Difference between revisions of "Somali Civil War" - New World Encyclopedia
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The '''Somali Civil War''' is an [[civil war|armed conflict]] in [[Somalia]] that started in 1988. | The '''Somali Civil War''' is an [[civil war|armed conflict]] in [[Somalia]] that started in 1988. | ||
| + | The way in which | ||
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| + | ==Colonial Background== | ||
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| + | ===Downfall of Siad Barre (1986–1992)=== | ||
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The first phase of the civil war stemmed from the insurrections against the repressive regime of [[Siad Barre]]. After his ousting from power, a counter-revolution took place to attempt to reinstate him as leader of the country. | The first phase of the civil war stemmed from the insurrections against the repressive regime of [[Siad Barre]]. After his ousting from power, a counter-revolution took place to attempt to reinstate him as leader of the country. | ||
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In 1991, to insulate it from the more violent fighting in the south, the [[Somaliland|Republic of Somaliland]] declared itself independent, though it was not formally recognized as such by the international community. It comprises the northwestern section of the country (between [[Djibouti]] and the northeastern area known as [[Puntland]]). | In 1991, to insulate it from the more violent fighting in the south, the [[Somaliland|Republic of Somaliland]] declared itself independent, though it was not formally recognized as such by the international community. It comprises the northwestern section of the country (between [[Djibouti]] and the northeastern area known as [[Puntland]]). | ||
| − | == UN Intervention (1992–1995) == | + | === UN Intervention (1992–1995) === |
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| − | [[ | + | [[United Nations Security Council]] Resolution 733 and Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I, the first mission to provide humanitarian relief and help restore order in Somalia after the dissolution of its central government. |
| − | + | UN Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of [[United Nations]] peacekeepers led by the [[United States]] to form UNITAF, tasked with ensuring humanitarian aid being distributed and peace being established in Somalia. The UN humanitarian troops landed in 1993 and started a two-year effort (primarily in the south) to alleviate famine conditions. | |
[[Image:Aus wheat in Somalia.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Somalis and [[Australian Army]] soldiers wait near the loading zone of a US Marine CH-53 Sea Stallion delivering Australian wheat]] | [[Image:Aus wheat in Somalia.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Somalis and [[Australian Army]] soldiers wait near the loading zone of a US Marine CH-53 Sea Stallion delivering Australian wheat]] | ||
| − | Critics of US involvement pointed out that "just before pro-U.S. President Mohamed Siad Barre was overthrown in 1991, nearly two-thirds of the country's territory had been granted as oil concessions to [[Conoco]], [[Amoco]], [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] and [[Phillips]]. Conoco even lent its Mogadishu corporate compound to the U.S. embassy a few days before the Marines landed, with the first Bush administration's special envoy using it as his temporary headquarters."<ref> | + | Critics of US involvement pointed out that "just before pro-U.S. President Mohamed Siad Barre was overthrown in 1991, nearly two-thirds of the country's territory had been granted as oil concessions to [[Conoco]], [[Amoco]], [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] and [[Phillips]]. Conoco even lent its Mogadishu corporate compound to the U.S. embassy a few days before the Marines landed, with the first Bush administration's special envoy using it as his temporary headquarters."<ref>Steve, Kretzman. 2003. [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Oil_watch/Oil_Security_War.html Oil, Security, War The geopolitics of U.S. energy planning.] ''Multinational Monitor'' magazine, Jan-Feb. Retrieved September 17, 2008.</ref><ref>Fineman, Mark. 1993. [http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/70509.html The Oil Factor In Somalia;Four American Petroleum Giants Had Agreements With The African Nation Before Its Civil War Began. They Could Reap Big Rewards If Peace Is Restored.]</ref>''Los Angeles Times.'' January 18 Part A; Page 1. Retrieved September 17, 2008.</ref>The cynical assertion was that, rather than a purely humanitarian gesture, the US was stepping in to gain control of oil concessions. Somalia has no proven reserves of oil, but there is considered to be possible reserves off Puntland. Even today, oil exploration remains a controversy. The Transitional Federal Government has warned investors to not make deals until stability is once again brought to the country.<ref>Hirse, Ibrahim. 2005. [http://www.somalilandtimes.net/196/10728.shtml Abdillahi Yusuf’s Transitional Government And Puntland Oil Deals.] ''Somaliland Times.'' Issue 196. October 22. Retrieved September 17, 2008.</ref> |
