Difference between revisions of "Songhai Empire" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(spell check and final edit)
Line 5: Line 5:
  
 
==Origins of the Songhay Empire==
 
==Origins of the Songhay Empire==
Prior to the rise of the Songhai Empire, the region had been dominated by the [[Mali Empire]], centered on [[Timbuktu]].  With the preeminence of Mali due to immense riches obtained through trade with the Arab world, and the legendary [[hajj]] of [[Mansa Musa]] the Mali dominance of the region began to decline in face of challenges from the people of the Middle Niger who desired to play a role in the trade routes dominated by Mali. By the early [[15th century]], the Mali Empire was officially in decline, and many subject broke away from Mali rule as internal disputes over sucession weakened the political authority of the crown. One such community who took the opportunity to free themselves from Mali rule were the Songhai , who made the prominent city of Gao their new capital.
+
Prior to the rise of the Songhai Empire, the region had been dominated by the [[Mali Empire]], centered on [[Timbuktu]].  With the preeminence of Mali due to immense riches obtained through trade with the Arab world, and the legendary [[hajj]] of [[Mansa Musa]] the Mali dominance of the region began to decline in face of challenges from the people of the Middle Niger who desired to play a role in the trade routes dominated by Mali. By the early [[15th century]], the Mali Empire was officially in decline, and many subject broke away from Mali rule as internal disputes over succession weakened the political authority of the crown. One such community who took the opportunity to free themselves from Mali rule were the Songhai , who made the prominent city of Gao their new capital.
  
 
===Gao===
 
===Gao===
The history of the ancient city of [[Gao]] has been recontructed from oral history and tombstone writing at the burial site of kings. While the two sources of historical record do not always agree in details, together they form an image of Gao beginnning in the seventh century C.E. While it would not be considered the center of the Songhay empire until early in the eleventh century C.E. , the first records of Gao describe a bustling trade center that had established political autonomy. Capitalisizing on the conditions already existing in Gao, the Songhai chose it as their capital in 1010 C.E., a move which set Gao along the road of future developments and growth.
+
The history of the ancient city of [[Gao]] has been reconstructed from oral history and tombstone writing at the burial site of kings. While the two sources of historical record do not always agree in details, together they form an image of Gao beginning in the seventh century C.E. While it would not be considered the center of the Songhay empire until early in the eleventh century C.E. , the first records of Gao describe a bustling trade center that had established political autonomy. Capitalizing on the conditions already existing in Gao, the Songhai chose it as their capital in 1010 C.E., a move which set Gao along the road of future developments and growth.
  
 
===Dia Kossoi===
 
===Dia Kossoi===
  
The first Dia,or king, of the Songhay empire to enter the historical record is Dia Kossoi, who was responsible for converting the empire to Islam in 1010 C.E., concurrent with the shift to Gao as capital. Many scholars argue that his conversion was a pragmatic measure to benefit relations with [[Berber]] traders, who controlled the caravans and played a major role in the economy of the Songhay empire. This opinion is supported by the existance of non-Muslim customs in the royal court after Dia Kossoi's embrace of [[Islam]].  
+
The first Dia,or king, of the Songhay empire to enter the historical record is Dia Kossoi, who was responsible for converting the empire to Islam in 1010 C.E., concurrent with the shift to Gao as capital. Many scholars argue that his conversion was a pragmatic measure to benefit relations with [[Berber]] traders, who controlled the caravans and played a major role in the economy of the Songhay empire. This opinion is supported by the existence of non-Muslim customs in the royal court after Dia Kossoi's embrace of [[Islam]].  
  
 
===Under Mali Rule===
 
===Under Mali Rule===
Line 24: Line 24:
  
 
===Askia Dynasty===
 
===Askia Dynasty===
By desposing the reigning sunni in battle, Muhammad Turay or Askia the Great of the [[Mandé]] people gained power in the late sixteenth century C.E. His rise to power was facilitated by religious strife within the Songhay empire, as previous leaders had tried to appeal to many religious groups at once, and in doing so, failed to satisfy anyone. Drawing his largest power base from Muslim urban centers, Askia the Great broke with sunni tradition and a political system based on strict interpretations of Islamic law.  His dictates were enforced by well trained military and were carried into the far reaches of the Western [[Sudan]] under a program of expansion.  
+
By deposing the reigning sunni in battle, Muhammad Turay or Askia the Great of the [[Mandé]] people gained power in the late sixteenth century C.E. His rise to power was facilitated by religious strife within the Songhay empire, as previous leaders had tried to appeal to many religious groups at once, and in doing so, failed to satisfy anyone. Drawing his largest power base from Muslim urban centers, Askia the Great broke with sunni tradition and a political system based on strict interpretations of Islamic law.  His dictates were enforced by well trained military and were carried into the far reaches of the Western [[Sudan]] under a program of expansion.  
  
