Difference between revisions of "TaNaK" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''TaNaK''' (Hebrew: תנ״ך), or '''Tanakh''', is an acronym that identifies the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The acronym is based on the initial Hebrew letters of each of the text's three parts:
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'''TaNaK''' (Hebrew: תנ״ך), or '''Tanakh''', is an acronym for the Hebrew Bible consisting of the initial Hebrew letters (T + N + K) of each of the text's three major parts. Since the ancient [[Hebrew langauge]] had no clear vowels, subsequent vowel sounds were added to the consonants resulting in the word TaNaK.  The major portions of the Hebrew Bible represented by these three letters are:
  
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#[[Torah]] תורה meaning "Instruction". Also called the ''Chumash'' חומש meaning: "The five"; "The five books of Moses." Also called the "[[Pentateuch]]." The Torah is often referred to as the law of the Jewish people, Christians also accept and incorporate these laws into their beliefs.
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#[[Torah]] (תורה) meaning "Instruction" or "Law." Also called the ''Chumash'' חומש meaning: "The five"; "The five books of Moses." Also called the "[[Pentateuch]]." The Torah is often referred to as the law of the [[Jewish]] people.
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#[[Nevi'im]] נביאים meaning "Prophets." This term is associated with anything to do with the prophets.
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#[[Nevi'im]] (נביאים) meaning "Prophets." This term is associated with anything to do with the prophets.
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#[[Ketuvim]] כתובים meaning "Writings" or "Hagiographa."
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#[[Ketuvim]] (כתובים) meaning "Writings." This part of the Tanakh is further separated into different sections including a group of history books, wisdom books, poetry books and psalms.
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The writings are then separated into sections, for example; there are a group of history books namely, Ezra, Chronicles and Nehemiah. Others include the wisdom books these are: Job, Ecclesiastes and Proverbs. Poetry books; Psalms, Lamentation and Song of Solomon. Lastly there are other books, Ruth, Esther and the book of Daniel.
 
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The Tanakh is also called מקרא, '''Mikra''' or '''Miqra''', meaning "that which is read."
 
  
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==Terminology==
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In Hebrew, the Tanakh is also called מקרא, ''Mikra'' or ''Miqra'', meaning "that which is read. The Tanakh is not only sacred scripture for the Jews but is also considered by Christians to be divinely inspired.
−
The division reflected in the acronym Tanakh is well attested to in documents from the [[Second Temple]] period and in [[Rabbinic literature]].  During that period, however, the acronym Tanakh was not used; rather, the proper term was ''[[Mikra]]'' ("Reading").  The term ''Mikra'' continues to be used to this day alongside ''Tanakh'' to refer to the [[Hebrew scriptures]].  (In modern spoken [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], ''Mikra'' has a more formal flavor than ''Tanakh''.)
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{{toc}}
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According to the Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of 24 books (enumerated below). The ''Torah'' has five books, ''Nevi'im'' eight books, and ''Ketuvim'' has 11.
  
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Because the books included in the Tanakh were predominantly written in Hebrew, it may also be called the [[Hebrew Bible]].  Parts of [[Book of Daniel|Daniyel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], as well as a sentence in [[Book of Jeremiah|Yir'm'yahu]] [[Book of Jeremiah|(Jeremiah)]] and a two-word toponym in [[Book of Genesis|B'reshit]] [[Book of Genesis|(Genesis)]], are in Aramaic — but even these are written in the same [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew script]].
+
These 24 books are the same books found in the [[Protestant]] [[Old Testament]], but the order of the books is different. The enumeration differs as well: Christians count these books as 39, not 24. This is because Jews often count as a single book what Christians count as several. However, the term ''Old Testament'', while common, is often considered pejorative by Jews as it can be interpreted as being inferior or outdated relative to the ''New Testament''.
  
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According to the Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of twenty-four books (enumerated below). The ''Torah'' has five books, ''[[Nevi'im]]'' eight books, and ''[[Ketuvim]]'' has eleven.
+
As such, one may draw a technical distinction between the Jewish Tanakh and the similar, but not identical, corpus that Protestant Christians call the Old Testament. Thus, some scholars prefer the term ''Hebrew Bible'' to cover the commonality of Tanakh and the Old Testament while avoiding sectarian bias.
  
