Difference between revisions of "Samuel" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Samuel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''שְׁמוּאֵל''') was an important leader of history of ancient [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. The last of the Hebrew judges, we was also a seer, prophet, warrior, national unifier, and kingmaker. His story is recounted in the first of the [[Books of Samuel]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. [[Image:Samuel-at-Mizpah.jpg|thumb|250px|Samuel at Mizpah]]
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'''Samuel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''שְׁמוּאֵל''') was an important leader of history of ancient [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. The last of the Hebrew judges, we was also a seer, prophet, warrior, national unifier, and kingmaker. His story is recounted in the first of the [[Books of Samuel]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. [[Image:Samuel-at-Mizpah.jpg|thumb|250px|Samuel offers sacrifice at Mizpah.]]
  
The literal translation of Hebrew ''Samuel'' (''Shemu'el'' in Hebrew) is ''Name of God'' (from ''Shem'', meaning ''name'' and [[El]] an ancient Israelite name for God. However, in some contexts ''Shem'' can also mean ''son'', and hence ''Samuel'' would mean ''son of El'' or ''son of God''.
+
The literal translation of Hebrew ''Samuel'' (''Shemu'el'' in Hebrew) is ''Name of God'' (from ''Shem'', meaning "name" and [[El]], an ancient Israelite name for God. However, in some contexts "Shem" can also mean "son," and hence "Samuel" would mean "son of El."
  
In rabbinical tradition, Samuel is viewed as the last of the Hebrew [[Book of Judges|Judges]] and the first of the major Istraelite prophets after Moses.
+
In rabbinical tradition, Samuel is viewed as the last of the [[Book of Judges|judges]] and the first of the major Istraelite prophets after Moses.
  
 
==Birth and early years==
 
==Birth and early years==
  
Samuel's mother was Hannah, the wife of Elkanah. Like several women in the Hebrew Bible, she had been barren before the birth of her providential son. Though much beloved by her husband, she was persecuted by his second wife and prayed desperately that her childlessness would be taken from her. Hannah makes a pilgrimage to [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]], the village which housed the sacred Ark of the Lord, to worship. There, she earnestly prays to God that she might become the mother of a son. In return, like the mother of [[Samson]] before her, she promised to dedicate the child to God and not allow his hair to be cut.
+
Samuel's mother was Hannah, the wife of Elkanah. Like several women in the Hebrew Bible, she had been barren before the birth of her providential son. Though much beloved by her husband, she was persecuted by his second wife and prayed desperately that her childlessness would be taken from her. Hannah makes a pilgrimage to [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]], the village which housed the sacred Ark of the Lord, to worship. There, she earnestly prays to God that she might become the mother of a son. In return, like the mother of [[Samson]] before her (Judges 13:5), she promised to dedicate the child to God and not allow his hair to be cut.
  
[[Image:Hannah-Samuel.jpg|thumb|250px|Hannah brings the young Samuel to Eli.]]
+
The Tabernacle priest, [[Eli (Biblical priest)|Eli]], at first mistook her fervent prayers for drunkenness, but soon recognized her true intent and blessed her. Remaining overnight and worshiping in the morning, Hannah then returned home, slept with Elkanah, and became pregnant. [[Image:Hannah-Samuel.jpg|thumb|250px|Hannah brings the young Samuel to Eli.]] After she gave birth to Samuel and weaned him, Hannah did as she had promised, dedicating her son to God and leaving him in the care of Eli at Shiloh. In these acts she is portrayed as having the full support of her husband, Elkanah. As he grew, Samuel's parents visuted the boy each year to provide him with clothes and offer sacrifice at Shiloh's sanctuary.
  
The Tabernacle priest, [[Eli (Biblical priest)|Eli]], at first mistook her fervent prayers for drunkenness, but soon recognized heer true intent and blessed her. Remaining overnight and worshiping in the morning, Hannah then returned home, slept with Elkanah, and became pregnant. After she gave birth to Samuel and weaned him, Hannah did as she had promised, dedicating her son to God and leaving him in the care of Eli at Shiloh. In these acts she is portrayed as having the full support of her husband, Elkahnah. The text describes the parents as visiting the boy each year to provide him with clothes and to offer sacrifice.
+
Eli's own sons, Hophni and Phinehas, however, were corrupt and abused their priestly offices for personal gain. Meanwhile, before reaching full manhood, Samuel began to hear a voice during the night. He initially assumed it was coming from Eli. The old priest, however, sent Samuel back to sleep. After the third such calling, Eli told Samuel that the voice was that of God and instructed him to say "speak [[Yahweh]], for your servent is listening." (I Sam. 3:9) Samuel was then told by God that the wickedness of the Eli's sons had resulted in their dynasty being condemned to destruction. Eli asked Samuel to honestly recount to him what he had been told, and upon receiving the communication merely said that God should do what seems right to him.
 
