara'' and other commentaries surrounding it]]
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| − | === Gemara ===
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| − | In the three centuries following the redaction of the [[Mishnah]], rabbis throughout [[Palestine]] and [[Babylonia]] analyzed, debated and discussed that work. These discussions form the [[Gemara]] (גמרא). The rabbis of the Gemara are known as [[amoraim]] (sing. ''amora'' אמורא). ''Gemara'' means “completion,” from ''gamar'' גמר : [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] to complete; [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] to study.
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| − | Much of the Gemara consists of legal analysis. The starting point for the analysis is usually a legal statement found in a Mishnah. The statement is then analyzed and compared with other statements in a [[Dialectic|dialectical exchange]] between two (frequently anonymous and sometimes metaphorical) disputants, termed the ''makshan'' (questioner) and ''tartzan'' (answerer).
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| − | These exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the Gemara; the name for a passage of Gemara is a ''[[Gemara#The Sugya|sugya]]'' (סוגיא; plural ''sugyot''). A ''Sugya'' will typically be comprised of a detailed proof-based elaboration of a mishnaic statement.
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| − | In a given ''sugya'', scriptural, ''tannaic'' and ''amoraic'' statements are brought to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will often include disagreements between tannaim and amoraim, and compare the mishnaic views with passages from the [[Beraita]]. Rarely are debates formally closed; in many instances, the final word determines the practical law, although there are many exceptions to this principle.
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| − | ===Halakha and Aggadah===
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| − | The Talmud contains a vast amount of material and touches on a great many subjects. Traditionally talmudic statements can be classified into two broad categories: ''halakhic'' and ''agaddic''. Halakhic statements are those which directly relate to questions of Jewish law and practice ([[Halakha]]). Aggadic statements are those which are not legally related, but rather are exegetical, homiletical, ethical, or historical in nature ([[Aggadah]]).
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| − | ==Babylon and Jerusalem==
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| − | The process of [[Gemara]] proceeded in the two major centers of Jewish scholarship, [[Land of Israel|Palestine]] and [[Babylonia]]. Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of the ''Talmud'' were created. The older compilation is called the [[Jerusalem Talmud]] or the ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. It was compiled sometime during the fourth century in [[Palestine]]. The [[Babylonian Talmud]] was compiled about the year 500 C.E., although it continued to be edited later. The word "Talmud," when used without qualification, usually refers to the Babylonian Talmud, which is the better known of the two editions.
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| − | ===The Jerusalem Talmud===
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| − | [[Image:Yerushalmi Talmud.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A page of a medieval Jerusalem Talmud manuscript, from the [[Cairo Genizah]]]]
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| − | The Jerusalem Talmud originated in [[Tiberias]] in the [[School of Johanan ben Nappaha]]. It is a compilation of teachings of the rabbinical schools of Tiberias, [[Sepphoris]] and [[Caesarea]]. It is written in both [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a western [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] dialect that differs from its [[Babylon|Babylonian]] counterpart.
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| − | Its final redaction probably belongs to the end of the fourth century, but the individual scholars who brought it to its present form cannot be fixed with assurance. By this time [[Christianity]] had become the state religion of the [[Roman Empire]] and Jerusalem, the holy city of [[Christendom]]. The text is evidently incomplete and is not easy to follow. Any further work on the Jerusalem Talmud probably came to an abrupt end in 425 C.E., when [[Theodosius II]] suppressed the Jewish [[Nasi|Patriarchate]] and put an end to the practice of [[semicha|formal scholarly ordination]] in the Jewish community.
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| − | Despite this, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge regarding the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. Opinions based on the Jerusalem Talmud ultimately found their way into both the [[Tosafot]] and the [[Mishneh Torah]] of [[Maimonides]].