−
These twenty-four books are the same books found in the [[Protestant]] [[Old Testament]], but the order of the books is different.  The enumeration differs as well: Christians count these books as thirty-nine, not twenty-four.  This is because Jews often count as a single book what Christians count as several. However, the term '''Old Testament''', while common, is often considered pejorative by Jews as it can be interpreted as being inferior or outdated relative to the '''New Testament'''.
+
The [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] Old Testaments contain six books not included in the Tanakh. They are called [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books (literally "canonized secondly" meaning canonized later).
  
−
As such, one may draw a technical distinction between the Jewish Tanakh and the similar, but not identical, corpus which Protestant Christians call the [[Old Testament]].  Thus, some scholars prefer ''[[Hebrew Bible]]'' as a term that covers the commonality of Tanakh and the Old Testament while avoiding sectarian bias.
+
In the Christian Bible, Daniel and the Book of Esther sometimes include extra deuterocanonical material that is not included in either the Jewish or most [[Protestant]] [[canon]]s.
  
−
The [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] Old Testaments contain six books not included in the Tanakh. They are called [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books (literally "canonized secondly" meaning canonized later).
+
==Terminology==
−
 
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The acronym "Tanakh" was not used during the period of the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple]]; rather, the proper term ''Mikra'' ("Reading") was used, which had a more formal flavor. Today, the Tanakh is also called the Hebrew Bible because most of its books were predominantly written in Hebrew.  While parts of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], as well as a sentence in Yir'm'yahu ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]) and a two-word toponym in B'reshit ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]), are in Aramaic, even these are written in the same Hebrew script.
−
In Christian Bibles, Daniel and the Book of Esther sometimes include extra [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] material that is not included in either the Jewish or most [[Protestant]] canons.
 
  
 
==Books of the Tanakh==
 
==Books of the Tanakh==
−
The Hebrew text originally consisted only of consonants, together with some inconsistently applied letters used as vowels (''|matres lectionis''). During the early middle ages Masoretes codified the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh by adding two special kinds of symbols to the text: ''niqud'' (vowel points) and cantillation signs. The latter indicate syntax, stress (accentuation), and the melody for reading.
+
The Hebrew text originally consisted only of consonants, together with some inconsistently applied letters used as vowels ''(matres lectionis)''. During the early middle ages, Masoretes codified the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh by adding two special kinds of symbols to the text: ''niqud'' (vowel points) and cantillation signs. The latter indicate syntax, stress (accentuation), and the melody for reading.
  
 
[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|320px|11th century Targum]]
 
[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|320px|11th century Targum]]
−
The books of the Torah have generally-used names which are based on the first prominent word in each book. The English names are not translations of the Hebrew; they are based on the Greek names created for the [[Septuagint]] which in turn were based on [[Rabbinic]] names describing the thematic content of each of the Books.
+
The books of the Torah have generally-used names which are based on the first prominent word in each book. The English names are not translations of the Hebrew; they are based on the Greek names created for the [[Septuagint]] which in turn were based on [[Rabbi|Rabbinic]] names describing the thematic content of each of the Books.
  
 
The ''[[Torah]]'' ("Law") [also known as the Pentateuch] consists of:
 
The ''[[Torah]]'' ("Law") [also known as the Pentateuch] consists of:
−
: 1. [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] [בראשית / B'reshit]  
+
: 1. [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] [בראשית / B'reshit]  
 
: 2. [[Exodus]] [שמות / Sh'mot]  
 
: 2. [[Exodus]] [שמות / Sh'mot]  
 
: 3. [[Leviticus]] [ויקרא / Vayiqra]
 
: 3. [[Leviticus]] [ויקרא / Vayiqra]
Line 41: Line 39:
 
: 7. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] [שופטים / Shophtim]
 
: 7. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] [שופטים / Shophtim]
 
: 8. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] (I & II) [שמואל / Sh'muel]
 