With the implementation of religious idealogy Muhammad also brought political reform and revitalization. He set up a complex bureaucracy with separate departments for agriculture, the army, and the treasury, to each of which he appointed supervising officials.
+
With the implementation of religious ideaology Muhammad also brought political reform and revitalization. He set up a complex bureaucracy with separate departments for agriculture, the army, and the treasury, to each of which he appointed supervising officials.
  
 
==The Height of the Songhay Empire==
 
==The Height of the Songhay Empire==
Line 32: Line 32:
 
=== Economic Structure===
 
=== Economic Structure===
  
Much of the economic foundation of the Songhay empire was formed through interactions between the royal court and the goldfields of the [[Niger River]]. These gold fields, which were often independently operated, provided a steady supply of gold that could be purchased by the Songhay empire and bartered for salt. Salt, always considered a precious commodity, was especially valued in West Africa and it was not uncommon for gold to be traded for equal weight in salt. When coupled with the sale of slaves, salt and gold consisted of the bulk of trans-Saharan trade and Songhai dominance in these commodities solidified Songhay's role as a leader in the trans-Saharan trade system. The Songhai also made crafts for trade, and for religious purposes.
+
Much of the economic foundation of the Songhay empire was formed through interactions between the royal court and the gold fields of the [[Niger River]]. These gold fields, which were often independently operated, provided a steady supply of gold that could be purchased by the Songhay empire and bartered for salt. Salt, always considered a precious commodity, was especially valued in West Africa and it was not uncommon for gold to be traded for equal weight in salt. When coupled with the sale of slaves, salt and gold consisted of the bulk of trans-Saharan trade and Songhai dominance in these commodities solidified Songhay's role as a leader in the trans-Saharan trade system. The Songhai also made crafts for trade, and for religious purposes.
  
The eminance of the Songhay empire was based on small scale agriculture, along with dominance of the gold, salt, slaves commodity market, as eighty percent of the people lived on small, family-owned farms no more than 10 acres large. Small farming interests were then represented by the the ''Julla'' (merchants) who would form partnerships, which were then protected by the state.  
+
The eminence of the Songhay empire was based on small scale agriculture, along with dominance of the gold, salt, slaves commodity market, as eighty percent of the people lived on small, family-owned farms no more than 10 acres large. Small farming interests were then represented by the the ''Julla'' (merchants) who would form partnerships, which were then protected by the state.  
  
 
===Expansion===
 
===Expansion===
Line 40: Line 40:
  
 
==Decline of the Songhay Empire==
 
==Decline of the Songhay Empire==
Following Daoud's death, however, a civil war over succession weakened the Empire, leading [[Moroccan|Morocco]] [[Sultan]] [[Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi]] to dispatch an invasion force under the  [[Judar Pasha]]. [[Judar Pasha]] was a [[Spain|Spaniard]] by birth, but had been captured as a baby and educated at the Moroccan court. After a cross-[[Sahara]]n march, Judar's forces razed the salt mines at [[Taghaza]] and moved on Gao; when [[Askia Ishaq II]] (r. [[1588]]-[[1591]]) met Judar at the 1591 [[Battle of Tondibi]], the Songhai forces were routed by the Moroccan's [[gunpowder]] weapons despite vastly superior Songhai numbers.  Judar sacked Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power.  However, governing such a vast empire across such long distances proved too much for the Moroccans, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms.
+
The wealth and economic dominance of the Songhay empire, while beneficial to the royal establishment, proved an enticing object for many of its competitors, who were willing to use military force to stifle the power of the Songhai. Most significant among the challengers to Sonhgay dominion was the Moroccan interest, who sought control of Songhay's extensive wealth. Economic motivations, when coupled with civil war over succession that weakened the authority of the central Songhay government, led [[Moroccan|Morocco]] [[Sultan]] [[Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi]] to dispatch an invasion force under the  [[Judar Pasha]]. [[Judar Pasha]] was a [[Spain|Spaniard]] by birth but served as a leader of the Moroccan army due to be being raised at the Moroccan court after being captured at a young age. After a cross-[[Sahara]]n march, Judar's forces razed the salt mines at [[Taghaza]] and moved on Gao; when [[Askia Ishaq II]] (r. [[1588]]-[[1591]]) met Judar at the 1591 [[Battle of Tondibi]], the Songhai forces were routed by the Moroccan's [[gunpowder]] weapons despite vastly superior Songhai numbers.  Judar sacked Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power.   
 +
 