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| − | ===The Babylonian Talmud===
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| − | [[Image:Chasan Shas.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Volumes of the Babylonian Talmud]]
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| − | Since the [[Babylonian Exile]] of 586 B.C.E., Jews had been living in settlements outside of Judea, and most of the captives did not return home to Jerusalem when this was finally allowed. After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. and the later failure of the [[Bar Kochba]] revolt, many more Jews moved east. The most important of the Jewish centers were Nehardea, Nisibis, Mahoza, Pumbeditha and Sura.
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| − | ''Talmud Bavli'' (the "Babylonian Talmud") includes the Mishnah and the Babylonian ''Gemara''. This Gemara is a synopsis of more than 300 years of analysis of the Mishnah in the Babylonian academies.
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| − | The man who laid the foundations for the Babylonian Talmud was known simply as [[Abba Arika|Rab]], a disciple of Rabbi [[Judah ha-Nasi]], the compiler of the [[Mishnah]]. Rabbi [[Ashi]] was president of the Sura academy from 375 to 427 C.E. The work begun by Ashi was completed by [[Rabina]]. According to ancient tradition, Rabina was the final ''amoraic'' expounder. His death in 499 C.E. marked the completion of the redaction of the Talmud.
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| − | The question as to when the Gemara was finally put into its present form is not settled among modern scholars. Some of the text did not reach its final form until around 700 C.E.
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| − | === Comparing the two Talmuds===
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| − | There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the [[Jerusalem Talmud]] is primarily a western [[Aramaic]] dialect which differs from that of the [[Babylonian Talmud|Babylonian]]. The ''Talmud Yerushalmi'' is also often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the ''Talmud Bavli'', on the other hand, is more careful and precise.
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| − | In the Bavli, however, Gemara exists only for 37 out of the 63 ''tractates'' of the Mishnah. Many agricultural ritual purity laws having to do with the Temple had little practical relevance in [[Babylonia]] and were therefore not included. The Yerushalmi, though, covers a number of these chapters.
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| − | The influence of the Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the ''Yerushalmi''. This is mainly because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of [[Palestine]] steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud, as Jews in the Islamic lands received much better treatment than they did in the later Christian Empire.
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| − | == Commentary and study ==
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| − | From the time of its completion, the Talmud became integral to Jewish scholarship. The earliest post-[[Gemara]] Talmud commentaries were written by the [[Gaonim]]—the presidents of the rabbinical academies—(approximately 800-1000 C.E.) in [[Babylonia]].
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| − | Early commentators such as Rabbi [[Isaac Alfasi]] (North Africa, 1013-1103) attempted to extract and determine the binding legal opinions from the vast corpus of the Talmud. Alfasi's work was highly influential and later served as a basis for the creation of ''halakhic'' codes. Another influential medieval halakhic commentary was that of Rabbi [[Asher ben Yechiel]] (d. 1327). A fifteenth-century [[Spain|Spanish]] rabbi, Jacob ibn Habib (d. 1516), composed the ''En Yaaqob''. En Yaaqob (or Ein Yaaqov) extracts nearly all the [[Aggadah|aggadic]] material from the Talmud. It was intended to familiarize the public with the ethical parts of the Talmud and to dispute many of the accusations surrounding its contents.
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| − | Besides ''halakhic'' studies, another major area of talmudic scholarship developed in order to explain these passages and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu [[Gershom of Mainz]] (tenth century) and [[Chananel Ben Chushiel|Rabbenu Hananel]] (early eleventh century) produced running commentaries to various tractates. These commentaries could be read with the text of the Talmud and would help explain the meaning of the text. Another important work is the ''Sefer ha-Mafteach'' (Book of the Key) by [[Nissim Ben Jacob|Nissim Gaon]], which contains a preface explaining the different forms of talmudic argumentation and then explains abbreviated passages in the Talmud by referring to parallel passages where the same thought is expressed in full. Using a different style, Rabbi Nathan b. Jechiel created a [[lexicon]] called the ''Arukh'' in the eleventh century in order to translate difficult words.
