Prodigy

From New World Encyclopedia


Template:Cleanup

A child prodigy is an individual who masters one or more skills or arts at an early age. It is an extreme form of giftedness. One generally accepted heuristic for identifying prodigies is someone who, usually around the age of twelve, displays expert proficiency or a profound grasp of the fundamentals of one or more domains. Researchers Gardner and Feldman define a prodigy as an individual who passes through one or more domains with tremendous rapidity, rendering him qualitatively different from other individuals. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is a quintessential child prodigy because of his extraordinary gifts in the musical sphere.

Overview

The term Wunderkind (from German: "miracle child" or "wonder child"") is sometimes used as a synonym for prodigy, particularly in media accounts, although this term is discouraged in scientific literature. Wunderkind also is used to recognize those who achieve success and acclaim early in their adult careers, such as Steven Spielberg and Steve Jobs. Other prodigies include Carl Gaus, mathematician; English painter John Everett Millsis; and chess player Samuel Reshensky. However, not all child prodigies go on to become great creators, inventors or to make great contributions to the world; some no longer stand out when their peers catch up with them; most do become experts in an area that draws on one or more of their intelligences. No matter how powerful the adult talent of a grownup child prodigy, he is no longer a prodigy, because the term is linked not solely to ability, but also to age. Many adults, even if continuing to excel in their earlier domains, are forever ex-prodigies. Others, such as Mozart, continue to develop and excel in their fields and become known as geniuses. And there are those who were never identified or perceived as gifted when they were children, such as Darwin, Edison, and Einstein

Cognitive studies on child prodigies

Few studies have examined the neurological activity of prodigies. However, Michael O'Boyle, an American psychologist working in Australia, has recently utilized fMRI scanning of blood flow during mental operation in prodigies to display startling results. “Calculators,” those capable of mentally performing arithmetic, geometrical, or other complex mathematical operations, normally reserved for electronic calculators, achieve six to seven times the typical blood flow to parts of the brain observed to be active during mathematical operations.[citation needed]

Mental calculators are not to be confused with other mathematical prodigies, because mechanically carrying out and keeping track of progress in a calculation is very different from having an understanding of the deeper principles behind mathematics. This is potentially one of the reasons why mental calculators do not necessarily go on to become mathematicians. A similar principle, for nearly the same mental mechanism, can be observed among players in games, such as, for example, chess or go. People typically think a few moves (or ply) ahead. Recent studies have indicated that ordinarily university students think 2, 3, or 4-ply when confronted with some kind of game-playing or problem-solving task. Beyond that it becomes very difficult to keep track of the different branches and details. But some people (and chess tournaments are good places to look) are able to look further ahead than that, and the skill sets between games and mathematics are very similar.

PET Scans performed on several math prodigies have suggested thinking in terms of long-term working memory (LTWM). This memory, specific to a field of expertise, is capable of holding relevant information for extended periods, usually hours. For example, experienced waiters have been found to hold the orders of up to twenty customers in their heads while they serve them, but perform only as well as an average person in number-sequence recognition. The PET scans also answer questions about which specific areas of the brain associate themselves with prodigious number-manipulation. One subject never excelled as a child in mathematics, but he taught himself algorithms and tricks for calculatory speed, becoming capable of extremely complex mental math. His brain, compared to six other controls, was studied using the PET scan, revealing separate areas of his brain that he manipulated to solve the complex problems. Some of the areas that he and presumably prodigies use are brain sectors dealing in visual and spatial memory, as well as visual mental imagery. Other areas of the brain showed use by the subject, including a sector of the brain generally related to childlike “finger counting,” probably used in his mind to relate numbers to the visual cortex.

It is vital to note that the activity of parts of the brain which share a functional role with a more researched function, like visual and spatial memory, is only correlational, and may only indicate that they share some functions at a higher or lower level. One may point out that many mathematicians and theoretical physicists are completely hopeless in labs, falling victim to the annoying habit of constantly losing items [citation needed]. The idea of a Long Term Working Memory is only an abstraction, and psychology may be better served by a different set of such memory abstractions. LTWM is a surprisingly minimal abstraction, in the sense that it is rather obvious that the details of a problem remain lodged in our memory until we have let go of it. It is also as fuzzy as its definition, bearing on the meaning of 'field', 'expertise', and 'extended periods'.

