Difference between revisions of "Social mobility" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Sociology]]
 
[[Category:Sociology]]
  
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===Social Mobility - Introduction===
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Social mobility is the degree to which, in a given society, an individual's social status can change throughout the course of his or her life, or the degree to which that individual's offspring and subsequent generations move up and down the class system. It is, in other words, the movement ( or circulation ) of individuals, families or groups within a social space mapped by status, occupation, income, and similar variables through which members of a sociary may be defined.
  
'''Social mobility''' is the degree to which, in a given society, an individual's social status can change throughout the course of his or her life, or the degree to which that individual's offspring and subsequent generations move up and down the class system.
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According to the degree or the ease of the circulation, it is possible to make distinction between immobile ( or closed societies ) and mobile societies where the transition from one social stratum to another has had minimum resistance. An important caveat: There scarcely has existed a society whose strata were absolutely closed, just as there has hardly ever existed a society where the vertical mobility was absolutely free of obstacles.  
  
An example of a society with low social mobility was [[Hindu]] society under the [[caste system]]. Only with rare exceptions could individuals leave the caste into which they were born, regardless of [[wealth]] or [[merit]]. Societies which use [[slavery]] are an example of low social mobility because, for the enslaved individuals, mobility is nonexistent.
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Examples of closed societies were feudal and caste societies. Societies which use [[slavery]] are an example of low social mobility because, for the enslaved individuals, mobility is nonexistent. In [[Hindu]] society, under the [[caste system]], only with rare exceptions could individuals leave the caste into which they were born, regardless of [[wealth]] or [[merit]]. However, even there, the individuals born in a lower social stratum might succeed in entering the top caste as, for example, the son of Mahatma Gandhi, the rank of a Brahmin. There is a catch in it, though. Although societies with low or nonexistent social mobility might afford free individuals opportunities to amass wealth, wealth itself very rarely can "buy" entry into a higher social class. In feudal Japan and Confucius-era China, wealthy merchants occupied the lowest ranks in society. In pre-revolutionary France, a nobleman, however poor, was from the "second estate" of society and thus superior, at least in theory, to a wealthy merchant (from the "third estate"). Similar case can be made for quasi-feudal monarchies of modern era too. In Saudi Arabia and neighboring sultanates, a commoner cannot become a head of state nor can he hold any high or important position in the government. He can become rich, though.    
  
Modern western [[democracy|democracies]] have considerably more social mobility. Official or legally recognized [[social class | class]] designations do not exist, and it is possible - though rare - for individuals to move from [[poverty]] to [[wealth]] or political prominence within one generation. Examples of this are [[John Edwards]] and [[Dennis Kucinich]], who were born into working-class families yet achieved political office in adult life, and [[Andrew Carnegie]], who arrived in the U.S. as a poor [[immigrant]] and later became a [[steel]] [[tycoon]]. An example from another country is [[Pierre Bérégovoy]] who started working at the age of 16 as a metal worker and, in the end, became [[Prime Minister of France]].
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On the other hand, modern western [[democracy|democracies]]   are characterized by much more intensive vertical mobility.
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In democratic societies, the social position of an individual,
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at least theoretically, is not determined by his birth; all positions are open to everybody who can get them; there are  no judicial or religious obstacles to climbing ( or going down ). Official or legally recognized class designations do not exist, and it is possible - though rare - for individuals to move from poverty to wealth or political prominence within one generation. A case of [[Andrew Carnegie]], who arrived in the U.S. as a poor [[immigrant]] and later became a [[steel]] [[tycoon]] is well known. Another example, from France, is [[Pierre Bérégovoy]] who started working at the age of 16 as a metal worker and, in the end, became [[Prime Minister of France]]. Nevertheless, such examples tend to be the exception rather than the rule.  While a few individual members of the working class or even immigrants manage to achieve positions of wealth or power, the overwhelming majority do not. Indeed, it is physically impossible to have more bosses than workers; thus it is impossible for the majority of workers to rise out of their social class.
  
Nevertheless, such examples tend to be the exception rather than the rule. While a few individual members of the working class or even immigrants manage to achieve positions of wealth or power, the overwhelming majority do not. Indeed, it is physically impossible to have more bosses than workers, thus it is impossible for the majority of workers to rise out of their social class.
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Also, in [[market]] societies like the modern United States, class and [[economics | economic]] wealth are strongly correlated and, therefore, often conflated. In some societies, on the other hand, they are time-lagged factors at play. Usually, membership in a high social class provides more opportunities for wealth and political power, and therefore economic fortune is often a [[lagging indicator]] of social class. In newly-formed societies with little or no established tradition (such as the American West in the 19th century) the reverse is true: Made wealth precipitates the elite of future generations.  
  
In [[market]] societies like the modern United States, class and [[economics | economic]] wealth are strongly correlated and, therefore, often conflated. However, in some societies, they are different entities altogether. Usually, though, membership in a high social class provides more opportunities for wealth and political power, and therefore economic fortune is often a [[lagging indicator]] of social class. In newly-formed societies with little or no established tradition (such as the American West in the 19th century) the reverse is true: Made wealth precipitates the elite of future generations.
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=== Social Mobility - Basic Theories, Trends, and International Comparison===
 
 
Social mobility is normally discussed in a positive light, but it is a two-sided phenomenon. Unlike absolute economic prosperity and individual standards of living, relative social class, strictly speaking, is a [[zero-sum game]], and when there is upward mobility, there is also downward mobility. In the past 30 years, the United States has seen both directions of mobility. The [[1990s]] [[tech boom]] allowed many bright entrepreneurs to enter the ranks of the wealthy, while [[downsizing]] in the [[manufacturing]], and later, [[information technology]] sectors resulted in massive job-loss and dislocation throughout recent decades. Social mobility encourages [[entrepreneur | entrepreneurism]] and, according to the mainstream liberal and conservative opinion, leads to a more fair society, but an excess thereof leads to widespread insecurity and [[anxiety]].
 