 
Eli's own sons, Hophni and Phinehas, however, were corrupt and abused their priestly offices for personal gain. Meanwhile, before reaching full manhood, Samuel began to hear a voice during the night. He initially assumed it was coming from Eli. The old priest, however, sent Samuel back to sleep. After the third such calling, Eli told Samuel that the voice was that of God and instructed him to say "speak Yahweh, for your servent is listening." (I Sam. 3:9) Samuel was then told by God that the wickedness of the Eli's sons had resulted in their dynasty being condemned to destruction. Eli asked Samuel to honestly recount to him what he had been told, and upon receiving the communication merely said that God should do what seems right to him.
 
  
 
The text summarizes the rest of Samuel's adolescence and young adulthood in the following manner:  
 
The text summarizes the rest of Samuel's adolescence and young adulthood in the following manner:  
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==Military Leader==
 
==Military Leader==
  
Despite Samuel's presence, 1 Samuel 4 describes two subsequent disastrous defeats of the Israelites by the Philistines. During the second of these, the sacred [[Ark of the Covenant]] was seized and both Hophni and Phinheas were slain. Hearing the news, Eli fell over backward in his chair and died from a broken neck. Soon, the entire land of Israel fell under the oppression of the Philistines.
+
Despite God's presence with Samuel's, 1 Samuel 4 describes two subsequent disastrous defeats of the Israelites by the Philistines. During the second of these, the sacred [[Ark of the Covenant]] was seized, and both Hophni and Phinheas were slain. Hearing the news, Eli fell over backward in his chair and died from a broken neck. Soon, the entire land of Israel fell under the oppression of the Philistines.
  
The Ark remained for seven months with the Philistines, where it proved much more of a curse than a blessing to them.  [[Image:Samuel's-Circuit.jpg|thumb|300px|Important locations in Samuel's ministry.]] They then returned it to the Israelites, but it was not until after another 20 years that Samuel rallied the nation to military action. He summoned the people to Mizpah (one of the highest hills in the land), where he made them promise to forswear all deities except Yahweh. He then organized them into an army. Attacking this newly amassed Israelite force at Mizpah, the Philistines were utterly defeated. The Israelites the slaughtered the routed Philistine force as it retreated. The lands formerly seized by the Philistines came again under Israelite control, and there was reportedly a long period of peace thereafter. This section of the text concludes with the following summary of Samuel's life:
+
The Ark remained for seven months with the Philistines, where it proved much more of a curse than a blessing to them.  [[Image:Samuel's-Circuit.jpg|thumb|300px|Important locations in Samuel's ministry.]] They then returned it to the Israelites, but it was not until after another 20 years that Samuel rallied the nation to military action. He summoned the people to Mizpah (one of the highest hills in the land), where he made them promise to forswear all deities except Yahweh. He then organized them into an army. Attacking this newly amassed Israelite force at Mizpah, the Philistines were utterly defeated. The Israelites then slaughtered the routed Philistine force as it retreated. The lands formerly seized by the Philistines came again under Israelite control, and there was reportedly a long period of peace thereafter. This section of the text concludes with the following summary of Samuel's life:
  
 
:Samuel continued as judge over Israel all the days of his life. From year to year he went on a circuit from Bethel to Gilgal to Mizpah, judging Israel in all those places. But he always went back to Ramah, where his home was, and there he also judged Israel. (1 Sam 7:15-17)
 
:Samuel continued as judge over Israel all the days of his life. From year to year he went on a circuit from Bethel to Gilgal to Mizpah, judging Israel in all those places. But he always went back to Ramah, where his home was, and there he also judged Israel. (1 Sam 7:15-17)
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The text skips the intervening years to state that when Samuel grew old, he found himself in a situation similar to that of his spiritual father Eli, for "his sons did not walk in his ways. They turned aside after dishonest gain and accepted bribes and perverted justice." (I Sam. 8:3) Representatives of the people then come to him and demanded that he appoint a king. In a memorable speech, Samuel strongly warns them about the dangers of the institution of monarchy. The people insist, and God himself confirms their decision, commanding Samuel to do as they wish.
 