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| − | [[Image:Rashi woodcut.jpg|thumb|Sixteenth-century woodcut of Rashi]]
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| − | By far the most well known commentary on the Babylonian Talmud is that of [[Rashi]] (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040-1105). Rashi's commentary is comprehensive, covering almost the entire Talmud. It is considered indispensable to students of the Talmud and is included as a running commentary in modern editions. [[Maimonides]]' commentary on the [[Mishnah]], though limited in scope compared to Rahsi's, exerted a similarly great influence.
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| − | Medieval [[Ashkenazi]]c Jewry produced another major commentary known as [[Tosafists|Tosafot]] ("additions" or "supplements"). The ''Tosafot'' are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic rabbis on the Talmud. One of the main goals of the ''Tosafot'' is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the Talmud. Unlike ''Rashi'', the ''Tosafot'' is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of ''Tosafot'' differ from those of ''Rashi''.
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| − | Over time, the approach of the ''tosafists'' spread to other Jewish communities, particularly that of the [[Sephardi]]c communities in Spain. This led to the composition of many other commentaries in similar styles. Among these are the commentaries of [[Nachmanides|Ramban]], [[Rashba]], [[Ritva]], [[Nissim of Gerona|Ran]], [[Meir Abulafia|Yad Ramah]], and [[Meiri]].
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| − | In later centuries, focus partially shifted from direct talmudic interpretation to the analysis of previously written talmudic commentaries. These later commentaries include "Maharshal" ([[Solomon Luria]]), "Maharam" ([[Meir Lublin]]) and "Maharsha" ([[Samuel Edels]]).
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| − | ===Printing===
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| − | The first complete edition of the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] [[Babylonian Talmud|Talmud]] was [[Printing|printed]] in Italy by [[Daniel Bomberg]] during the sixteenth century. In addition to the ''Mishnah'' and ''Gemara'', Bomberg's edition contained the ''[[Tosafot]]'', the commentaries of [[Rashi]]. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. In 1835, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by Menachem Romm of Vilna ([[Vilnius]], Lithuania). Known as the [[Vilna edition|''Vilna Shas'']], this edition (and later ones printed by his widow and sons) have become an unofficial standard for Talmud editions. In the Vilna edition of the Talmud there are 5,894 folio pages.
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| − | ===Pilpul===
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| − | During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a new intensive form of Talmud study arose. Complicated logical arguments were used to explain minor points of contradiction within the Talmud. The term ''[[pilpul]]'', which means "pepper" in Hebrew and was applied to this type of study, which hearkens back to the Talmudic era and refers to the intellectual sharpness this method demanded. Pilpul practitioners posited that the Talmud could contain no redundancy or contradiction whatsoever. New categories and distinctions were therefore created, resolving seeming contradictions within the Talmud by novel logical means.
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| − | Pilpul study reached its height in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when expertise in pilpulistic analysis was considered an art form and became a goal in and of itself within the ''yeshivot'' (schools) of [[Poland]] and [[Lithuania]]. However, many sixteenth- and seventeenth-century rabbis were also critical of pilpul. Among them may be noted Judah Loew b. Bezalel (the [[Maharal]]), [[Isaiah Horowitz]], and [[Yair Bacharach|Jair Hayyim Bacharach]].
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| − | By the eighteenth century, ''pilpul'' study waned. Instead, other styles of learning such as that of the school of Elijah b. Solomon, the [[Vilna Gaon]], became popular.
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| − | ===Brisker method===
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| − | [[Image:Meir Shapiro talmidim.jpg|thumb|250px|Orthodox Jews studying the Talmud]]
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| − | In the late nineteenth century another trend in Talmud study arose. Rabbi [[Chaim Soloveitchik|Hayyim Soloveitchik]] (1853-1918) of Brisk (Brest-Litovsk) developed and refined this style of study. The [[Brisker method]] involves the analysis of rabbinic arguments within the Talmud, explaining the differing opinions by placing them within a categorical structure. The Brisker method is highly analytical and is often criticized as being a modern-day version of the ''Pilpul''. Nevertheless, the influence of the Brisker method is great. Most modern day ''yeshivot'' (Hebrew schools) study the Talmud using the Brisker method in some form. And it is through this method that [[Maimonides]]' famous ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' began to be read not only as a ''halakhic'' work but also as a work of general talmudic interpretation.