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| − | For many reasons not least of which were concerns of [[imperialism]], Somalis opposed the foreign presence. | + | For many reasons not least of which were concerns of [[imperialism]], Somalis opposed the foreign presence. At first, the Somali people were happy about the rations the UN and U.S. troops brought them but soon came to believe that the latter were out to convert them from their religion. This idea is thought by some to have been introduced by the warlord [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]]. In the period between June and October, several gun battles in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers resulted in the death of 24 Pakistanis and 19 US soldiers (total US deaths were 31), most of whom were killed in the Battle of Mogadishu. 1000 Somali militia were killed in that battle. The incident later became the basis for the book,''Black Hawk Down'' by Mark Bowden and for he Jerry Bruckheimer-Ridley Scottmovie movie, ''Black Hawk Down'' and for William Cran-Will Lyman PBS documentary, ''Ambush in Mogadishu.'' The UN withdrew on March 3, 1995, having suffered more significant casualties. Order in Somalia still had not been restored. |
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==Division of Somalia (1998-2006)== | ==Division of Somalia (1998-2006)== | ||
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A second movement occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of [[Jubaland]] in the south. | A second movement occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of [[Jubaland]] in the south. | ||
| − | A third self-proclaimed entity led by the | + | A third self-proclaimed entity led by the Rahanweyn Resistance Army(RRA) was set up in 1999, along the lines of the Puntland. That "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002. This led to the autonomy of [[Southwestern Somalia]]. The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the Bay and Bakool regions of south and central Somalia in 1999. The territory of Jubaland was declared as encompassed by the state of Southwestern Somalia and its status is unclear. |
A fourth self-declared state was formed as [[Galmudug]] in 2006 in response to the growing power of the [[Islamic Courts Union]]. Somaliland is also seen as an autonomous state by many Somalis even though its natives go another step in pronouncing full independence. | A fourth self-declared state was formed as [[Galmudug]] in 2006 in response to the growing power of the [[Islamic Courts Union]]. Somaliland is also seen as an autonomous state by many Somalis even though its natives go another step in pronouncing full independence. | ||
| − | Also during this period, various attempts at reconciliation met with lesser or greater measures of success. Movements such as the pan-tribal | + | Also during this period, various attempts at reconciliation met with lesser or greater measures of success. Movements such as the pan-tribal Transitional National Government (TNG) and the Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC) eventually led to the foundation, in November 2004, of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). However, warlord and clan-based violence continued throughout the period and the so-called national government movements had little control over the country at the time. |
== Rise of the ICU, War with the ARPCT, TFG and Ethiopia (2006–present) == | == Rise of the ICU, War with the ARPCT, TFG and Ethiopia (2006–present) == | ||
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| − | In | + | In 2004, the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was founded in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. Matters were still too chaotic inside Somalia to convene in Mogadishu. In early 2006, the TFG moved to establish a temporary seat of government in Baidoa. |
| − | During the early part of 2006, the | + | During the early part of 2006, the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (ARPCT) was formed as an alliance of mostly-secular Mogadishu-based warlords. They were opposed to the rise of the [[Sharia]]-law oriented Islamic Courts Union (ICU), which had been rapidly consolidating power. They were backed by funding from the US [[CIA]].<ref name=THE-FINAL-CALL>Shabazz, Saeed. 2006. [http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_2716.shtml UN trying to clarify problems in Somalia] ''The Final Call.'' - Jun 29. Retrieved September 17, 2008.</ref> This led to increasing conflict in the capital. |
===Height of ICU power=== | ===Height of ICU power=== | ||
| − | + | By June 2006, the ICU succeeded in capturing the capital, [[Mogadishu]], in the [[Second Battle of Mogadishu]]. They drove the ARPCT out of Mogadishu, and succeeded in persuading or forcing other warlords to join their faction. Their power base grew as they expanded to the borders of [[Puntland]] and took over southern and middle [[Jubaland]]. | |