The text skips the intervening years to state that when Samuel grew old, he found himself in a situation similar to that of his spiritual father Eli, for "his sons did not walk in his ways. They turned aside after dishonest gain and accepted bribes and perverted justice." (I Sam. 8:3) Representatives of the people then come to him and demanded that he appoint a king. In a memorable speech, Samuel strongly warns them about the dangers of the institution of monarchy. The people insist, and God himself confirms their decision, commanding Samuel to do as they wish.
  
[[Image:Samuel-Blesses-Saul.jpg|thumb|left|Samuel blesses Saul prior to anointing him as Israel's first king.]]
+
[[Image:Samuel-Blesses-Saul.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Samuel blesses Saul prior to anointing him as Israel's first king.]]
  
Soon, while on his way to a "high place" to worship, Samuel finds a tall, handsome youth named Saul who is searching for his father's lost donkeys. The two dine together at the high place, and Samuel predicts great things in store for Saul. The next day, before sending him on his way, Samuel makes several prophecies concerning Saul and anoints him, declaring: "Has not the Lord anointed you leader over his inheritance?" (I Sam. 10:1)
+
Soon, while on his way to a "[[high place]]" to worship, Samuel finds a tall, handsome youth named Saul who is searching for his father's lost donkeys. The two dine together at the high place, and Samuel predicts great things in store for Saul. The next day, before sending him on his way, Samuel makes several prophecies concerning Saul and anoints him, declaring: "Has not the Lord anointed you leader over his inheritance?" (I Sam. 10:1)
  
 
Samuel then summons the people to Mizpah. He scolds them for prefering to be ruled by a king than by God, but performs his duty. Through a system of lots, the tribe of Benjamin is chosen, and from that tribe, the lot falls to Saul the son Kish. In a comical twist, Saul is eventually found hiding among the baggage. His reluctance contrasts with his outstanding physical charaticstics, and it is hard to tell whether Samuel is being ironic when he says, "Do you see the man the Lord has chosen? There is no one like him among all the people." In any case, the people seem happy enough, shouting "Long live the king!" Yet, hint of coming trouble is given as the text tells us that certain troublemakers grumble at the choice and bring no gifts to their new king.
 
Samuel then summons the people to Mizpah. He scolds them for prefering to be ruled by a king than by God, but performs his duty. Through a system of lots, the tribe of Benjamin is chosen, and from that tribe, the lot falls to Saul the son Kish. In a comical twist, Saul is eventually found hiding among the baggage. His reluctance contrasts with his outstanding physical charaticstics, and it is hard to tell whether Samuel is being ironic when he says, "Do you see the man the Lord has chosen? There is no one like him among all the people." In any case, the people seem happy enough, shouting "Long live the king!" Yet, hint of coming trouble is given as the text tells us that certain troublemakers grumble at the choice and bring no gifts to their new king.

Revision as of 02:58, 26 October 2006

Samuel (Hebrew: שְׁמוּאֵל) was an important leader of history of ancient Israel and Judah. The last of the Hebrew judges, we was also a seer, prophet, warrior, national unifier, and kingmaker. His story is recounted in the first of the Books of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible.

Samuel offers sacrifice at Mizpah.

The literal translation of Hebrew Samuel (Shemu'el in Hebrew) is Name of God (from Shem, meaning "name" and El, an ancient Israelite name for God. However, in some contexts "Shem" can also mean "son," and hence "Samuel" would mean "son of El."

In rabbinical tradition, Samuel is viewed as the last of the judges and the first of the major Istraelite prophets after Moses.

Birth and early years

Samuel's mother was Hannah, the wife of Elkanah. Like several women in the Hebrew Bible, she had been barren before the birth of her providential son. Though much beloved by her husband, she was persecuted by his second wife and prayed desperately that her childlessness would be taken from her. Hannah makes a pilgrimage to Shiloh, the village which housed the sacred Ark of the Lord, to worship. There, she earnestly prays to God that she might become the mother of a son. In return, like the mother of Samson before her (Judges 13:5), she promised to dedicate the child to God and not allow his hair to be cut.

The Tabernacle priest, Eli, at first mistook her fervent prayers for drunkenness, but soon recognized her true intent and blessed her. Remaining overnight and worshiping in the morning, Hannah then returned home, slept with Elkanah, and became pregnant.

Hannah brings the young Samuel to Eli.