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| − | ===Critical method===
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| − | The text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history.<ref>One of [[Rashi's]] major accomplishments was textual correction. Some ''tosafists'', too, emended the talmudic text (See e.g. ''Baba Kamma'' 83b ''s.v.'' ''af haka'ah ha'amurah'' or ''Gittin'' 32a ''s.v. mevutelet'') as did many other medieval commentators (see e.g. R. Shlomo ben Adrat, ''Hidushei ha-Rashb"a al ha-Sha"s'' to ''Baba Kamma'' 83b, or Rabbenu Nissim's commentary to Alfasi on ''Gittin'' 32a).</ref> In general, however, traditional commentaries shied away from textual criticism of talmudic passages. In the late eighteenth century, liberalization of social restrictions against [[Judaism|Jew]]s resulted in Judaism undergoing enormous upheaval and transformation. Such movements as [[Reform Judaism]] and other secularizing and assimilating trends emerged. During this time, modern methods of textual and historical analysis were applied to the Talmud.
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| − | Leaders of the Reform movement, such as [[Abraham Geiger]] and [[Samuel Holdheim]], subjected the Talmud to severe scrutiny as part of an effort to break with traditional [[rabbinic Judaism]]. In reaction, Orthodox leaders such as [[Moses Sofer]] and [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]] rejected modern critical methods of Talmud study. The methods and manner of Talmud study were thus caught in the debate between the Reformers and Orthodoxy. A middle ground was developed by scholars who believed that, while tampering with Jewish law should be avoided, traditional Jewish sources such as the Talmud should be subject to academic inquiry and critical analysis. Exponents of this view were [[Zecharias Frankel]], [[Leopold Zunz]] and [[Solomon Judah Leib Rappaport]].
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| − | Because the modern method of historical study had its origins in the era of religious reform, the method was immediately controversial within the Orthodox world. Still, many of the nineteenth century's strongest critics of Reform, including strictly Orthodox rabbis, utilized this new scientific method. Notable among them were [[Nachman Krochmal]] and [[Zvi Hirsch Chajes]].
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| − | ==External attacks==
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| − | ===Suppression===
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| − | [[Image:Talmudtrial.jpg|thumb|left|The burning of the Talmud]]
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| − | The history of the Talmud reflects in part the history of [[Judaism]] persisting in a world of hostility and persecution. The charge against the Talmud brought by the convert [[Nicholas Donin]] in 1244 led to the first burning of copies of the Talmud in [[Paris]]. The Talmud was likewise the subject of a disputation at [[Barcelona]] in 1263 between [[Nahmanides]] (Rabbi Moses ben Nahman) and the convert [[Pablo Christiani]]. Criticizing the Talmud's [[Oral Law]] tradition as a [[heresy]] against the [[Bible]], Christiani's attacks also resulted in a [[papal bull]] against the Talmud and in the Dominican censorship commission, which ordered the cancellation of passages reprehensible from a [[Christianity|Christian]] perspective (1264).
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| − | At the disputation of [[Tortosa]] in 1413, Geronimo de Santa Fé brought forward a number of accusations, including the fateful assertion that the condemnations of pagans and apostates found in the Talmud referred in reality to Christians. Two years later, [[Pope Martin V]], who had convened this disputation, issued a bull forbidding the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the destruction of all copies of it. Thankfully, this order was not implemented. Far more important were the charges made in the early part of the [[sixteenth century]] by the convert [[Johannes Pfefferkorn]], the agent of the Dominicans whose efforts succeeded in forcing the Jews in several areas to surrender the talmudic books in their possession.