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| − | The Islamic movement's growing power base and militancy led to increasingly open warfare between the Islamists and the other factions of Somalia, including the [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG), [[Puntland]] and [[Galmudug]], the latter of which formed as an autonomous state specifically to resist the Islamists. It also caused the intervention of [[Ethiopia]], who supported the secular forces of Somalia. The ICU allegedly obtained the support of Ethiopia's rival, [[Eritrea]] and foreign [[mujahideen]], and declared [[Jihad]] against Ethiopia in response to its occupation of | + | The Islamic movement's growing power base and militancy led to increasingly open warfare between the Islamists and the other factions of Somalia, including the [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG), [[Puntland]] and [[Galmudug]], the latter of which formed as an autonomous state specifically to resist the Islamists. It also caused the intervention of [[Ethiopia]], who supported the secular forces of Somalia. The ICU allegedly obtained the support of Ethiopia's rival, [[Eritrea]] and foreign [[mujahideen]], and declared [[Jihad]] against Ethiopia in response to its occupation of Gedo and deployment around Baidoa. |
===Ethiopian intervention and collapse of the ICU=== | ===Ethiopian intervention and collapse of the ICU=== | ||
| − | + | In December 2006, the ICU and TFG began the Battle of Baidoa. Fighting also broke out around the Somali town of Bandiradley in Mudug and Beledweyn in Hiran region. The ICU aimed to force the Ethiopians off Somali soil. However, they were defeated in all major battles and forced to withdraw to Mogadishu. After the brief final action at the Battle of Jowhar on December 27, the leaders of the ICU resigned. | |
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| − | + | Following the Battle of Jilib, fought December 31, 2006, Kismayo fell to the TFG and Ethiopian forces, on January 1, 2007. Prime Minister [[Ali Mohammed Ghedi]] called for the country to begin disarming. | |
| − | + | ===US intervention=== | |
| − | + | In January 2007, the United States officially militarily interceded in the country for the first time since the UN deployment of the 1990s by conducting airstrikes using AC-130 gunships against Islamist positions in Ras Kamboni, as part of efforts to catch or kill [[Al Qaeda]] operatives supposedly embedded within ICU forces. Unconfirmed reports also stated US advisers had been on the ground with Ethiopian and Somali forces since the beginning of the war. Naval forces were also deployed offshore to prevent escape by sea, and the border to Kenya was closed. | |
| − | + | === Islamist insurgency and reappearance of inter-clan fighting === | |
| − | + | No sooner had the ICU been routed from the battlefield than their troops disbursed to begin a guerrilla war against Ethiopian and Somali government forces. Simultaneously, the end of the war was followed by a continuation of existing tribal conflicts. | |
| − | + | To help establish security, a proposed African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM) was authorized to deploy as many as 8,000 peacekeepers to the country. This mission widened the scope of countries that could participate over the earlier proposed mission led by the Horn of Africa-based nations of IGAD. The Islamist group leading the insurgency, known as the Popular Resistance Movement in the Land of the Two Migrations (PRM), vowed to oppose the presence of foreign troops. | |
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| − | + | ==Legacy== | |
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==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
{{reflist|2}} | {{reflist|2}} | ||
| − | == | + | ==References== |
| − | + | * Bowden, Mark. 1999.'' Black Hawk down: a story of modern war.'' New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 9780871137388 | |
| − | + | * Bruckheimer, Jerry, Ridley Scott, Ken Nolan, Josh Hartnett, Ewan McGregor, Tom Sizemore, Eric Bana, et al. 2002. ''Black Hawk down.'' Culver City, Calif: Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment. ISBN 9780767870627 | |
| − | + | * Cran, William, and Will Lyman. 2001. ''Ambush in Mogadishu.'' Alexandria, VA: PBS Home Video. 9780780637450 | |
| − | + | * Hirsch, John L., and Robert B. Oakley. 1995. ''Somalia and Operation Restore Hope: reflections on peacemaking and peacekeeping.'' Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 9781878379412 | |
| − | + | * Lyons, Terrence, and Ahmed I. Samatar. 1995. ''Somalia: state collapse, multilateral intervention, and strategies for political reconstruction.'' Brookings occasional papers. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. ISBN 9780815753513 | |
| − | + | * Muravchik, Joshua. 2005. ''The Future of the United Nations: Understanding the Past to Chart a Way Forward.'' Washington, DC: AEI Press. ISBN 084466163X. | |
| − | + | * Sklenka, Stephen D. 2007. ''Strategy, national interests, and means to an end.'' Carlisle papers in security strategy. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS87490.ISBN 9781584873099 | |
| − | + | * Waal, Alex de. 2004. ''Islamism and its enemies in the Horn of Africa.'' Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press. ISBN 9780253216793 | |
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| + | [[Category:History]] | ||
{{Credit|202792397}} | {{Credit|202792397}} | ||
Revision as of 07:01, 17 September 2008
The Somali Civil War is an armed conflict in Somalia that started in 1988. The way in which
Colonial Background
Downfall of Siad Barre (1986–1992)
The first phase of the civil war stemmed from the insurrections against the repressive regime of Siad Barre. After his ousting from power, a counter-revolution took place to attempt to reinstate him as leader of the country.