: 8. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] (I & II) [שמואל / Sh'muel]
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: 9.  [[Books of Kings|Kings]] (I & II) [מלכים}} / M'lakhim]
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: 9.  [[Books of Kings|Kings]] (I & II) [מלכים / M'lakhim]
 
: 10. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] [ישעיה / Y'shayahu]
 
: 10. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] [ישעיה / Y'shayahu]
 
: 11. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] [ירמיה / Yir'mi'yahu]
 
: 11. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] [ירמיה / Yir'mi'yahu]
Line 60: Line 58:
  
 
The ''[[Kh'tuvim]]'' ("Writings") are:
 
The ''[[Kh'tuvim]]'' ("Writings") are:
−
: 14. [[Psalms]] [תהלים / T'hilim]
+
: 14. [[Book of Psalms]] [תהלים / T'hilim]
 
: 15. [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] [משלי / Mishlei]
 
: 15. [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] [משלי / Mishlei]
 
: 16. [[Book of Job|Job]] [איוב / Iyov]
 
: 16. [[Book of Job|Job]] [איוב / Iyov]
 
: 17. [[Song of Songs]] [שיר השירים / Shir Hashirim]
 
: 17. [[Song of Songs]] [שיר השירים / Shir Hashirim]
 
: 18. [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] [רות / Rut]
 
: 18. [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] [רות / Rut]
−
: 19. [[Lamentations]] [איכה / Eikhah]
+
: 19. [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] [איכה / Eikhah]
 
: 20. [[Ecclesiastes]] [קהלת / Qohelet]
 
: 20. [[Ecclesiastes]] [קהלת / Qohelet]
 
: 21. [[Book of Esther|Esther]] [אסתר / Est(h)er]
 
: 21. [[Book of Esther|Esther]] [אסתר / Est(h)er]
−
: 22. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] [דניאל}/ Dani'el]
+
: 22. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] [דניאל/ Dani'el]
 
: 23. [[Ezra]]-[[Nehemiah]] [עזרא ונחמיה / Ezra wuNekhem'ya]
 
: 23. [[Ezra]]-[[Nehemiah]] [עזרא ונחמיה / Ezra wuNekhem'ya]
 
: 24. [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] (I & II) [דברי הימים / Divrey Hayamim]
 
: 24. [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] (I & II) [דברי הימים / Divrey Hayamim]
  
 
==Chapters and verse numbers, book divisions==
 
==Chapters and verse numbers, book divisions==
−
The chapter divisions and verse numbers have no significance in the Jewish tradition. Nevertheless, they are noted in all modern editions of the Tanakh so that verses may be located and cited. The division of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles into parts I and II is also indicated on each page of those books in order to prevent confusion about whether a chapter number is from part I or II, since the chapter numbering for these books follows their partition in the Christian textual tradition.  
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The chapter divisions and verse numbers have no significance in the [[Jewish]] tradition. Nevertheless, they are noted in all modern editions of the Tanakh so that verses may be located and cited. The division of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles into parts I and II is also allowed in order to prevent confusion about which part is indicated, following the [[Christian]] textual tradition.  
  
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The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late middle ages in [[Spain]], partially in the context of forced clerical debates which took place against a background of harsh persecution and of the [[Spanish Inquisition]] (the debates required a common system for citing biblical texts). From the standpoint of the Jewish textual tradition, the chapter divisions are not only a foreign feature with no basis in the [[masoretic text|mesorah]], but also open to severe criticism of two kinds:
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The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late middle ages in [[Spain]], partially in the context of forced clerical debates which took place against a background of harsh persecution and of the Spanish [[Holy Inquisition|Inquisition]] (the debates required a common system for citing biblical texts). From the standpoint of the Jewish textual tradition, the chapter divisions are not only a foreign feature with no basis in the [[masoretic text|mesorah]], but also open to severe criticism of two kinds:
  
 
* The chapter divisions often reflect Christian [[exegesis]] of the Bible.
 