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| − | [[Image:Pfefferkorn and reuchlin.jpg|thumb|248px|Pfefferkorn (standing) disputes with his adversary, [[Johannes Reuchlin]]. Woodcut, [[Cologne]], 1521]]
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| − | The affair resulted in an investigation which proved some of Pfefferkorn's allegations to be irresponsible. Under the protection of a papal privilege, the complete printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud was issued in 1520 by [[Daniel Bomberg]] in [[Venice]]. Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg published the first edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. Yet, 30 years after the Vatican permitted the Talmud to appear in print, it undertook a campaign of destruction against it. On September 9, 1553, copies of the Talmud which had been confiscated in compliance with a decree of the [[Inquisition]] were burned in [[Rome]]; and similar burnings took place in other Italian cities, as at [[Cremona]] in 1559. Censorship of the Talmud and other Hebrew works was introduced by a papal bull issued in 1554; five years later the Talmud was included in the first [[Index Expurgatorius]]—the Vatican's list of forbidden books. [[Pope Pius IV]] commanded in 1565 that the Talmud be deprived of its very name.
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| − | The first edition of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subsequent editions were based, appeared at [[Basel]] (1578-1581) with the omission of passages considered inimical to Christianity, together with modifications of certain phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was decreed by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] (1575-85), and in 1593 [[Pope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]] renewed the old interdiction against reading or owning it. However, the increasing study of the Talmud in [[Poland]] led to the issue of a complete edition ([[Kraków]], 1602-5), with a restoration of the original text. In 1707, copies of the Talmud were confiscated in the province of [[Brandenburg]], but were restored to their owners by command of [[Friedrich I of Prussia|Frederick, the first king of Prussia]]. The last attack on the Talmud took place in Poland in 1757, when Bishop Dembowski convened a public disputation at Kamenetz-Podolsk, and ordered all copies of the work found in his bishopric to be confiscated and burned by the hangman.
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| − | ===Anti-Jewish criticism===
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| − | The external history of attacks against the Talmud also includes the literary attacks made upon it by [[Christianity|Christian]] theologians after the [[Reformation]]. [[Martin Luther]] and other Reformation theologians harshly criticized Jews and [[Judaism]], and many of these attacks were based on the Talmud.
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| − | Later, in 1830, during a debate in the [[France|French]] Chamber of Peers regarding state recognition of the Jewish faith, [[Admiral Verhuell]] declared himself unable to forgive the Jews whom he had met during his travels either for their refusal to recognize [[Jesus]] as the [[Messiah]] or for their possession of the Talmud. In the same year the [[Abbé Luigi Chiarini]] published in [[Paris, France|Paris]] a voluminous work entitled ''Théorie du Judaïsme'', advocating for the first time that the Talmud should be generally accessible, not to serve the Jewish community, but to serve for attacks on Judaism. In a like spirit, modern [[anti-semitism|anti-Semitic]] agitators have urged that a translation be made. The Talmud and the "Talmud Jew" thus became objects of anti-Semitic attacks, although, on the other hand, they were defended by many Christian students of the Talmud.
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| − | In fact, the Talmud makes little mention of Jesus directly or the early Christians. There are a number of derogatory quotes about individuals named [[Yeshu]] that once existed in editions of the Talmud; these quotes were long ago removed from the main text due to accusations that they referred to Jesus, and are no longer used in Talmud study. However, these removed quotes were preserved through rare printings of lists of ''errata'', known as ''Hashmatot Hashass'' ("Omissions of the Talmud"). Some modern editions of the Talmud contain some or all of this material, either at the back of the book, in the margin, or in alternate print.
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| − | == Role of the Talmud in Judaism ==
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| − | The Talmud is the written record of an oral tradition. It became the basis for many rabbinic legal codes and customs. Not all Jews, in the past and present, have accepted the Talmud as having religious authority. This section briefly outlines such movements.