After she gave birth to Samuel and weaned him, Hannah did as she had promised, dedicating her son to God and leaving him in the care of Eli at Shiloh. In these acts she is portrayed as having the full support of her husband, Elkanah. As he grew, Samuel's parents visuted the boy each year to provide him with clothes and offer sacrifice at Shiloh's sanctuary.

Eli's own sons, Hophni and Phinehas, however, were corrupt and abused their priestly offices for personal gain. Meanwhile, before reaching full manhood, Samuel began to hear a voice during the night. He initially assumed it was coming from Eli. The old priest, however, sent Samuel back to sleep. After the third such calling, Eli told Samuel that the voice was that of God and instructed him to say "speak Yahweh, for your servent is listening." (I Sam. 3:9) Samuel was then told by God that the wickedness of the Eli's sons had resulted in their dynasty being condemned to destruction. Eli asked Samuel to honestly recount to him what he had been told, and upon receiving the communication merely said that God should do what seems right to him.

The text summarizes the rest of Samuel's adolescence and young adulthood in the following manner:

The Lord was with Samuel as he grew up, and he let none of his words fall to the ground. And all Israel from Dan to Beersheba recognized that Samuel was attested as a prophet of the Lord [Yahweh]. The Lord continued to appear at Shiloh, and there he revealed himself to Samuel through his word. And Samuel's word came to all Israel.(1 Sam. 3:19-4:1)

Military Leader

Despite God's presence with Samuel's, 1 Samuel 4 describes two subsequent disastrous defeats of the Israelites by the Philistines. During the second of these, the sacred Ark of the Covenant was seized, and both Hophni and Phinheas were slain. Hearing the news, Eli fell over backward in his chair and died from a broken neck. Soon, the entire land of Israel fell under the oppression of the Philistines.

The Ark remained for seven months with the Philistines, where it proved much more of a curse than a blessing to them.

Important locations in Samuel's ministry.

They then returned it to the Israelites, but it was not until after another 20 years that Samuel rallied the nation to military action. He summoned the people to Mizpah (one of the highest hills in the land), where he made them promise to forswear all deities except Yahweh. He then organized them into an army. Attacking this newly amassed Israelite force at Mizpah, the Philistines were utterly defeated. The Israelites then slaughtered the routed Philistine force as it retreated. The lands formerly seized by the Philistines came again under Israelite control, and there was reportedly a long period of peace thereafter. This section of the text concludes with the following summary of Samuel's life:

Samuel continued as judge over Israel all the days of his life. From year to year he went on a circuit from Bethel to Gilgal to Mizpah, judging Israel in all those places. But he always went back to Ramah, where his home was, and there he also judged Israel. (1 Sam 7:15-17)

The exact location of Ramah is not certain, a probable site being near the town of Gibeon, a few miles northwest of Jerusalem.

Samuel the Kingmaker

Samuel and Saul

The text skips the intervening years to state that when Samuel grew old, he found himself in a situation similar to that of his spiritual father Eli, for "his sons did not walk in his ways. They turned aside after dishonest gain and accepted bribes and perverted justice." (I Sam. 8:3) Representatives of the people then come to him and demanded that he appoint a king. In a memorable speech, Samuel strongly warns them about the dangers of the institution of monarchy. The people insist, and God himself confirms their decision, commanding Samuel to do as they wish.

Samuel blesses Saul prior to anointing him as Israel's first king.

Soon, while on his way to a "high place" to worship, Samuel finds a tall, handsome youth named Saul who is searching for his father's lost donkeys. The two dine together at the high place, and Samuel predicts great things in store for Saul. The next day, before sending him on his way, Samuel makes several prophecies concerning Saul and anoints him, declaring: "Has not the Lord anointed you leader over his inheritance?" (I Sam. 10:1)

Samuel then summons the people to Mizpah. He scolds them for prefering to be ruled by a king than by God, but performs his duty. Through a system of lots, the tribe of Benjamin is chosen, and from that tribe, the lot falls to Saul the son Kish. In a comical twist, Saul is eventually found hiding among the baggage. His reluctance contrasts with his outstanding physical charaticstics, and it is hard to tell whether Samuel is being ironic when he says, "Do you see the man the Lord has chosen? There is no one like him among all the people." In any case, the people seem happy enough, shouting "Long live the king!" Yet, hint of coming trouble is given as the text tells us that certain troublemakers grumble at the choice and bring no gifts to their new king.