The increasingly violent and chaotic situation evolved to a humanitarian crisis and to a state of anarchy.
In 1991, to insulate it from the more violent fighting in the south, the Republic of Somaliland declared itself independent, though it was not formally recognized as such by the international community. It comprises the northwestern section of the country (between Djibouti and the northeastern area known as Puntland).
UN Intervention (1992–1995)
United Nations Security Council Resolution 733 and Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I, the first mission to provide humanitarian relief and help restore order in Somalia after the dissolution of its central government.
UN Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States to form UNITAF, tasked with ensuring humanitarian aid being distributed and peace being established in Somalia. The UN humanitarian troops landed in 1993 and started a two-year effort (primarily in the south) to alleviate famine conditions.
Critics of US involvement pointed out that "just before pro-U.S. President Mohamed Siad Barre was overthrown in 1991, nearly two-thirds of the country's territory had been granted as oil concessions to Conoco, Amoco, Chevron and Phillips. Conoco even lent its Mogadishu corporate compound to the U.S. embassy a few days before the Marines landed, with the first Bush administration's special envoy using it as his temporary headquarters."[1][2]Los Angeles Times. January 18 Part A; Page 1. Retrieved September 17, 2008.</ref>The cynical assertion was that, rather than a purely humanitarian gesture, the US was stepping in to gain control of oil concessions. Somalia has no proven reserves of oil, but there is considered to be possible reserves off Puntland. Even today, oil exploration remains a controversy. The Transitional Federal Government has warned investors to not make deals until stability is once again brought to the country.[3]
For many reasons not least of which were concerns of imperialism, Somalis opposed the foreign presence. At first, the Somali people were happy about the rations the UN and U.S. troops brought them but soon came to believe that the latter were out to convert them from their religion. This idea is thought by some to have been introduced by the warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid. In the period between June and October, several gun battles in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers resulted in the death of 24 Pakistanis and 19 US soldiers (total US deaths were 31), most of whom were killed in the Battle of Mogadishu. 1000 Somali militia were killed in that battle. The incident later became the basis for the book,Black Hawk Down by Mark Bowden and for he Jerry Bruckheimer-Ridley Scottmovie movie, Black Hawk Down and for William Cran-Will Lyman PBS documentary, Ambush in Mogadishu. The UN withdrew on March 3, 1995, having suffered more significant casualties. Order in Somalia still had not been restored.
Division of Somalia (1998-2006)
The period of 1998–2006 saw the declaration of a number of self-declared autonomous states within Somalia. Unlike Somaliland, they were all movements of autonomy, but not outright claims of independence.
The self-proclaimed state of Puntland declared "temporary" independence in 1998, with the intention that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a new central government.
A second movement occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of Jubaland in the south.
A third self-proclaimed entity led by the Rahanweyn Resistance Army(RRA) was set up in 1999, along the lines of the Puntland. That "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002. This led to the autonomy of Southwestern Somalia. The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the Bay and Bakool regions of south and central Somalia in 1999. The territory of Jubaland was declared as encompassed by the state of Southwestern Somalia and its status is unclear.
A fourth self-declared state was formed as Galmudug in 2006 in response to the growing power of the Islamic Courts Union. Somaliland is also seen as an autonomous state by many Somalis even though its natives go another step in pronouncing full independence.
Also during this period, various attempts at reconciliation met with lesser or greater measures of success. Movements such as the pan-tribal Transitional National Government (TNG) and the Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC) eventually led to the foundation, in November 2004, of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). However, warlord and clan-based violence continued throughout the period and the so-called national government movements had little control over the country at the time.
Rise of the ICU, War with the ARPCT, TFG and Ethiopia (2006–present)
In 2004, the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was founded in Nairobi, Kenya. Matters were still too chaotic inside Somalia to convene in Mogadishu. In early 2006, the TFG moved to establish a temporary seat of government in Baidoa.
During the early part of 2006, the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (ARPCT) was formed as an alliance of mostly-secular Mogadishu-based warlords. They were opposed to the rise of the Sharia-law oriented Islamic Courts Union (ICU), which had been rapidly consolidating power. They were backed by funding from the US CIA.[4] This led to increasing conflict in the capital.