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| − | ===Sadducees===
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| − | The [[Sadducees]] were a Jewish sect which flourished during the second temple period. One of their main arguments with the [[Pharisees]] (the precursors of [[Rabbinic Judaism]]) was over their rejection of an ''Oral Law''. The Sadducees rejected the idea of the [[Oral Torah]] and insisted that only the five Books of Moses were authoritative. They also were less likely to accept the authority of some of the [[prophets]] and other biblical writings, especially those dealing with such topics as the resurrection of the dead. Because they were largely associated with the Temple priesthood, the Sadducees influence rapidly diminished after the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E.
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| − | ===Karaism===
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| − | Another movement which rejected the Oral Law was [[Karaism]]. It arose within two centuries of the completion of the Talmud. Karaism developed as a reaction against the Talmudic Judaism of Babylonia. The central concept of Karaism is the rejection of the [[Oral Torah]]—and therefore of rabbinical authority—as embodied in the Talmud, in favor of a strict adherence to the Written Law only. Karaism was once a major movement, but has diminished in recent centuries, declining from a high of nearly 10 percent of the Jewish population to a current estimated .002 percent.
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| − | ===Reform Judaism===
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| − | With the rise of [[Reform Judaism]], during the nineteenth century, the authority of the Talmud was again questioned. The Talmud was seen (together with the Written Law as well) as being a product of antiquity and of having limited relevance to modern Jews. Reform Judaism does not emphasize the study of Talmud to nearly the same degree in their Hebrew schools as do other forms of contemporary Judaism, but the Talmud is indeed studied in Reform rabbinical seminaries.
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| − | ===Orthodox Judaism===
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| − | [[Image:Pale teacher.jpg|thumb|A nineteenth century Talmud teacher and young students, probably his own children]]
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| − | [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] Judaism continues to stress the importance of Talmud study and it is a central component of [[Yeshiva]] curriculum. The regular study of the Talmud among laymen has been popularized by the ''[[Daf Yomi]]'', a daily course of Talmud study initiated by Rabbi [[Meir Shapiro]] in 1923. Traditional rabbinic education continues to lay heavy emphasis on the knowledge of Talmud.
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| − | ===Conservative Judaism===
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| − | [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] Judaism similarly emphasizes the study of Talmud within its religious and rabbinic education. Generally, however, the Talmud is studied as a historical source-text for [[Halakha]]. The Conservative approach to legal decision-making emphasizes placing classic texts and prior decisions in historical and cultural context, and examining the historical development of Halakha. This approach has resulted in greater practical flexibility than that of the Orthodox.
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| − | ===Secular Judaism===
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| − | Many Jews today define themselves as Jews only in an ethnic or cultural sense. These Jews reject the tenets of Jewish religion outright, defining themselves either as agnostics or atheists. Included in the latter category are Jewish [[Marxism|Marxists]] and [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninists]], who take a militantly atheistic stance, believing that religion itself is primarily a tool of economic oppression.
