Difference between revisions of "Shavuot" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(33 intermediate revisions by 5 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 +
{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{copyedited}}
 
{{Infobox Holiday
 
{{Infobox Holiday
 
|image        = Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld- Ruth im Feld des Boaz.jpg
 
|image        = Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld- Ruth im Feld des Boaz.jpg
|caption      = Ruth the Moabite
+
|caption      = The [[Book of Ruth]] is read on Shavuot.
 
|holiday_name  = Shavuot
 
|holiday_name  = Shavuot
 
|official_name = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''שבועות''' or '''חג שבעות'''
 
|official_name = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''שבועות''' or '''חג שבעות'''
 
|nickname      = English: "Festival of Weeks"
 
|nickname      = English: "Festival of Weeks"
 
|observedby    = [[Judaism]] and [[Jew]]s
 
|observedby    = [[Judaism]] and [[Jew]]s
|begins        = 6th day of [[Sivan]]
+
|begins        = sixth day of [[Sivan]]
|ends          = 7th (in [[Israel]] 6th) day of [[Sivan]]  
+
|ends          = seventh day of [[Sivan]] (sixth day in [[Israel]])
|celebrations  = Festive meals. All-night [[Torah]] study. Recital of [[Akdamut]] liturgical poem in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] synagogues. Reading of the [[Book of Ruth]]. Eating of [[dairy]] foods. Decoration of homes and [[synagogue]]s with greenery.
+
|celebrations  = Festive meals. Reading of the [[Book of Ruth]]. Eating of [[dairy]] foods. Decoration of homes and [[synagogue]]s with greenery. All-night [[Torah]] study. Recital of [[Akdamut]] liturgical poem in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] synagogues.  
 
|type          = Jewish
 
|type          = Jewish
|significance  = One of the [[Three Pilgrim Festivals]]. Celebrates the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] by God to the [[Children of Israel]] at [[Biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]], 49 days (7 weeks) after the [[Exodus]] from [[History of ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]. Commemorates the fruit harvesting in the [[Land of Israel]]. Culmination of the 49 days of [[Counting of the Omer]].
+
|significance  = One of the [[Three Pilgrim Festivals]]. Celebrates the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] at [[Biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]]. Culmination of the 49 days of [[Counting of the Omer]]. Commemorates the grain harvest in the [[Land of Israel]].  
 
|relatedto    = [[Passover]], which precedes Shavuot.
 
|relatedto    = [[Passover]], which precedes Shavuot.
 
}}
 
}}
  
'''Shavuot''' (or '''Shavuos'''; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''שבועות''', lit. "Weeks") is a [[Jewish holiday]] that occurs on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of [[Sivan]] (late May or early June). In Christian tradition, it is known as [[Pentecost]].
+
'''Shavuot''' (or '''Shavuos;''' "Weeks") is a [[Jewish holiday]] that occurs on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of [[Sivan]] (late May or early June), 50 days after Passover. In Christian tradition, it is known as [[Pentecost]].
  
In the Bible, Shavuot is called the ''Festival of Weeks'' (Hebrew: חג השבועות, ''Ḥag ha-Shavuot'', {{bibleverse-lb||Exodus|34:22|HE}}, {{bibleverse-lb||Deuteronomy|16:10|HE}}); the ''Festival of Reaping'' (Hebrew: חג הקציר, ''Ḥag ha-Katsir'', {{bibleverse-lb||Exodus|23:16|HE}}), and ''Day of the First Fruits'' (Hebrew יום הבכורים, ''Yom ha-Bikkurim'', {{bibleverse-lb||Numbers|28:26|HE}}). The [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]] refer to Shavuot as ''Atzeret'' (Hebrew: עצרת, a solemn assembly), as it provides closure for the festival activities during and following the holiday of Passover. Since Shavuot occurs 50 days after Passover, Christians gave it the name [[Pentecost]] (πεντηκόστη, "fiftieth [[day]]").
+
In the [[Hebrew Bible]], Shavuot is also called the ''Feast of Weeks,'' the ''Festival of Reaping,'' and ''Day of the First Fruits''. Besides its obvious connection to the wheat harvest, Shavuot commemorates the anniversary of the day [[Names of God in Judaism#In English|God]] gave the [[Ten Commandments]] to [[Moses]] and the [[Israelites]] at [[Mount Sinai]]. It is one of the three biblical [[pilgrimage]] festivals known as the ''[[shalosh regalim]]'' in Jewish tradition.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
The date of Shavuot is directly linked to that of [[Passover]]. On Passover, the Jewish people were freed from their enslavement to [[Pharaoh]]; on Shavuot they were given the [[Torah|Law]] and became a nation committed to serving God. Shavuot is celebrated in [[Israel]] for one day and in the [[diaspora]] (outside of Israel) for two days. [[Reform Jews]] celebrate only one day, even in the diaspora. [[Karaite Jews]] and [[Christians]] believe that Shavuot always falls on a [[Sunday]], while mainstream Jews follow the teaching of the [[Talmud]], which holds that the holiday commences immediately after the "counting of the ''omer''," or 50 days after Passover.  
  
Shavuot commemorates the anniversary of the day [[Names of God in Judaism#In English|God]] gave the [[Ten Commandments]] to [[Moses]] and the [[Israelites]] at [[Mount Sinai]]. It is one of the the three biblical [[pilgrimage]] festivals known as the  ''[[shalosh regalim]]'' in Jewish tradition.
+
== Connection with the harvest ==
 +
In ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks, and was considered a season of gladness ({{bibleverse-lb||Jer.|5:24|HE}}; {{bibleverse-lb||Deut.|16:9-11|HE}}; {{bibleverse-lb||Isa.|9:2|HE}}). It began with the harvesting of the [[barley]] during [[Passover]] and ended with the harvesting of the [[wheat]] at Shavuot.
  