Height of ICU power
By June 2006, the ICU succeeded in capturing the capital, Mogadishu, in the Second Battle of Mogadishu. They drove the ARPCT out of Mogadishu, and succeeded in persuading or forcing other warlords to join their faction. Their power base grew as they expanded to the borders of Puntland and took over southern and middle Jubaland.
The Islamic movement's growing power base and militancy led to increasingly open warfare between the Islamists and the other factions of Somalia, including the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), Puntland and Galmudug, the latter of which formed as an autonomous state specifically to resist the Islamists. It also caused the intervention of Ethiopia, who supported the secular forces of Somalia. The ICU allegedly obtained the support of Ethiopia's rival, Eritrea and foreign mujahideen, and declared Jihad against Ethiopia in response to its occupation of Gedo and deployment around Baidoa.
Ethiopian intervention and collapse of the ICU
In December 2006, the ICU and TFG began the Battle of Baidoa. Fighting also broke out around the Somali town of Bandiradley in Mudug and Beledweyn in Hiran region. The ICU aimed to force the Ethiopians off Somali soil. However, they were defeated in all major battles and forced to withdraw to Mogadishu. After the brief final action at the Battle of Jowhar on December 27, the leaders of the ICU resigned.
Following the Battle of Jilib, fought December 31, 2006, Kismayo fell to the TFG and Ethiopian forces, on January 1, 2007. Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi called for the country to begin disarming.
US intervention
In January 2007, the United States officially militarily interceded in the country for the first time since the UN deployment of the 1990s by conducting airstrikes using AC-130 gunships against Islamist positions in Ras Kamboni, as part of efforts to catch or kill Al Qaeda operatives supposedly embedded within ICU forces. Unconfirmed reports also stated US advisers had been on the ground with Ethiopian and Somali forces since the beginning of the war. Naval forces were also deployed offshore to prevent escape by sea, and the border to Kenya was closed.
Islamist insurgency and reappearance of inter-clan fighting
No sooner had the ICU been routed from the battlefield than their troops disbursed to begin a guerrilla war against Ethiopian and Somali government forces. Simultaneously, the end of the war was followed by a continuation of existing tribal conflicts.
To help establish security, a proposed African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM) was authorized to deploy as many as 8,000 peacekeepers to the country. This mission widened the scope of countries that could participate over the earlier proposed mission led by the Horn of Africa-based nations of IGAD. The Islamist group leading the insurgency, known as the Popular Resistance Movement in the Land of the Two Migrations (PRM), vowed to oppose the presence of foreign troops.
Legacy
Notes
- ↑ Steve, Kretzman. 2003. Oil, Security, War The geopolitics of U.S. energy planning. Multinational Monitor magazine, Jan-Feb. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
- ↑ Fineman, Mark. 1993. The Oil Factor In Somalia;Four American Petroleum Giants Had Agreements With The African Nation Before Its Civil War Began. They Could Reap Big Rewards If Peace Is Restored.
- ↑ Hirse, Ibrahim. 2005. Abdillahi Yusuf’s Transitional Government And Puntland Oil Deals. Somaliland Times. Issue 196. October 22. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
- ↑ Shabazz, Saeed. 2006. UN trying to clarify problems in Somalia The Final Call. - Jun 29. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Bowden, Mark. 1999. Black Hawk down: a story of modern war. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 9780871137388
- Bruckheimer, Jerry, Ridley Scott, Ken Nolan, Josh Hartnett, Ewan McGregor, Tom Sizemore, Eric Bana, et al. 2002. Black Hawk down. Culver City, Calif: Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment. ISBN 9780767870627
- Cran, William, and Will Lyman. 2001. Ambush in Mogadishu. Alexandria, VA: PBS Home Video. 9780780637450
- Hirsch, John L., and Robert B. Oakley. 1995. Somalia and Operation Restore Hope: reflections on peacemaking and peacekeeping. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 9781878379412
- Lyons, Terrence, and Ahmed I. Samatar. 1995. Somalia: state collapse, multilateral intervention, and strategies for political reconstruction. Brookings occasional papers. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. ISBN 9780815753513
- Muravchik, Joshua. 2005. The Future of the United Nations: Understanding the Past to Chart a Way Forward. Washington, DC: AEI Press. ISBN 084466163X.
- Sklenka, Stephen D. 2007. Strategy, national interests, and means to an end. Carlisle papers in security strategy. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS87490.ISBN 9781584873099
- Waal, Alex de. 2004. Islamism and its enemies in the Horn of Africa. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press. ISBN 9780253216793
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