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| − |
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| − | == Translations ==
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| − | === Talmud Bavli ===
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| − | There are five contemporary translations of the Talmud into English:
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| − | * ''Tractate Beitzah: The Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud''. In this translation, each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. The English pages are elucidated and heavily annotated; each Aramaic/Hebrew page of Talmud typically requires three [[English language|English]] pages of translation.<ref>See also: [http://www.artscroll.com/Talmud1.htm Mesorah Talmud site]. ''www.artscroll.com''. Retrieved October 2, 2007.</ref> Mesorah Publications, 1992. ISBN 9780899067308
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| − | * ''The Soncino Talmud'', [[Isidore Epstein]]. Notes on each page provide additional background material. This translation is published both on its own and in a parallel text edition, in which each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. It also exists on CD-ROM. Bnpublishing.com; CD-ROM edition, 2005. ISBN 9568351140
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| − | * ''The Talmud of Babylonia. An American Translation'', [[Jacob Neusner]], Tzvee Zahavy, others. Scholars Press, 1984. ISBN 9780891307396
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| − | * ''The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition'', [[Adin Steinsaltz]]. This work is in fact a translation of Rabbi Steinsaltz' [[Hebrew language]] translation of and commentary on the entire Talmud. <ref>See also: [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=17 Steinsaltz Talmud site]. ''www.steinsaltz.org''. Retrieved October 2, 2007.</ref> Random House; American Ed. edition, 1999. ISBN 9780375503504
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| − | * ''The Babylonian Talmud'', translated by [[Michael L. Rodkinson]], Randon House (incomplete). This ten volume translation (1918) is also available on the internet.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm Talmud]. ''www.sacred-texts.com''. Retrieved October 2, 2007.</ref> Talmud Society, 1918. OCLC 3453933. More current version also available: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1419153420
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| − |
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| − | === Talmud Yerushalmi ===
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| − | *''The Yerushalmi—The Talmud of the Land of Israel: A Preliminary Translation and Explanation'', [[Jacob Neusner]], Tzvee Zahavy, others. Jason Aronson Press, 1992. ISBN 9780876688120
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| − |
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| − | *''Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud'' Mesorah/Artscroll. This translation is the counterpart to Mesorah/Artscroll's Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud). <ref> [http://www.artscroll.com/Books/ytal.html Mesorah/Artscroll's website for the Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud]. ''www.artscroll.com''. Retrieved october 2, 2007.</ref> Mesorah Publications, 2005. ISBN 9781422602348
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| − |
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| − | ==See also==
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| − | *[[Babylonian Talmud]]
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| − | *[[Jerusalem Talmud]]
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| − | *[[Mishnah]]
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| − | *[[Tosefta]]
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| − | *[[Beraita]]
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| − | *[[Gemara]]
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| − | *[[Rabbi]]
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| − |
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | <references />
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| − |
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| − | ==References==
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| − | * Carmell, Aryeh. ''Aiding Talmud Study''. Feldheim, 5th ed., 1986. ISBN 978-0873064286
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| − | * Herford, R. Travers. ''Christianity in Talmud and Midrash''. Ktav Pub. Inc., 1975. ISBN 0870684833
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| − | * Lampel, Zvi. ''[[Maimonides]]' Introduction to the [[Maimonides#Works and bibliography|Commentary on the Mishnah]]''. Judaica Press, 1998. ISBN 1880582287
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| − | * Landesman, D. ''A Practical Guide to Torah Learning''. Jason Aronson, 1995. ISBN 1568213204
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| − | * [[Neusner, Jacob]]. ''Sources and Traditions: Types of Compositions in the Talmud of Babylonia''. University of South Florida, 1992. ISBN 1555406750
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| − | * Parry, Aaron. ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to The Talmud''. Alpha Books, 2004. ISBN 1592572022
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| − | * [[Steinsaltz, Adin]]. ''The Talmud, The Steinsaltz Edition: A Reference Guide''. Random House, 1996. ISBN 0679773673
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| − |
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | All links retrieved October 2, 2007.
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| − | *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T Talmud] – www.jewishencyclopedia.com
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| − | *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=33&letter=T Talmud Commentaries] – www.jewishencyclopedia.com
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| − | *[http://www.aish.com/literacy/jewishhistory/Crash_Course_in_Jewish_History_Part_39_-_Talmud.asp Jewish History: Talmud] – www.aish.com
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| − | *[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/talmud_&_mishna.html Talmud/Mishnah/Gemara Talmud online] – www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
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| − | *[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudPage.html "A Page from the Babylonian Talmud"] – www.acs.ucalgary.ca
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| − | *[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/2/Judaism/talmud.html Talmud and its Shape] – ccat.sas.upenn.edu
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| − | *[http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=17 Steinsaltz Edition of the Talmud page] – www.steinsaltz.org
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| − | *[http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics] – www.adl.org
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| − | *[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/van_hyning.html Falsifiers of the Talmud] – freemasonry.bcy.ca
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| − | [[Category:philosophy and religion]]
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| − | [[Category:Art, music, literature, sports and leisure]]
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