The date of Shavuot is directly linked to that of [[Passover]], as the [[Torah]] mandates the seven-week [[Counting of the Omer]], beginning on the second day of Passover and immediately followed by Shavuot. On Passover, the Jewish people were freed from their enslavement to [[Pharaoh]]; on Shavuot they were given the [[Torah|Law]] and became a nation committed to serving God. Thus, the counting of the Omer is understood to express anticipation of the giving of the [[Torah]].
+
[[Image:Spies-return-from-canaan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spies return from Canaan with samples of God's bounty]]
  
According to Jewish tradition, Shavuot is celebrated in the Land of [[Israel]] for one day and in the diaspora (outside of Israel) for two days. [[Reform Jews]] celebrate only one day, even in the [[diaspora]]. [[Karaite Jews]] believe that Savuot always falls on a Sunday, based on {{bibleverse-lb||Leviticus|23:16|HE}}: "Even unto the morrow after the seventh [[sabbath]] shall ye number fifty days." Mainstream Jews, however, follow the teaching of the [[Talmud]], which which holds that the "sabbath" here refers to the first day of Passover and not to [[Saturday]].  
+
Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of [[Sukkot]] (Tabernacles) was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], an [[korban|offering]] of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot ({{bibleverse-lb||Lev.|23:15-21|HE}}). Critical scholars believe the holiday of Shavuot thus originated as a harvest festival, with the connection to the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] being added later by priestly authorities.
  
== Connection with the harvest ==
+
[[Image:BikurimS.jpg|thumb|Modern version of the "first fruits."]]
Shavuot is also connected to the season of the grain harvest in [[Israel]]. In ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks, and was considered a season of gladness ({{bibleverse-lb||Jer.|5:24|HE}}; {{bibleverse-lb||Deut.|16:9-11|HE}}; {{bibleverse-lb||Isa.|9:2|HE}}). It began with the harvesting of the barley during Passover and ended with the harvesting of the wheat at Shavuot.
 
  
Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of [[Sukkot]] (Tabernacles) was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], an [[korban|offering]] of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot ({{bibleverse-lb||Lev.|23:15-21|HE}}).
+
Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring the ''bikkurim'' ([[first fruits]]) to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] ([[Mishnah]] [[Bikkurim (Talmud)|Bikkurim]] 1:3). The ''bikkurim'' were brought from the [[seven species]] for which the [[Land of Israel]] was praised in Deut. 8:8: [[Wheat]], [[barley]], [[grapes]], [[ficus|fig]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[olive]]s, and [[Date Palm|date]]s. In the largely agrarian society of ancient Israel, Jewish farmers would tie a reed around the first ripening fruits from each of these species in their fields. At the time of harvest, the fruits identified by the reed would be cut and placed in special [[basket]]s woven of [[gold]] and [[silver]]. The baskets would then be loaded on [[ox]]en whose horns were gilded and laced with garlands of flowers, and who were then led in a grand procession to [[Jerusalem]]. As the farmer and his entourage passed through cities and towns, they would be accompanied by [[music]] and [[parade]]s.<ref>Temple Institute, [http://www.templeinstitute.org/shavuot.htm The Festival of Shavout: Bringing the Firstfruits to the Temple.] Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
  
Critical scholars believe the holiday originated as a harvest festival, with the connection to the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] being added later by priestly authorities.
+
At the Temple, each farmer would present his ''bikkurim'' to a [[kohen|priest]] in a ceremony that followed the text of {{bibleverse-lb||Deut.|26:1-10|HE}}. The text retells the history of the Jewish people as they went into exile in [[Egypt]] and were enslaved and oppressed, following which [[The Exodus|God redeemed them]] and brought them to the land of [[Canaan]]. The ceremony of ''bikkurim'' conveys the Jew's gratitude to God both for the first fruits of the field and for his guidance throughout Jewish history.
  
== Ceremony of the first fruits ==
+
== Modern observances==
[[Image:Shavuot bikkurim.jpg‎|thumb|Bikkurim offerings in [[Nahalal]]]]
+
[[Image:Shavuot bikkurim.jpg‎|thumb|250px|Modern grain offerings in [[Nahalal]], [[Israel]].]]
Historically, Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring the ''bikkurim'' ([[first fruits]]) to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] ([[Mishnah]] [[Bikkurim (Talmud)|Bikkurim]] 1:3). The ''bikkurim'' were brought from the [[seven species]] for which the [[Land of Israel]] was praised in Deut. 8:8: [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[grapes]], [[ficus|fig]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[olive]]s, and [[Date Palm|date]]s. In the largely agrarian society of ancient Israel, Jewish farmers would tie a reed around the first ripening fruits from each of these species in their fields. At the time of harvest, the fruits identified by the reed would be cut and placed in special baskets woven of gold and silver. The baskets would then be loaded on [[ox]]en whose horns were gilded and laced with garlands of flowers, and who were then led in a grand procession to [[Jerusalem]]. As the farmer and his entourage passed through cities and towns, they would be accompanied by music and parades.<ref>[http://www.templeinstitute.org/shavuot.htm The Festival of Shavout: Bringing the Firstfruits to the Temple], The Temple Institute. Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
 
  
At the Temple, each farmer would present his ''bikkurim'' to a [[kohen|priest]] in a ceremony that followed the text of {{bibleverse-lb||Deut.|26:1-10|HE}}. The text o retells the history of the Jewish people as they went into exile in Egypt and were enslaved and oppressed; following which [[The Exodus|God redeemed them]] and brought them to the land of Israel. The ceremony of ''bikkurim'' conveys the Jew's gratitude to God both for the first fruits of the field and for his guidance throughout Jewish history.
+
On the Gregorian calendar, Shavuot usually falls around late May or early June. Shavuot is unlike other Jewish holidays in that it involves no prescribed [[mitzvah|commandments]] other than the traditional festival observances of prayer services, abstention from work, and holiday meals. However, it is characterized by many customs that have taken on the force of [[halkaha|law]] in traditional Jewish circles.
 