 
 
A common error when discussing social mobility is to focus on a few exemplary cases while neglecting the average cases. The fact that a few people who were originally poor have become very rich does not prove that the society in general enjoys social mobility, indeed they are exceptions. However, more moderate degrees of social mobility occur regularly; for example, an unskilled laborer may eventually acquire the expertise necessary to move to a higher-paying job and become a part of the middle class.
 
 
 
Another common error when discussing social mobility is to disregard upward mobility's negative aspects, along with downward mobility. If people can manage an upward shift in their [[social status]], they can just as easily (or more easily) slip downward. For example, if as man who has achieved upward mobility and has become wealthy, it may get to his head, in which case he would stop making any more money. He may even waste away all of the money he had previously worked so hard to earn in his life. Another example would be if a rich man had a child, and that child grew up with no hardships or problems in his life, he may grow up to have no drive for more upward mobiliy, and instead squander all his previous fortune.
 
 
 
The ability for an individual to become wealthy, out of poverty, does ''not'' necessarily indicate that there is social mobility in his or her society. Even societies with low or nonexistent social mobility afford free individuals opportunities to initiate enterprise and amass wealth, but wealth fails to "buy" entry into a higher social class. In feudal [[Japan]] and [[Confucius | Confucianist]] [[China]], wealthy merchants occupied the ''lowest'' ranks in society (at least in theory). In pre-revolutionary [[France]], a nobleman, however poor, was from the "second estate" of society and thus superior, at least in theory, to a wealthy merchant (from the "third estate").
 
 
 
A (theoretical) society with perfect social mobility and ample opportunity is called a [[meritocracy]], because, in such a society, individuals' responsibilities and compensation would be matched to their capabilities.
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 17:27, 21 February 2006


Social Mobility - Introduction

Social mobility is the degree to which, in a given society, an individual's social status can change throughout the course of his or her life, or the degree to which that individual's offspring and subsequent generations move up and down the class system. It is, in other words, the movement ( or circulation ) of individuals, families or groups within a social space mapped by status, occupation, income, and similar variables through which members of a sociary may be defined.

According to the degree or the ease of the circulation, it is possible to make distinction between immobile ( or closed societies ) and mobile societies where the transition from one social stratum to another has had minimum resistance. An important caveat: There scarcely has existed a society whose strata were absolutely closed, just as there has hardly ever existed a society where the vertical mobility was absolutely free of obstacles.

Examples of closed societies were feudal and caste societies. Societies which use slavery are an example of low social mobility because, for the enslaved individuals, mobility is nonexistent. In Hindu society, under the caste system, only with rare exceptions could individuals leave the caste into which they were born, regardless of wealth or merit. However, even there, the individuals born in a lower social stratum might succeed in entering the top caste as, for example, the son of Mahatma Gandhi, the rank of a Brahmin. There is a catch in it, though. Although societies with low or nonexistent social mobility might afford free individuals opportunities to amass wealth, wealth itself very rarely can "buy" entry into a higher social class. In feudal Japan and Confucius-era China, wealthy merchants occupied the lowest ranks in society. In pre-revolutionary France, a nobleman, however poor, was from the "second estate" of society and thus superior, at least in theory, to a wealthy merchant (from the "third estate"). Similar case can be made for quasi-feudal monarchies of modern era too. In Saudi Arabia and neighboring sultanates, a commoner cannot become a head of state nor can he hold any high or important position in the government. He can become rich, though.

On the other hand, modern western democracies are characterized by much more intensive vertical mobility. In democratic societies, the social position of an individual, at least theoretically, is not determined by his birth; all positions are open to everybody who can get them; there are no judicial or religious obstacles to climbing ( or going down ). Official or legally recognized class designations do not exist, and it is possible - though rare - for individuals to move from poverty to wealth or political prominence within one generation. A case of Andrew Carnegie, who arrived in the U.S. as a poor immigrant and later became a steel tycoon is well known. Another example, from France, is Pierre Bérégovoy who started working at the age of 16 as a metal worker and, in the end, became Prime Minister of France. Nevertheless, such examples tend to be the exception rather than the rule. While a few individual members of the working class or even immigrants manage to achieve positions of wealth or power, the overwhelming majority do not. Indeed, it is physically impossible to have more bosses than workers; thus it is impossible for the majority of workers to rise out of their social class.

Also, in market societies like the modern United States, class and economic wealth are strongly correlated and, therefore, often conflated. In some societies, on the other hand, they are time-lagged factors at play. Usually, membership in a high social class provides more opportunities for wealth and political power, and therefore economic fortune is often a lagging indicator of social class. In newly-formed societies with little or no established tradition (such as the American West in the 19th century) the reverse is true: Made wealth precipitates the elite of future generations.

Social Mobility - Basic Theories, Trends, and International Comparison

External links

The New York Times offers a graphic about social mobility, overall trends, income elasticity and country by country. European nations such as Denmark and France, are ahead of the US. [1]


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