* The chapter divisions often reflect Christian [[exegesis]] of the Bible.
−
* Even when they do not imply Christian exegesis, the chapters often divide the biblical text at numerous points that may be deemed inappropriate for literary or other reasons.
+
* Even when they do not imply Christian exegesis, the chapters often divide the Biblical text at numerous points that may be deemed inappropriate for literary or other reasons.
  
−
Nevertheless, because they proved useful — and eventually indispensable — for citations, they continued to be included by Jews in most Hebrew editions of the biblical books.  For more information on the origin of these divisions, see chapters and verses of the Bible.
+
Nevertheless, because they proved useful—and eventually indispensable—for citations, they continued to be included by Jews in most Hebrew editions of the Biblical books.   
  
−
The chapter and verse numbers were often indicated very prominently in older editions, to the extent that they overshadowed the traditional Jewish masoretic divisions. However, in many Jewish editions of the Tanakh published over the past forty years, there has been a major historical trend towards minimizing the impact and prominence of the chapter and verse numbers on the printed page. Most editions accomplish this by removing them from the text itself and relegating them to the margins of the page. The main text in these editions is unbroken and uninterrupted at the beginning of chapters (which are noted only in the margin). The lack of chapter breaks within the text in these editions also serves to reinforce the visual impact created by the spaces and "paragraph" breaks on the page, which indicate the traditional Jewish parashah divisions.
+
The chapter and verse numbers were often indicated very prominently in older editions, to the extent that they overshadowed the traditional Jewish masoretic divisions. However, in many Jewish editions of the Tanakh published over the past 40 years, there has been a major historical trend towards minimizing the impact and prominence of the chapter and verse numbers on the printed page. Most editions accomplish this by removing them from the text itself and relegating them to the margins of the page. The main text in these editions is unbroken and uninterrupted at the beginning of chapters (which are noted only in the margin). The lack of chapter breaks within the text in these editions also serves to reinforce the visual impact created by the spaces and "paragraph" breaks on the page, which indicate the traditional Jewish parashah divisions.
  
−
These modern Jewish editions present Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (as well as Ezra) as single books in their title pages, and make no indication inside the main text of their division into two parts (though it is noted in the upper and side margins). The text of Samuel II, for instance, follows Samuel I on the very same page with no special break at all in the flow of the text, and may even continue on the very same line of text.
+
These modern Jewish editions present Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (as well as Ezra) as single books in their title pages, and make no indication inside the main text of their division into two parts (though it is noted in the upper and side margins). The text of Samuel II, for instance, follows Samuel I on the very same page with no special break at all in the flow of the text, and may even continue on the very same line of text.
  
 
==Oral Torah==
 
==Oral Torah==
−
:See: ''[[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law in Judaism]]''.
+
Rabbinical [[Judaism]] believes that the Torah was transmitted side by side with an oral tradition. These rabbinic works, collectively known as "the oral law" [תורה שבעל פה], include the [[Mishnah]], the [[Tosefta]], the two [[Talmud]]s (Babylonian and Jerusalem), and the early [[Midrash]] compilations. They were intended to clarify the written Torah.
−
 
 
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Rabbinical Judaism believes that the Torah was transmitted side by side with an oral tradition. Other groups, such as [[Karaite Judaism]] and the majority of [[Christian]]s, exceptions being certain Hebraic Roots and [[Messianic]] groups, do not accept this claim. Many terms and definitions used in the written law are undefined within the Torah itself, and the reader is assumed to be familiar with the context and details. This fact is presented as evidence to the antiquity of the oral tradition. An opposing argument is that only a small portion of the vast rabbinic works on the oral tradition can be described as mere clarifications and context. These rabbinic works, collectively known as "the oral law" [תורה שבעל פה], include the [[Mishnah]], the [[Tosefta]], the two [[Talmud]]s (Babylonian and Jerusalem), and the early [[Midrash]] compilations.
 