 
== Modern observances==
 
[[Image:Shavuot synagogue2.jpg‎|thumb|A [[synagogue]] sanctuary decked out in greenery in honor of Shavuot]]
 
Shavuot is unlike other Jewish holidays in that it involves no prescribed [[mitzvah|commandments]] other than the traditional festival observances of abstention from work, prayer services, and holiday meals. However, it is characterized by many customs that have taken on the force of [[halkaha|law]] in traditional Jewish circles.
 
  
 
A mnemonic [[acronym]] for these customs is the letters of the Hebrew word ''acharit'' (אחרית, "last"). Largely observed in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] communities, these customs are:
 
A mnemonic [[acronym]] for these customs is the letters of the Hebrew word ''acharit'' (אחרית, "last"). Largely observed in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] communities, these customs are:
*''Akdamot''—the reading of a liturgical poem during Shavuot morning synagogue services
+
*''Akdamot''—the reading of a liturgical poem during Shavuot morning synagogue services
*'''Chalav'' (milk)—the consumption of dairy products like milk and cheese
+
*'''Chalav'' (milk)—the consumption of dairy products like milk and cheese
*'''Ruth''—the reading of the [[Book of Ruth]] at morning services
+
*'''Ruth''—the reading of the [[Book of Ruth]] at morning services
*'''Yerek''—the decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery
+
*'''Yerek''—the decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery
*''Torah''—engaging in Torah study, all-night in Orthodox traditions
+
*''Torah''—engaging in Torah study, all-night in Orthodox traditions
 
 
On the Gregorian calendar, Shavuot usually falls around late May or early June.
 
  
 
===Akdamut===
 
===Akdamut===
''Akdamut'' ([[Aramaic Language|Aramaic]]: אקדמות) is a liturgical poem extolling the greatness of [[God]], the [[Torah]] and [[Israel]] that is read publicly in the [[synagogue]] just before the morning reading of the [[Torah]] on the first day of Shavuot. It was composed by Rabbi Meir of [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], whose son was murdered during the [[Crusade]] of 1096. The traditional melody which accompanies this poem also conveys a sense of grandeur and triumph.
+
''Akdamut'' ([[Aramaic Language|Aramaic]]: אקדמות) is a liturgical [[poem]] extolling the greatness of [[God]], the [[Torah]], and [[Israel]]. It is read publicly in the [[synagogue]] just before the morning reading of the Torah on the first day of Shavuot. It was composed by Rabbi Meir of [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], whose son was murdered during the [[Crusade]] of 1096. The traditional melody which accompanies this poem also conveys a sense of grandeur and triumph.
  
[[Sephardim]] do not read ''Akdamut'', but before the evening service they sing a poem called ''Azharot'' which sets out the [[613 Mitzvot|613 Biblical commandments]]. The positive commandments are recited on the first day and the negative commandments on the second day.
+
[[Sephardim]] do not read ''Akdamut,'' but before the evening service they sing a poem called ''Azharot'' which sets out the [[613 Mitzvot|613 Biblical commandments]]. The positive commandments are recited on the first day and the negative commandments on the second day.
  
 
===Dairy foods===
 
===Dairy foods===
 
[[Image:100 0774.JPG|right|thumb|Cheese [[blintz]]es, an [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] food often served on Shavuot.]]
 
[[Image:100 0774.JPG|right|thumb|Cheese [[blintz]]es, an [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] food often served on Shavuot.]]
Dairy foods such as [[cheesecake]] and [[blintz]]es with cheese and other fillings are traditionally served on Shavuot. <ref>[http://www.inmamaskitchen.com/Shavuot/shavuot.html Shavuot - Hag Ha'Bikkurim, -Festival of the First Fruits<!-- Bot generated title —>]</ref>One explanation for the consumption of dairy foods on this holiday is that the Israelites had not yet received the Torah, with its laws of ''[[shechita]]'' (ritual slaughtering of animals). As the food they had prepared beforehand was not in accordance with these laws, they opted to eat simple dairy meals to honor the holiday. Some say it harks back to King Solomon's portrayal of the Torah as "honey and milk are under your tongue" ([[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]] 4:11).<ref name="shav">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aish.com/shavuotfeatures/shavuotfeaturesdefault/Cheese_and_Flowers.asp|title=Why do we eat dairy foods and decorate the synagogue on Shavuot?|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 5|publisher=aish.com|author=Rabbi Berel Wein}}</ref>
+
Dairy foods such as [[cheesecake]] and [[blintz]]es with cheese and other fillings are traditionally served on Shavuot. One explanation for the consumption of dairy foods on this holiday is that the Israelites had not yet received the Torah, with its laws of ''[[shechita]]'' (ritual slaughtering of animals). As the food they had prepared beforehand was not in accordance with these laws, they opted to eat simple dairy meals to honor the holiday. Others say it hearkens back to King [[Solomon]]'s supposed portrayal of the Torah as "honey and milk are under your tongue" ([[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]] 4:11).
  
 
===Book of Ruth===
 
===Book of Ruth===
There are five books in [[Tanakh]], that are known as ''Megillot'' (Hebrew: מגילות, "scrolls") and are publicly read in the synagogues on different Jewish holidays. The [[Book of Lamentations]], which details the destruction of the Holy Temple, is the reading for [[Tisha B'Av]]; the [[Book of Ecclesiastes]], which touches on the ephemeralness of life, corresponds to [[Sukkot]]; the [[Book of Esther]] ''(Megillat Esther)'' retells the events of [[Purim]]; and the [[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]], which echoes the themes of springtime and God's love for the Jewish people, is the reading for Passover.
+
The [[Book of Ruth]] (מגילת רות, ''Megillat Ruth'') is read publicly in the synagogue on Shavuot. It corresponds to the holiday both in its descriptions of the [[barley]] and [[wheat harvest]] seasons and Ruth's desire to become a member of the Jewish people, who are defined by their acceptance of the [[Torah]]. Moreover, the lineage described at the end of the book lists [[David|King David]] as Ruth's great-grandson; and according to tradition, David was born and died on Shavuot ([[Sha'arei Teshuvah]] to [[Orach Hayyim]], 494).
  