 +
However, governing such a vast empire across such long distances proved too much for the Moroccans, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms. The final blow to the Songhay empire was not being conquered by the Moroccans, but rather the inability of the disjointed smaller kingdoms to form a political alliance and reassert a strong central government. The Moroccan invasion also served to free many of the Songhay tributary states that had previously been sources of slaves for the trans-Sharan trade routes. Recognizing their chance to ensure bodily freedom, many of the subject slave populations rose up to deal the final blow to the weakened Songhay empire. The largest of these groups was the [[Doghorani]], who played an instrumental role in the rebellion.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
Line 48: Line 50:
  
 
==Bibliography==
 
==Bibliography==
*Cissoko, S. M., ''Timbouctou et l'empire songhay'', Paris. 1975.
+
*Cissoko, S. M., ''Timbouctou et l'empire Songhay'', Paris. 1975.
 
*Hunwick, J., ''Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire'', Leiden. 2003. ISBN 9004125604
 
*Hunwick, J., ''Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire'', Leiden. 2003. ISBN 9004125604
 
*Lange, D., ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa'', Dettelbach. 2004 ISBN 3897541157
 
*Lange, D., ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa'', Dettelbach. 2004 ISBN 3897541157

Revision as of 08:12, 18 June 2007

The Songhai Empire, c. 1500

The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire, was a pre-colonial African state centered in the eastern portion of present day Mali. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest African empires in West Africa, and maintained as its capital Gao, where a small Songhai state had existed since around 9th century. The Songhay Empire drew much of its power from the areas on the bend of the Niger River in present-day Niger and Burkina Faso. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhai.

Origins of the Songhay Empire

Prior to the rise of the Songhai Empire, the region had been dominated by the Mali Empire, centered on Timbuktu. With the preeminence of Mali due to immense riches obtained through trade with the Arab world, and the legendary hajj of Mansa Musa the Mali dominance of the region began to decline in face of challenges from the people of the Middle Niger who desired to play a role in the trade routes dominated by Mali. By the early 15th century, the Mali Empire was officially in decline, and many subject broke away from Mali rule as internal disputes over succession weakened the political authority of the crown. One such community who took the opportunity to free themselves from Mali rule were the Songhai , who made the prominent city of Gao their new capital.

Gao

The history of the ancient city of Gao has been reconstructed from oral history and tombstone writing at the burial site of kings. While the two sources of historical record do not always agree in details, together they form an image of Gao beginning in the seventh century C.E. While it would not be considered the center of the Songhay empire until early in the eleventh century C.E. , the first records of Gao describe a bustling trade center that had established political autonomy. Capitalizing on the conditions already existing in Gao, the Songhai chose it as their capital in 1010 C.E., a move which set Gao along the road of future developments and growth.

Dia Kossoi

The first Dia,or king, of the Songhay empire to enter the historical record is Dia Kossoi, who was responsible for converting the empire to Islam in 1010 C.E., concurrent with the shift to Gao as capital. Many scholars argue that his conversion was a pragmatic measure to benefit relations with Berber traders, who controlled the caravans and played a major role in the economy of the Songhay empire. This opinion is supported by the existence of non-Muslim customs in the royal court after Dia Kossoi's embrace of Islam.

Under Mali Rule

Following the death of Kossoi, Gao embarked on an expansionist mission in order to cement its control of the trans-Saharan trade routes. The rising economic importance of Gao was crystallized in the early fifteenth century C.E., when the Mali ruler, Mansa Musa, led a series of campaigns to wrest dominance of the trans-Saharan trade routes and gain the wealth of Gao. While these campaigns were successful, the territory proved too expansive and Mali governance lasted approximately fifty years.

Sunni Dynasty

Around 1335 the line of dia kings came to an end and was replaced by a new series of leaders whose title was sunni or shi. The second man to bear the title of sunni, Suleiman-Mar, was responsible for gaining Songhay independence from Mali in 1375 C.E. The establishment of an independent Songhay empire caused another period of geographic expansion, spearheaded by Sunni Ali.