  
 
==Available texts==
 
==Available texts==
−
*''Tanakh'', English translation, Jewish Publication Society, 1985, ISBN 0-8276-0252-9
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*''Tanakh''. English translation, Jewish Publication Society, 1985. ISBN 0827602529
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*''Jewish Study Bible'', using NJPS (1985) translation, Oxford U Press, 2003, ISBN 0-19-529754-7
+
*''Jewish Study Bible''. using NJPS 1985. translation, Oxford U Press, 2003. ISBN 0195297547
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*''Tanach: The Stone Edition'', Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996, ISBN 0-89906-269-5
+
*''Tanach: The Stone Edition''. Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996. ISBN 0899062695
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==See also==
 
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* [[Jewish English Bible translations]]
 
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* [[Bible]]
 
−
* [[Biblical canon]]
 
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* [[Mikraot Gedolot]]
 
−
* [[Rabbinic literature]]
 
−
* [[Septuagint]]
 
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* [[Samaritan Pentateuch]]
 
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* [[Books of the Bible]] for a side-by-side comparison of [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Biblical canon|canons]].
 
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* [[613 mitzvot]], the formal list of all 613 commandments that Jewish sages traditionally identify in the [[Torah]]
 
−
* [[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
 
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* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
 
  
 
==External links ==
 
==External links ==
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{{commonscat|Tanakh}}
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All links retrieved February 26, 2023.
−
 
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* [http://www.levsoftware.com/bible.htm Lev Software] – Download the complete Tanakh in Hebrew with translation and transliteration  
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*[http://www.itanakh.org/ iTanakh.org] An extensive list of links and resources pertaining to the study of the Tanakh
+
* [http://www.tanakhml.org TanakhML] (Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and King James Version)
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=== Online texts ===
 
−
* Download the complete Tanakh in Hebrew with translation and transliteration [http://www.levsoftware.com/bible.htm Lev Software]
 
−
* [[Mikraot Gedolot]] (Rabbinic Bible) at '''[[:s:|Wikisource]]''' in [[:s:Mikraot Gedolot|English]] [[:wikisource:MG Genesis 1:1|(sample)]] and [[:s:he:מקראות גדולות|Hebrew]] [[:s:he:מ"ג נחמיה ח ח|(sample)]]
 
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* [http://www.tanakhml.org TanakhML] ([[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] and [[King James Version]])
 
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* [http://www.cvkimball.com/Tanach/Tanach.xml Unicode/XML Westminster Leningrad Codex] - A transcription of the electronic source maintained by the Westminster Hebrew Institute. ([[Leningrad Codex]])
 
 
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/ Mechon Mamre] - The Hebrew text of the Tanakh based on the [[Aleppo codex]], edited according to the system of Rabbi [[Mordechai Breuer]].  Hebrew text comes in four convenient versions (including one with [[cantillation]] marks) and may be downloaded.  The [[JPS]] 1917 English translation is included as well (including a parallel translation).
 
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/ Mechon Mamre] - The Hebrew text of the Tanakh based on the [[Aleppo codex]], edited according to the system of Rabbi [[Mordechai Breuer]].  Hebrew text comes in four convenient versions (including one with [[cantillation]] marks) and may be downloaded.  The [[JPS]] 1917 English translation is included as well (including a parallel translation).
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* [http://liturgy.exc.com Tanach on Demand] - Custom [[PDF]] versions of any section of the Bible in Hebrew.
 
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=== Reading guides ===
 
 
* [http://www.tora.us.fm/tnk1/klli/limud/skadish/tanakh-index.html A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim] - Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the [[Bible#Chapters and Verses|chapter divisions]]).  The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English.
 
* [http://www.tora.us.fm/tnk1/klli/limud/skadish/tanakh-index.html A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim] - Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the [[Bible#Chapters and Verses|chapter divisions]]).  The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English.
 
* [http://www.threetwoone.org/diagrams/HebrewBibleOutlinePresentation.gif A detailed chart of the major figures and events in the Tanakh]
 
* [http://www.threetwoone.org/diagrams/HebrewBibleOutlinePresentation.gif A detailed chart of the major figures and events in the Tanakh]
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*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=63255 Judaica Press Translation] (online translation of Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary)
+
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=63255 Judaica Press Translation] – (online translation of Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary)
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 02:04, 27 February 2023