The [[Book of Ruth]] (מגילת רות, ''Megillat Ruth'') corresponds to the holiday of Shavuot both in its descriptions of the barley and wheat harvest seasons and Ruth's desire to become a member of the Jewish people, who are defined by their acceptance of the [[Torah]]. Moreover, the lineage described at the end of the Book lists [[David|King David]] as Ruth's great-grandson. According to tradition, David was born and died on Shavuot ([[Sha'arei Teshuvah]] to [[Orach Hayyim]], 494).
+
The Book of Ruth is one of five books in [[Tanakh]], that are known as ''Megillot'' (Hebrew: מגילות, "scrolls") and are publicly read in the synagogues on different Jewish holidays. The [[Book of Lamentations]], which details the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], is the reading for [[Tisha B'Av]], the annual fast day commemorating the destruction of the First and [[Second Temples]] in Jerusalem. The [[Book of Ecclesiastes]], which touches on the ephemeral nature of life, corresponds to [[Sukkot]]; the [[Book of Esther]] ''(Megillat Esther)'' retells the events of [[Purim]]; and the [[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]], which echoes the themes of springtime and God's love for the Jewish people, is the reading for [[Passover]].
  
 
===Greenery===
 
===Greenery===
According to the [[Midrash]], Mount Sinai suddenly blossomed with flowers in anticipation of the giving of the Torah on its summit. Greenery also figures in the story of the baby [[Moses]] being found among the [[bulrushes]] in a watertight cradle ({{bibleverse-lb||Ex.|2:3|HE}}) when he was three months old (Moses was born on 7 Adar and placed in the [[Nile|Nile River]] on 6 Sivan, the same day he later brought the Jewish nation to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah).{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
+
[[Image:Shavuot synagogue2.jpg‎|thumb|250px|A [[synagogue]] sanctuary decked out in greenery in honor of Shavuot.]]
  
For these reasons, Jewish families traditionally decorate their homes and [[synagogue]]s with plants, flowers and leafy branches in honor of Shavuot. Some synagogues decorate the [[bimah]] with a canopy of flowers and plants so that it resembles a [[chuppah]], as Shavuot is mystically referred to as the day the matchmaker (Moses) brought the bride (the Jewish people) to the chuppah (Mount Sinai) to marry the bridegroom (God); the ''ketubbah'' (marriage contract) was the Torah. Some Eastern Sephardi communities actually read out a ''ketubbah'' between God and Israel as part of the service.
+
The use of greenery as a decoration is connected to Shavuot's origins as a [[harvest]] festival, but has a religious meaning as well. According to the [[Midrash]], [[Mount Sinai]] suddenly blossomed with flowers in anticipation of the giving of the Torah on its summit. Greenery also figures in the story of the baby [[Moses]] being found among the [[bulrushes]] in a watertight cradle ({{bibleverse-lb||Ex.|2:3|HE}}) when he was three months old (Moses was supposedly placed in the [[Nile|Nile River]] on Sivan 6, the same day he later brought the Jewish nation to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah).
 +
 
 +
In honor of Shavuot, Jewish families traditionally decorate their homes and [[synagogue]]s with plants, flowers and leafy branches. Some synagogues decorate the [[bimah]] (the elevated platform used for public Torah readings) with a canopy of flowers and plants so that it resembles a ''[[chuppah]]'' (wedding canopy), as Shavuot is mystically referred to as the day the "[[matchmaker]]" (Moses) brought the "bride" (the Jewish people) to the chuppah (Mount Sinai) to marry the "bridegroom" (God). In this interpretation, the ''ketubbah'' (marriage contract) was the [[Torah]]. Some eastern Sephardic communities read out an actual ''ketubbah'' between God and Israel as part of the service.
  
 
===All-night Torah study===
 
===All-night Torah study===
The custom of all-night Torah study goes back to 1533 when Rabbi [[Joseph Caro]], author of the ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'', then living in Ottoman Salonika, invited his [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] colleagues to hold a night-long study vigil, in the course of which an angel appeared before them and commanded them to go live in [[Eretz Yisrael]].  
+
The custom of all-night Torah study goes back to 1533 when Rabbi [[Joseph Karo]], author of the ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'', invited his colleagues to hold a night-long study vigil, in the course of which an [[angel]] supposedly appeared before them and commanded them to go live in the [[Land of Israel]].
According to a story in the [[Midrash]], the night before the Torah was given, the Israelites retired early to be well-rested for the momentous day ahead, but they overslept and Moses had to wake them up because God was already waiting on the mountaintop.<ref name="sleepless">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ohr.org.il/yhiy/article.php/1688|title=Sleepless Shavuot in Shicago|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 5|publisher=OHR.edu|year=2004|author=Rabbi Yirmiyahu Ullman}}</ref> To rectify this flaw in the national character, religious Jews stay up all night to learn Torah.  
+
 +
According to a story in the [[Midrash]], the night before the Torah was given, the Israelites retired early to be well-rested for the momentous day ahead, but they overslept and [[Moses]] had to wake them up because God was already waiting on the mountaintop. To rectify this flaw in the national character, religious Jews stay up all night to study the Torah. During this vigil, any religious subject may be studied, although [[Talmud]], [[Mishnah]], and [[Torah]] typically top the list. In many communities, men and women attend classes and lectures until the early hours of the morning. In [[Jerusalem]], thousands of people finish off the nighttime study session by walking to the [[Western Wall]] before dawn and joining the sunrise [[minyan]] there. The latter activity is reminiscent of Shavuot's status as one of the three Biblical pilgrimage festivals, when the Jews living in the Land of Israel journeyed to Jerusalem to celebrate the holiday.
  