When the Ammonites besiege Jabesh Gilead in the northeast, Saul proves his worth as a national leader by relieving the town and routing the enemy. Samuel invites Saul to join him at Gilgal where his kingship will be reaffirmed. Samuel then delivers what is commonly called his "farewell address." (1 Sam. 12) Samuel is still upset with the people for demanding a king. To punish them, Samuel prays that God will send rain during the wheat harvest — ensuring the ruin of the crop — and indeed a powerful storm descends. When the people cry out in repentance, Samuel changes his attitude and declares he will not "sin against the Lord by failing to pray for you."

With a major battle impending against the Philistines, Saul, his troops, and a general assembly of the people wait seven days for Samuel at Gilgal. Sauls soldiers, anxious about the battle, lose morale and begin to desert. When Samuel does not appear at the appointed time, Saul proceeds with a sacrificial offering to God. Immediately afterward, Samuel appears are declares that Saul has sinned grievously. He prophesies that Saul's kingdom will not endure and that God has found another to take his place. Samuel then separates from Saul, taking 600 men with him.

Saul then battles the Philistines and other enemy tribes with good success, and Samuel appears to give Saul a second chance. He orders Saul to attack the Amalekites. "Do not spare them," Samuel commands. "Put to death men and women, children and infants, cattle and sheep, camels and donkeys." (1 Sam 15:3) Saul carries out a widespread, major offensive against the Amalekites and defeats them. However he allows their king, Agag, to be taken captive alive; and his troops claim the best cattle as plunder. Samuel accuses Saul of disobeying God's command, but Saul objects that the cattle were taken only to offer to God as sacrifice. Samuel, in good prophetic fashion, declares: "To obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed is better than the fat of rams." (I Sam. 15:22) Samuel refuses to forgive Saul's offense, and turns to leave. Saul dramatically clings to Samuel's garment, which rips, and Samuel declares that God has torn the kingdom from Saul. Samuel then orders Agag brought to him and "Samuel hewed Agag in pieces before the Lord in Gilgal." (I Sam. 15:33—KJV) A narrator adds that "God repented that he had made Saul king over Israel."

Samuel and David

God then instructs Samuel to go to Bethlehem, to the house of a man named Jesse, among whose sons the new king will be found. Samuel fears retribution from Saul, but obeys. In Bethlehem, Samuel assembles Jesse and the town elders for a sacrificial meal. One by one, Jesse's sons are brought before him, but none of them is the chosen one. Finally the youngest son, who is out tending sheep, is brought. This, of course, is David. Samuel anoints him and departs the next day.

Later, when Saul has come to see David as a threat to his throne and attempts to kill him, David flees to Samuel at Ramah for protection. Saul's men — and even Saul himself — eventually find them, but are miraculously prevented from capturing David when the Spirit of God comes over them. "[Saul] stripped off his robes and also prophesied in Samuel's presence. He lay that way all that day and night." (I Sam 19:24)

Samuel's Death and a Final Prophecy

Samuel's death is reported in I Sam. 25, the text noting that "all Israel mourned for him and buried him in his own town of Ramah." His story is not quite finished however, as he makes one final appearance from beyond the grave. The unfortunate Saul seek's God's advice, but none is forthcoming through normal means of dreams, divination, or prophecy. He then goes to a medium at the village of Endor, in violation of his own command against such activities, to seek Samuel's guidance. The woman duly conjures the spirit of Samuel. However, Samuel only scolds Saul for disturbing him and confirms God's judgment that, because of his disobedience in the matter of the Amalekites, God has withdrawn his support of Saul's kingship. In a final prophecy, Samuel declares Saul's doom: "The Lord will hand over both Israel and you to the Philistines, and tomorrow you and your sons will be with me." (I Sam. 28:19)

Perspectives on Samuel

(From the point of view of most modern textual scholars this is actually the story of Saul's nativity.[1])

According to the Book of Jeremiah, and one of the Psalms (Psalm 99), Samuel had a high devotion to God, which was mutual. Classical Rabbinical literature adds that he was more than an equal to Moses, God speaking directly to Samuel, rather than Samuel having to attend the tabernacle to hear God [2]. Samuel is also described by the Rabbis as having been highly intelligent; he argued that it was technically legitimate for laymen to offer sacrifices, since the Mitzvot only insisted that the priests bring the blood (cf Leviticus 1:5, Zebediah 32a)[3]. Eli, who was viewed negatively by many Classical Rabbis, is said to have reacted to this logic of Samuel by arguing that it was technically true, but Samuel should be put to death for making legal statements while Eli (his mentor) was present.[4]

Samuel is also treated by the Classical Rabbis as a much more sympathetic character than he appears at face value in the Bible; his annual circuit is explained as being due to his wish to spare people the task of having to journey to him; Samuel is said to have been rich, taking his entire household with him on the circuit so that he didn't need to impose himself on anyone's hospitality; when Saul fell out of God's favour, Samuel is described as having grieved copiously and having prematurely aged [5].