TaNaK (Hebrew: תנ״ך), or Tanakh, is an acronym for the Hebrew Bible consisting of the initial Hebrew letters (T + N + K) of each of the text's three major parts. Since the ancient Hebrew langauge had no clear vowels, subsequent vowel sounds were added to the consonants resulting in the word TaNaK. The major portions of the Hebrew Bible represented by these three letters are:

  1. Torah (תורה) meaning "Instruction" or "Law." Also called the Chumash חומש meaning: "The five"; "The five books of Moses." Also called the "Pentateuch." The Torah is often referred to as the law of the Jewish people.
  2. Nevi'im (נביאים) meaning "Prophets." This term is associated with anything to do with the prophets.
  3. Ketuvim (כתובים) meaning "Writings." This part of the Tanakh is further separated into different sections including a group of history books, wisdom books, poetry books and psalms.

In Hebrew, the Tanakh is also called מקרא, Mikra or Miqra, meaning "that which is read. The Tanakh is not only sacred scripture for the Jews but is also considered by Christians to be divinely inspired.

According to the Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of 24 books (enumerated below). The Torah has five books, Nevi'im eight books, and Ketuvim has 11.

These 24 books are the same books found in the Protestant Old Testament, but the order of the books is different. The enumeration differs as well: Christians count these books as 39, not 24. This is because Jews often count as a single book what Christians count as several. However, the term Old Testament, while common, is often considered pejorative by Jews as it can be interpreted as being inferior or outdated relative to the New Testament.

As such, one may draw a technical distinction between the Jewish Tanakh and the similar, but not identical, corpus that Protestant Christians call the Old Testament. Thus, some scholars prefer the term Hebrew Bible to cover the commonality of Tanakh and the Old Testament while avoiding sectarian bias.

The Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain six books not included in the Tanakh. They are called deuterocanonical books (literally "canonized secondly" meaning canonized later).

In the Christian Bible, Daniel and the Book of Esther sometimes include extra deuterocanonical material that is not included in either the Jewish or most Protestant canons.

Terminology

The acronym "Tanakh" was not used during the period of the Second Temple; rather, the proper term Mikra ("Reading") was used, which had a more formal flavor. Today, the Tanakh is also called the Hebrew Bible because most of its books were predominantly written in Hebrew. While parts of Daniel and Ezra, as well as a sentence in Yir'm'yahu (Jeremiah) and a two-word toponym in B'reshit (Genesis), are in Aramaic, even these are written in the same Hebrew script.

Books of the Tanakh

The Hebrew text originally consisted only of consonants, together with some inconsistently applied letters used as vowels (matres lectionis). During the early middle ages, Masoretes codified the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh by adding two special kinds of symbols to the text: niqud (vowel points) and cantillation signs. The latter indicate syntax, stress (accentuation), and the melody for reading.

11th century Targum

The books of the Torah have generally-used names which are based on the first prominent word in each book. The English names are not translations of the Hebrew; they are based on the Greek names created for the Septuagint which in turn were based on Rabbinic names describing the thematic content of each of the Books.

The Torah ("Law") [also known as the Pentateuch] consists of:

1. Genesis [בראשית / B'reshit]
2. Exodus [שמות / Sh'mot]
3. Leviticus [ויקרא / Vayiqra]
4. Numbers [במדבר / B'midbar]
5. Deuteronomy [דברים / D'varim]

The books of Nevi'im ("Prophets") are:

6. Joshua [יהושע / Y'hoshua]
7. Judges [שופטים / Shophtim]
8. Samuel (I & II) [שמואל / Sh'muel]
9. Kings (I & II) [מלכים / M'lakhim]
10. Isaiah [ישעיה / Y'shayahu]
11. Jeremiah [ירמיה / Yir'mi'yahu]
12. Ezekiel [יחזקאל / Y'khezqel]
13. The Twelve Minor Prophets [תרי עשר]
I. Hosea [הושע / Hoshea]
II. Joel [יואל / Yo'el]
III. Amos [עמוס / Amos]
IV. Obadiah [עובדיה / Ovadyah]
V. Jonah [יונה / Yonah]
VI. Micah [מיכה / Mikhah]
VII. Nahum [נחום / Nakhum]
VIII. Habakkuk [חבקוק /Khavaquq]
IX. Zephaniah [צפניה / Ts'phanyah]
X. Haggai [חגי / Khagai]
XI. Zechariah [זכריה / Z'kharyah]
XII. Malachi [מלאכי / Mal'akhi]