Any subject may be studied, although Talmud, Mishna and Torah typically top the list. In many communities, men and women attend classes and lectures until the early hours of the morning. In [[Jerusalem]], thousands of people finish off the nighttime study session by walking to the [[Western Wall|Kotel]] before dawn and joining the sunrise [[minyan]] there. The latter activity is reminiscent of Shavuot's status as one of the three Biblical pilgrimage festivals, when the Jews living in the Land of Israel journeyed to Jerusalem to celebrate the holiday.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/862344.html 'Let each help his neighbor'], by Mor Altshuler.</ref>
+
===Other traditions on Shavuot===
 +
'''''Tikkun Leil Shavuot'''''
 +
In keeping with the custom of engaging in all-night Torah study, [[Isaac Luria]], a leading [[Kabbalah|kabbalist]] of the sixteenth century, arranged a special service for the evening of Shavuot. Followed only by a minority of Jewish communities, the ''Tikkun Leil Shavuot'' ("Rectification for Shavuot Night") consists of excerpts from the beginning and end of each of the 24 books of [[Hebrew Bible]], including the reading in full of several key sections such as the account of the days of [[Creation myth|creation]], [[The Exodus]], the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]], the prayer known as the [[Shema]], and the 63 chapters of [[Mishnah]]. This is followed by the reading of the kabbalistic [[Sefer Yetzirah]], the 613 commandments as enumerated by [[Maimonides]], and excerpts from the [[Zohar]], with opening and concluding prayers. This service is printed in a special book, and is widely used in eastern Sephardic and some German and [[Hasid]]ic communities.
  
===''Tikkun Leil Shavuot''===
+
'''Confirmation'''
In keeping with the custom of engaging in all-night Torah study, the [[Isaac Luria|Arizal]], a leading [[Kabbalah|Kabbalist]] of the 16th century, arranged a special service for the evening of Shavuot. The ''Tikkun Leil Shavuot'' ("Rectification for Shavuot Night") consists of excerpts from the beginning and end of each of the 24 books of [[Tanakh]] (including the reading in full of several key sections such as the account of the days of [[Creation myth|creation]], [[The Exodus]], the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] and the [[Shema]]) and the 63 chapters of Mishnah. This is followed by the reading of [[Sefer Yetzirah]], the 613 commandments as enumerated by [[Maimonides]], and excerpts from the [[Zohar]], with opening and concluding prayers. The whole reading is divided into thirteen parts, after each of which a ''Kaddish di-Rabbanan'' is recited when the Tikkun is studied in a group of at least ten Jews.
+
[[Reform Judaism (North America)|Reform Jewish]] [[synagogue]]s will typically hold celebrations of [[Reform Judaism (North America)#Confirmation ceremonies|confirmation]] for [[tenth grade]]rs on the evening or morning of Shavuot. The holiday falls around the end of the school year and the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] naturally fits into the theme of continued Jewish learning.
  
This service is printed in a special book, and is widely used in Eastern Sephardic, some German and Hasidic communities. There are similar books for the vigils before the seventh day of [[Pesach]] and [[Hoshanah Rabbah|Hosha'ana Rabbah]].
+
==Disputed dates==
 +
[[Image:Calvaries in Vepriai.jpg|thumb|250px|A Christian procession on [[Pentecost]] in [[Lithuania]]]]
 +
Since the [[Torah]] does not specify the actual day on which Shavuot falls, differing interpretations of this date have arisen both in traditional and non-traditional Jewish circles. These discussions center around two ways of looking at Shavuot: The day the Torah was supposedly given on [[Mount Sinai]] and when the counting of the ''omer'' is concluded, namely the fiftieth day after Passover.
  
The [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]] do not observe this custom.
+
[[Karaite Judaism]] today continues to follow the interpretation that the counting of the omer begins on the Sunday after the first [sabbath]] during Passover, and thus celebrates Shavuot on a Sunday. It bases its view on {{bibleverse-lb||Leviticus|23:16|HE}}: "Even unto the morrow after the seventh [[sabbath]] shall ye number fifty days." Traditional Jews, on the other hand, adhere to the [[Talmud]]ic tradition which holds that "sabbath" in this case refers to Passover as a special sabbath day, which means that Shavuot can occur on any day of the week.
  
===Confirmation===
+
The Christian feast of [[Pentecost]], which falls on the fiftieth day counting from [[Easter]], is traditionally on a Sunday.
[[Reform Judaism (North America)|Reform Jewish]] [[synagogue]]s will typically hold celebrations of [[Reform Judaism (North America)#Confirmation ceremonies|Confirmation]] for [[tenth grade]]rs on the evening or morning of Shavuot. The holiday falls around the end of the school year and the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] naturally fits into the theme of continued Jewish learning.
 
 
 
==Dates in dispute==
 
Since the Torah does not specify the actual day on which Shavuot falls, differing interpretations of this date have arisen both in traditional and non-traditional Jewish circles. These discussions center around two ways of looking at Shavuot: the day it actually occurs (i.e., the day the Torah was given on Mount Sinai), and the day it occurs in relation to the Counting of the Omer (being the 50th day from the first day of the Counting).
 
 
 
===Giving of the Torah===
 
While most of the Talmudic Sages concur that the Torah was given on the sixth of Sivan; R. Jose holds that it was given on the seventh of that month. According to the classical timeline, the Israelites arrived at the wilderness of Sinai on the new moon ({{bibleverse-lb||Ex.|19:1|HE}}) and the [[Ten Commandments]] were given on the following Shabbat (i.e. Saturday). The question of whether the new moon fell on Sunday or Monday is undecided (Talmud, tractate Shabbat 86b). In practice, Shavuot is observed on the sixth day of Sivan in [[Israel]] and a second day is added in the Jewish diaspora (in keeping with a separate rabbinical ruling that applies to all biblical holidays, called ''Yom Tov Sheini Shel Galiyot'').
 