Sunni Ali, who gained the throne around 1464 C.E., was a militaristic leader who led by example and used war as an effective means of uniting dissenting factions. He was never defeated in battle and used his military prowess to quell Tuareg raids in the north ans Mossi incursions in the south. The military campaigns he launched proved to have an economic benefit for the Songhay empire, as with his control of critical trade routes and cities such as Timbuktu, Sunni Ali brought great wealth to the Songhai Empire, which at its height would surpass the wealth of the Mali.

Askia Dynasty

By deposing the reigning sunni in battle, Muhammad Turay or Askia the Great of the Mandé people gained power in the late sixteenth century C.E. His rise to power was facilitated by religious strife within the Songhay empire, as previous leaders had tried to appeal to many religious groups at once, and in doing so, failed to satisfy anyone. Drawing his largest power base from Muslim urban centers, Askia the Great broke with sunni tradition and a political system based on strict interpretations of Islamic law. His dictates were enforced by well trained military and were carried into the far reaches of the Western Sudan under a program of expansion.

With the implementation of religious ideaology Muhammad also brought political reform and revitalization. He set up a complex bureaucracy with separate departments for agriculture, the army, and the treasury, to each of which he appointed supervising officials.

The Height of the Songhay Empire

Economic Structure

Much of the economic foundation of the Songhay empire was formed through interactions between the royal court and the gold fields of the Niger River. These gold fields, which were often independently operated, provided a steady supply of gold that could be purchased by the Songhay empire and bartered for salt. Salt, always considered a precious commodity, was especially valued in West Africa and it was not uncommon for gold to be traded for equal weight in salt. When coupled with the sale of slaves, salt and gold consisted of the bulk of trans-Saharan trade and Songhai dominance in these commodities solidified Songhay's role as a leader in the trans-Saharan trade system. The Songhai also made crafts for trade, and for religious purposes.

The eminence of the Songhay empire was based on small scale agriculture, along with dominance of the gold, salt, slaves commodity market, as eighty percent of the people lived on small, family-owned farms no more than 10 acres large. Small farming interests were then represented by the the Julla (merchants) who would form partnerships, which were then protected by the state.

Expansion

At its greatest extent, the Songhai lands reached towards the lower portions of the Niger river into modern day Nigeria , into the northeastern portinos of modern day Mali, and into a small part of the Atlantic ocean in the West. Including in the broad expanse of the Songhai empire were metropolitan centers like Gao and Timbuktu. Songhai would continue to prosper and expand until late into the 16th century, particularly under the long and peaceful rule of Askia Daoud.

Decline of the Songhay Empire

The wealth and economic dominance of the Songhay empire, while beneficial to the royal establishment, proved an enticing object for many of its competitors, who were willing to use military force to stifle the power of the Songhai. Most significant among the challengers to Sonhgay dominion was the Moroccan interest, who sought control of Songhay's extensive wealth. Economic motivations, when coupled with civil war over succession that weakened the authority of the central Songhay government, led Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to dispatch an invasion force under the Judar Pasha. Judar Pasha was a Spaniard by birth but served as a leader of the Moroccan army due to be being raised at the Moroccan court after being captured at a young age. After a cross-Saharan march, Judar's forces razed the salt mines at Taghaza and moved on Gao; when Askia Ishaq II (r. 1588-1591) met Judar at the 1591 Battle of Tondibi, the Songhai forces were routed by the Moroccan's gunpowder weapons despite vastly superior Songhai numbers. Judar sacked Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power.

However, governing such a vast empire across such long distances proved too much for the Moroccans, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms. The final blow to the Songhay empire was not being conquered by the Moroccans, but rather the inability of the disjointed smaller kingdoms to form a political alliance and reassert a strong central government. The Moroccan invasion also served to free many of the Songhay tributary states that had previously been sources of slaves for the trans-Sharan trade routes. Recognizing their chance to ensure bodily freedom, many of the subject slave populations rose up to deal the final blow to the weakened Songhay empire. The largest of these groups was the Doghorani, who played an instrumental role in the rebellion.

See also

  • The Mali Empire
  • Jews of the Bilad el-Sudan (West Africa)
  • Jews and Judaism in Africa

Bibliography

  • Cissoko, S. M., Timbouctou et l'empire Songhay, Paris. 1975.
  • Hunwick, J., Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Leiden. 2003. ISBN 9004125604
  • Lange, D., Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa, Dettelbach. 2004 ISBN 3897541157
  • Davidson, B., West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850, Essex. 1998. ISBN 0582318521

External link

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.