The Kh'tuvim ("Writings") are:

14. Book of Psalms [תהלים / T'hilim]
15. Proverbs [משלי / Mishlei]
16. Job [איוב / Iyov]
17. Song of Songs [שיר השירים / Shir Hashirim]
18. Ruth [רות / Rut]
19. Lamentations [איכה / Eikhah]
20. Ecclesiastes [קהלת / Qohelet]
21. Esther [אסתר / Est(h)er]
22. Daniel [דניאל/ Dani'el]
23. Ezra-Nehemiah [עזרא ונחמיה / Ezra wuNekhem'ya]
24. Chronicles (I & II) [דברי הימים / Divrey Hayamim]

Chapters and verse numbers, book divisions

The chapter divisions and verse numbers have no significance in the Jewish tradition. Nevertheless, they are noted in all modern editions of the Tanakh so that verses may be located and cited. The division of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles into parts I and II is also allowed in order to prevent confusion about which part is indicated, following the Christian textual tradition.

The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late middle ages in Spain, partially in the context of forced clerical debates which took place against a background of harsh persecution and of the Spanish Inquisition (the debates required a common system for citing biblical texts). From the standpoint of the Jewish textual tradition, the chapter divisions are not only a foreign feature with no basis in the mesorah, but also open to severe criticism of two kinds:

  • The chapter divisions often reflect Christian exegesis of the Bible.
  • Even when they do not imply Christian exegesis, the chapters often divide the Biblical text at numerous points that may be deemed inappropriate for literary or other reasons.

Nevertheless, because they proved useful—and eventually indispensable—for citations, they continued to be included by Jews in most Hebrew editions of the Biblical books.

The chapter and verse numbers were often indicated very prominently in older editions, to the extent that they overshadowed the traditional Jewish masoretic divisions. However, in many Jewish editions of the Tanakh published over the past 40 years, there has been a major historical trend towards minimizing the impact and prominence of the chapter and verse numbers on the printed page. Most editions accomplish this by removing them from the text itself and relegating them to the margins of the page. The main text in these editions is unbroken and uninterrupted at the beginning of chapters (which are noted only in the margin). The lack of chapter breaks within the text in these editions also serves to reinforce the visual impact created by the spaces and "paragraph" breaks on the page, which indicate the traditional Jewish parashah divisions.

These modern Jewish editions present Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (as well as Ezra) as single books in their title pages, and make no indication inside the main text of their division into two parts (though it is noted in the upper and side margins). The text of Samuel II, for instance, follows Samuel I on the very same page with no special break at all in the flow of the text, and may even continue on the very same line of text.

Oral Torah

Rabbinical Judaism believes that the Torah was transmitted side by side with an oral tradition. These rabbinic works, collectively known as "the oral law" [תורה שבעל פה], include the Mishnah, the Tosefta, the two Talmuds (Babylonian and Jerusalem), and the early Midrash compilations. They were intended to clarify the written Torah.

Available texts

  • Tanakh. English translation, Jewish Publication Society, 1985. ISBN 0827602529
  • Jewish Study Bible. using NJPS 1985. translation, Oxford U Press, 2003. ISBN 0195297547
  • Tanach: The Stone Edition. Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996. ISBN 0899062695

External links

All links retrieved February 26, 2023.

  • Lev Software – Download the complete Tanakh in Hebrew with translation and transliteration
  • TanakhML (Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and King James Version)
  • Mechon Mamre - The Hebrew text of the Tanakh based on the Aleppo codex, edited according to the system of Rabbi Mordechai Breuer. Hebrew text comes in four convenient versions (including one with cantillation marks) and may be downloaded. The JPS 1917 English translation is included as well (including a parallel translation).
  • A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim - Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the chapter divisions). The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English.
  • A detailed chart of the major figures and events in the Tanakh
  • Judaica Press Translation – (online translation of Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary)

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