 
 
===Counting of the Omer===
 
The Torah states that the Omer offering (i.e., the first day of counting the Omer) should begin "on the morrow after the [[Shabbat]]" ({{bibleverse-lb||Lev.|23:11|HE}}). The Talmudic Sages determined that "Shabbat" here means simply a day of rest and refers to the first day of Passover. Thus, the traditional counting of the Omer begins on the second day of Passover and continues for the next 49 days, or seven complete weeks, ending on the day before Shavuot.
 
 
 
According to this calculation, Shavuot will fall on the day of the week after that of the first day of Passover (e.g. if Passover starts on a Thursday, Shavuot will begin on a Friday).
 
 
 
The [[Sadducees]] and [[Boethusians]], however, disputed this interpretation. They contended that "Shabbat" really did mean "Shabbat," or Saturday. Accordingly, they reckoned the seven weeks from the day after the first Shabbat during Passover, so that Shavuot would always fall on a Sunday.
 
 
 
This interpretation was shared by the second-century B.C.E. author of the [[Book of Jubilees]], and was motivated by the priestly sabbatical [[solar calendar]] of the third and second centuries B.C.E., which was designed to have festivals and Sabbaths fall on the same day of the week every year. On this calendar (best known from the Book of Luminaries in [[1 Enoch]]), Shavuot fell on the 15th of Sivan, a Sunday. The date was reckoned fifty days from the first [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] after [[Passover]] (i.e. from the 25th of Nisan). Thus, Jub. 1:1 claims that Moses ascended [[Mount Sinai]] to receive the Torah "on the sixteenth day of the third month in the first year of the Exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt."
 
 
 
[[Karaite Judaism]] today continues to follow the interpretation that the Counting of the Omer begins on the Sunday after the first Shabbat during Passover, and thus celebrates Shavuot on a Sunday.<ref>[http://www.karaite-korner.org/shavuot.shtml Shavuot], ''The Karaite Korner''.</ref>
 
 
 
Similarly the Christian feast of [[Pentecost]], which falls on the fiftieth day counting from [[Easter]], is always on a Sunday (except among the very large number of Evangelicals and Messianics who celebrate it 50 days after Passover).
 
 
 
==Critical scholarship==
 
The Book of [[Jubilees]] describes the celebration of Shavuot in pre-Mosaic times. In Jub. 6:15-22 and 44:1-5, the holiday is traced to the appearance of the first rainbow on the 15th of Sivan, the day on which God made his covenant with Noah. The covenant renewal feature of Shavuot is thus attributed to this first covenant. Subsequently, it was observed by Noah until his death but revived again by Abraham (Jub. 15:1), and after Abraham's death it was forgotten again until Moses restored it once more.
 
 
 
[[Qumran]] scholar [[Gabriele Boccaccini]] has suggested that the 1,290 and 1,335 days of {{bibleverse-lb||Daniel|12:11-12|HE}} point to the observance of Shavuot in a restored Israel, as reckoned by the priestly solar calendar. These durations are exactly 30 and 45 days longer than the 3½ years mentioned in {{bibleverse-lb||Dan.|7:25|HE}} and {{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|9:27|HE}}. The period of 3½ years amounts to 1,260 days in the priestly solar calendar because the equinoxes and solstices count as markers of the seasons rather than monthly days (1 En. 74:11, 75:1, 82:4). The blessings expected at the end of the 1,335 days pertain to the resurrection to "everlasting life" mentioned a few verses earlier ({{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|12:2|HE}}), and this is the reward to those who refused to forsake the covenant unto death ({{bibleverse-lb||Dan.|11:22|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|11:28|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|11:30|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|11:33-35|HE}}), while those who forsook the covenant ({{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|11:30-32|HE}}) face "everlasting contempt."
 
 
 
Boccaccini sees the 3½ years as ending at the spring equinox (equinoxes and solstices were important markers of the seasons in the solar calendar), to be followed by 30 days to complete the 1,290 days (the month of Passover), and an additional 45 days to reach the 15<sup>th</sup> of Sivan, the purported day of Shavuot. For those who refused to forsake the covenant, this would be the day the covenant would be renewed and the expected blessings would be realized.
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
+
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
* Kitov, Eliyahu (1978). ''The Book of Our Heritage'', Vol. 3: Iyar-Elul. Jerusalem: Feldheim Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-87306-154-3.
+
* Foster, Judith. ''Shavuot''. Providence, RI: Bureau of Jewish Education of Rhode Island, 1979. {{OCLC|8722009}}.
* Scherman, Nosson ed. (1993). ''The Chumash''. Brooklyn, NY: Mesorah Publications, Ltd. ISBN 0-89906-014-5.
+
* Goodman, Philip. ''The Shavuot Anthology''. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1974. ISBN 9780827600577.
 +
* Olitzky, Kerry M., and Daniel Judson. ''Jewish Holidays: A Brief Introduction for Christians''. Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Pub, 2007. ISBN 9781580233026.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://www.desiretoshare.com/shavuot2.htm Digging Deeper into Shavuot]
+
All links retrieved January 27, 2023.
 +
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/holidayc.htm Judaism 101: Shavuot]
 
*[http://www.aish.com/holidays/shavuot/ Shavuot themes on aish.com]
 
*[http://www.aish.com/holidays/shavuot/ Shavuot themes on aish.com]
 
*[http://www.chabad.org/holidays/shavuot/default.asp Complete Shavuot guide on chabad.org]
 
*[http://www.chabad.org/holidays/shavuot/default.asp Complete Shavuot guide on chabad.org]
*[http://www.ou.org/chagim/shavuot/ Shavuot on ou.org]
 