However, according to textual scholars, this latter battle (1 Samuel 7:2b-16), in which Samuel lead the Israelites to victory, is actually a redaction dating from the 7th century. It was probably added by the Deuteronomist, to confirm to a theocratical worldview in which religious figures have greater prominence, and Israel only loses to its enemies when it is being punished by God; the passage essentially acting as a counterbalance to the earlier Israelite defeat. In reality it is considered more likely that, if there is any historical basis for the Israelite victory, it was one of those due to military leadership by Saul [6].

National Prophet, Local Seer

Samuel is described as taking two distinct roles:

  • A seer, based at Ramah, and seemingly known scarcely beyond the immediate neighbourhood of Ramah (Saul, for example, not having heard of him, with his servant informing him of his existence instead). In this role, Samuel is associated with the bands of musical ecstatic roaming prophets (aka shouters - neb'im) at Gibeah, Bethel, and Gilgal, and some traditional scholars have argued that Samuel was the founder of these groups. At Ramah, Samuel secretly anoints Saul, after having met him for the first time, while Saul was looking for his father's flock, and treated him to a meal.
  • A prophet, based at Shiloh, who went throughout the land, from place to place, with unwearied zeal, reproving, rebuking, and exhorting the people to repentance. In this role, Samuel acted as a (biblical) judge, publicly advising the nation, and also giving private advice to individuals. Eventually Samuel delegates this role to his sons, based at Beersheba, but they behave corruptly and so the people, facing invasion from the Ammonites, pursuade Samuel to appoint a king. Samuel reluctantly does so, and anoints Saul in front of the entire nation, who had gathered to see him.

Textual scholars believe that these two roles each comes from a different source, which later were spliced together to form the Book(s) of Samuel. The oldest is considered to be that which marks Samuel as the local seer of Ramah, who willingly anoints Saul as King in secret, while the later is that which presents Samuel as a national figure, who begrudgingly anoints Saul as King in front of a national assembly. This later source is generally known as the republican source, since here, and elsewhere, it denegrates the actions and role of the monarchy (particularly those of Saul) and favours religious figures, in contrast to the other main source - the monarchial source - which treats the monarchy favourably. In the monarchial source, Saul is appointed king by public acclamation, due to his military victories, and not by cleromancy involving Samuel. Another difference between the sources is that the republican source treats the shouters as somewhat independent from Samuel (1 Samuel 9:1+) rather than having been lead by him (1 Samuel 19:18+). The passage (1 Samuel 7:15-16) in which Samuel is described as having exercised the functions of a (biblical) judge, during an annual circuit from Ramah to Bethel to Gilgal (the Gilgal between Ebal and Gerizim) to Mizpah and back to Ramah, is thought by textual scholars to be a redaction aimed at harmonising the two portrayals of Samuel.[7]

Samuel is variously described by the Book(s) of Samuel as having carried out sacrifices at sanctuaries, and having constructed and sanctified altars. Nevertheless, according to the Mitzvot only Aaronid priests and/or Levites (depending on the Mitzvah) were permitted to perform these actions, and simply being a nazarite or prophet was insufficient. In the Book of Chronicles, Samuel is described as a Levite, rectifying this situation; however textual scholars widely see the Book of Chronicles as an attempt to redact the Book(s) of Samuel and of Kings to conform to later religious sensibilities. Since many of the Mitzvot themselves are thought to postdate the Book(s) of Samuel (according to the documentary hypothesis), there is therefore no reason to assume that Chronicles is making its claim on any basis other than religious bias. The Levitical genealogy of 1 Chronicles 4 is not historical, according to modern scholarship.[8]


See also

  • Books of Samuel
  • Book of Samuel the Seer
  • List of names referring to El
  • Biblical judges

References and Notes

  1. ibid
  2. Berakot 31b, Ta'anit 5b, Exodus Rashi 14:4
  3. Berakot 31b
  4. ibid
  5. Berakot 10b, Nedarim 38a, Ta'anit 5b
  6. ibid (Samuel, Book of Samuel, Eben-Ezer)
  7. ibid
  8. ibid
Preceded by:
Eli
(Last)
Judge of Israel

Succeeded by:
King Saul of the Kingdom of Israel

This entry incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897.

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