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/holidayc.htm  Judaism 101]
 
*[http://learn.jtsa.edu/shavuot/ Jewish Theological Seminary of America]
 
 
*{{CathEncy|wstitle=Pentecost (Jewish Feast)}}
 
  
{{Jewish and Israeli holidays}}
 
  
 +
[[category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Judaism]]
 
[[Category:Judaism]]
 
[[Category:religion]]
 
[[Category:religion]]
 +
[[category:bible]]
 
{{credit| 245079928}}
 
{{credit| 245079928}}

Latest revision as of 13:22, 27 January 2023

Shavuot
Shavuot
The Book of Ruth is read on Shavuot.
Official name Hebrew: שבועות or חג שבעות
Also called English: "Festival of Weeks"
Observed by Judaism and Jews
Type Jewish
Significance One of the Three Pilgrim Festivals. Celebrates the giving of the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. Culmination of the 49 days of Counting of the Omer. Commemorates the grain harvest in the Land of Israel.
Begins sixth day of Sivan
Ends seventh day of Sivan (sixth day in Israel)
Celebrations Festive meals. Reading of the Book of Ruth. Eating of dairy foods. Decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery. All-night Torah study. Recital of Akdamut liturgical poem in Ashkenazic synagogues.
Related to Passover, which precedes Shavuot.

Shavuot (or Shavuos; "Weeks") is a Jewish holiday that occurs on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of Sivan (late May or early June), 50 days after Passover. In Christian tradition, it is known as Pentecost.

In the Hebrew Bible, Shavuot is also called the Feast of Weeks, the Festival of Reaping, and Day of the First Fruits. Besides its obvious connection to the wheat harvest, Shavuot commemorates the anniversary of the day God gave the Ten Commandments to Moses and the Israelites at Mount Sinai. It is one of the three biblical pilgrimage festivals known as the shalosh regalim in Jewish tradition.

The date of Shavuot is directly linked to that of Passover. On Passover, the Jewish people were freed from their enslavement to Pharaoh; on Shavuot they were given the Law and became a nation committed to serving God. Shavuot is celebrated in Israel for one day and in the diaspora (outside of Israel) for two days. Reform Jews celebrate only one day, even in the diaspora. Karaite Jews and Christians believe that Shavuot always falls on a Sunday, while mainstream Jews follow the teaching of the Talmud, which holds that the holiday commences immediately after the "counting of the omer," or 50 days after Passover.

Connection with the harvest

In ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks, and was considered a season of gladness (Jer. 5:24; Deut. 16:9-11; Isa. 9:2). It began with the harvesting of the barley during Passover and ended with the harvesting of the wheat at Shavuot.

Spies return from Canaan with samples of God's bounty

Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of Sukkot (Tabernacles) was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, an offering of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot (Lev. 23:15-21). Critical scholars believe the holiday of Shavuot thus originated as a harvest festival, with the connection to the giving of the Ten Commandments being added later by priestly authorities.

Modern version of the "first fruits."

Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring the bikkurim (first fruits) to the Temple in Jerusalem (Mishnah Bikkurim 1:3). The bikkurim were brought from the seven species for which the Land of Israel was praised in Deut. 8:8: Wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. In the largely agrarian society of ancient Israel, Jewish farmers would tie a reed around the first ripening fruits from each of these species in their fields. At the time of harvest, the fruits identified by the reed would be cut and placed in special baskets woven of gold and silver. The baskets would then be loaded on oxen whose horns were gilded and laced with garlands of flowers, and who were then led in a grand procession to Jerusalem. As the farmer and his entourage passed through cities and towns, they would be accompanied by music and parades.[1]

At the Temple, each farmer would present his bikkurim to a priest in a ceremony that followed the text of Deut. 26:1-10. The text retells the history of the Jewish people as they went into exile in Egypt and were enslaved and oppressed, following which God redeemed them and brought them to the land of Canaan. The ceremony of bikkurim conveys the Jew's gratitude to God both for the first fruits of the field and for his guidance throughout Jewish history.

Modern observances

Modern grain offerings in Nahalal, Israel.

On the Gregorian calendar, Shavuot usually falls around late May or early June. Shavuot is unlike other Jewish holidays in that it involves no prescribed commandments other than the traditional festival observances of prayer services, abstention from work, and holiday meals. However, it is characterized by many customs that have taken on the force of law in traditional Jewish circles.

A mnemonic acronym for these customs is the letters of the Hebrew word acharit (אחרית, "last"). Largely observed in Ashkenazic communities, these customs are:

  • Akdamot—the reading of a liturgical poem during Shavuot morning synagogue services
  • 'Chalav (milk)—the consumption of dairy products like milk and cheese
  • 'Ruth—the reading of the Book of Ruth at morning services
  • 'Yerek—the decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery
  • Torah—engaging in Torah study, all-night in Orthodox traditions

Akdamut

Akdamut (Aramaic: אקדמות) is a liturgical poem extolling the greatness of God, the Torah, and Israel. It is read publicly in the synagogue just before the morning reading of the Torah on the first day of Shavuot. It was composed by Rabbi Meir of Worms, whose son was murdered during the Crusade of 1096. The traditional melody which accompanies this poem also conveys a sense of grandeur and triumph.

Sephardim do not read Akdamut, but before the evening service they sing a poem called Azharot which sets out the 613 Biblical commandments. The positive commandments are recited on the first day and the negative commandments on the second day.

Dairy foods

Cheese blintzes, an Ashkenazi food often served on Shavuot.

Dairy foods such as cheesecake and blintzes with cheese and other fillings are traditionally served on Shavuot. One explanation for the consumption of dairy foods on this holiday is that the Israelites had not yet received the Torah, with its laws of shechita (ritual slaughtering of animals). As the food they had prepared beforehand was not in accordance with these laws, they opted to eat simple dairy meals to honor the holiday. Others say it hearkens back to King Solomon's supposed portrayal of the Torah as "honey and milk are under your tongue" (Song of Songs 4:11).

Book of Ruth

The Book of Ruth (מגילת רות, Megillat Ruth) is read publicly in the synagogue on Shavuot. It corresponds to the holiday both in its descriptions of the barley and wheat harvest seasons and Ruth's desire to become a member of the Jewish people, who are defined by their acceptance of the Torah. Moreover, the lineage described at the end of the book lists King David as Ruth's great-grandson; and according to tradition, David was born and died on Shavuot (Sha'arei Teshuvah to Orach Hayyim, 494).

The Book of Ruth is one of five books in Tanakh, that are known as Megillot (Hebrew: מגילות, "scrolls") and are publicly read in the synagogues on different Jewish holidays. The Book of Lamentations, which details the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, is the reading for Tisha B'Av, the annual fast day commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. The Book of Ecclesiastes, which touches on the ephemeral nature of life, corresponds to Sukkot; the Book of Esther (Megillat Esther) retells the events of Purim; and the Song of Songs, which echoes the themes of springtime and God's love for the Jewish people, is the reading for Passover.

Greenery

A synagogue sanctuary decked out in greenery in honor of Shavuot.

The use of greenery as a decoration is connected to Shavuot's origins as a harvest festival, but has a religious meaning as well. According to the Midrash, Mount Sinai suddenly blossomed with flowers in anticipation of the giving of the Torah on its summit. Greenery also figures in the story of the baby Moses being found among the bulrushes in a watertight cradle (Ex. 2:3) when he was three months old (Moses was supposedly placed in the Nile River on Sivan 6, the same day he later brought the Jewish nation to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah).

In honor of Shavuot, Jewish families traditionally decorate their homes and synagogues with plants, flowers and leafy branches. Some synagogues decorate the bimah (the elevated platform used for public Torah readings) with a canopy of flowers and plants so that it resembles a chuppah (wedding canopy), as Shavuot is mystically referred to as the day the "matchmaker" (Moses) brought the "bride" (the Jewish people) to the chuppah (Mount Sinai) to marry the "bridegroom" (God). In this interpretation, the ketubbah (marriage contract) was the Torah. Some eastern Sephardic communities read out an actual ketubbah between God and Israel as part of the service.

All-night Torah study

The custom of all-night Torah study goes back to 1533 when Rabbi Joseph Karo, author of the Shulchan Aruch, invited his colleagues to hold a night-long study vigil, in the course of which an angel supposedly appeared before them and commanded them to go live in the Land of Israel.

According to a story in the Midrash, the night before the Torah was given, the Israelites retired early to be well-rested for the momentous day ahead, but they overslept and Moses had to wake them up because God was already waiting on the mountaintop. To rectify this flaw in the national character, religious Jews stay up all night to study the Torah. During this vigil, any religious subject may be studied, although Talmud, Mishnah, and Torah typically top the list. In many communities, men and women attend classes and lectures until the early hours of the morning. In Jerusalem, thousands of people finish off the nighttime study session by walking to the Western Wall before dawn and joining the sunrise minyan there. The latter activity is reminiscent of Shavuot's status as one of the three Biblical pilgrimage festivals, when the Jews living in the Land of Israel journeyed to Jerusalem to celebrate the holiday.

Other traditions on Shavuot

Tikkun Leil Shavuot In keeping with the custom of engaging in all-night Torah study, Isaac Luria, a leading kabbalist of the sixteenth century, arranged a special service for the evening of Shavuot. Followed only by a minority of Jewish communities, the Tikkun Leil Shavuot ("Rectification for Shavuot Night") consists of excerpts from the beginning and end of each of the 24 books of Hebrew Bible, including the reading in full of several key sections such as the account of the days of creation, The Exodus, the giving of the Ten Commandments, the prayer known as the Shema, and the 63 chapters of Mishnah. This is followed by the reading of the kabbalistic Sefer Yetzirah, the 613 commandments as enumerated by Maimonides, and excerpts from the Zohar, with opening and concluding prayers. This service is printed in a special book, and is widely used in eastern Sephardic and some German and Hasidic communities.

Confirmation Reform Jewish synagogues will typically hold celebrations of confirmation for tenth graders on the evening or morning of Shavuot. The holiday falls around the end of the school year and the giving of the Ten Commandments naturally fits into the theme of continued Jewish learning.

Disputed dates

A Christian procession on Pentecost in Lithuania

Since the Torah does not specify the actual day on which Shavuot falls, differing interpretations of this date have arisen both in traditional and non-traditional Jewish circles. These discussions center around two ways of looking at Shavuot: The day the Torah was supposedly given on Mount Sinai and when the counting of the omer is concluded, namely the fiftieth day after Passover.

Karaite Judaism today continues to follow the interpretation that the counting of the omer begins on the Sunday after the first [sabbath]] during Passover, and thus celebrates Shavuot on a Sunday. It bases its view on Leviticus 23:16: "Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days." Traditional Jews, on the other hand, adhere to the Talmudic tradition which holds that "sabbath" in this case refers to Passover as a special sabbath day, which means that Shavuot can occur on any day of the week.

The Christian feast of Pentecost, which falls on the fiftieth day counting from Easter, is traditionally on a Sunday.

Notes

  1. Temple Institute, The Festival of Shavout: Bringing the Firstfruits to the Temple. Retrieved December 8, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Foster, Judith. Shavuot. Providence, RI: Bureau of Jewish Education of Rhode Island, 1979. OCLC 8722009.
  • Goodman, Philip. The Shavuot Anthology. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1974. ISBN 9780827600577.
  • Olitzky, Kerry M., and Daniel Judson. Jewish Holidays: A Brief Introduction for Christians. Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Pub, 2007. ISBN 9781580233026.

External links

All links retrieved January 27, 2023.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.