Characteristics of a prodigy

An often asked question is "Are prodigies born, or can prodigies be made?" Is giftedness a genetic outcome, or can it be created through environment—by parents, schools and mentors. Most researchers recognize that prodigious talent tends to arise as a result of the innate talent of the child, the environment that the individual resides in, the energetic and emotional investment that the child ventures, and the personal characteristics of the individual. Gardner and Feldman's research reveal the following factors:

  • an initial, possibly inborn proclivity
  • considerable pressure from parents and family
  • excellent teachers
  • high motivation, and perhaps most importantly,
  • a culture in which that proclivity will have a chance to flower.

In their opinion, the prodigy is an astouding amalgam of the highest amounts of proclivity with the greatest amounts of stimulation and structure provided by the individual's family and society.

Solely environmental theories to account for the performance of prodigies have been developed, examined, and to some degree 'tested'. For example, Laszlo Polgar set out to raise his children to be chess players, and all three of his daughters went on to become world class players (two of whom are grandmasters), emphasisizing the potency an environment has in determining the area toward which a child's energy will be directed, and showing that an incredible amount of skill can be developed through suitable training.

Prodigies, regardless of their portrayal, are people, and as such are generally confined by much the same constraints on learning and emotional issues that most people deal with. It is impossible to learn to play tennis in a prison, and it is rewarding to learn music with encouragement. Time and energ, is required to learn and absorb the proper skill set. Emotions play an incredibly important role (as in almost all people), from the catastrophic tendencies exhibited by stereotypical examples of 'tortured geniuses', to the obvious distracting quality of bouts of uncontrollable depression, to the less tangible and poorly understood qualities of the effects of emotions on one's creativity and general thought patterns. Biographical accounts by prodigies themselves show that most child prodigies devote a substantial amount of time to learning and studying, that some prodigies experience serious problems which appear to be related to their unusual early lives, and that very few prodigies emerge in families that do not provide good opportunities to learn. In addition, scientific investigation of the gifted reveals the importance of drive and hard work in achievement of any kind.

Social and Emotional Issues

See main article gifted child. The personal growth of child prodigies has traditionally captured a decent share of attention in popular culture, and has over the years been the subject of reasonable historical and sociological inquiry.

The tragic happening strikes many as a captivating and defining plotline. The vehicle upon which these personalities enter the public consciousness varies, but the essential elements are always, if perhaps unfairly, amplified. Famous examples include Thomas Chatterton, Bobby Fischer, José Raul Capablanca, David Helfgott, Ryan Chan, Blaise Pascal, and Ruth Slenczynska. In cases such as Zerah Colburn, William James Sidis, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, history is colored by early achievement and promise of something greater, and tragic events of adulthood are particularly emphasized in historical or popular accounts. One early literary example of a child prodigy with a tragic fate is found in The Hampdenshire Wonder, but again the portrayal is rather colored, describing not an accurate account but a fictionalized idealization.

Counter examples, such as Jeremy Bentham, Thomas Young, John Stuart Mill, Murray Gell-Mann, Karl Benz, the Vilna Gaon or Pablo Picasso, suggest that it is possible for prodigies to have continued success well into old age.

It is often expressed that prodigies sometimes have difficulty adjusting socially. In the 1940s Leta S. Hollingworth noted that the "optimum IQ range" appeared to be between 125 and 155. Those above 155 had more problems with personal adjustment.[42]. Above a certain point there was a slight inverse relationship between performance on "the Concept Mastery Test Form A," a test of verbal intelligence, and personal adjustment. It should be pointed out that this is based on a dated test: the IQ scale that Hollingworth used, the ratio IQ, is no longer widely used today, and on a normed test 155 IQ is roughly 3+2/3 SD above the mean.

Although Hollingworth's findings may be outdated, some adjustment issues for child prodigies are obvious. It is not uncommon for the highly intellectually capable to be ostracized in school, or at least be emotionally dulled by the conversation of their average classmates. They typically have very different priorities than other people, with popularity, friendship, and common excitement being secondary to the quest for knowledge, mastery of skill, or more personal yearnings, creating a mis-step with society. In addition, the unusualness of a prodigy's priorities and capabilities may lead to difficulty in relating to peers.

Some may simply dream too large. The possibilities seem endless when one is young: one can progress rapidly through a subject which might take an average uninterested student much more time. As one matures, however, those that one is competing with are proportionally not much older, and possibly just as driven. Also, the subjects become increasingly difficult. For example, mastery of the fundamentals of calculus is not beyond most bright youngsters, but if this ability is misconstrued as a cue to jump into Quantum Field Theory when an individual is not ready, the result may be discouragement and burnout.

In spite of this, most individuals formerly identified as prodigies, go on to lead generally happy lives. A famous study by Lewis Terman indicates this, and although the participants were pre-selected to some extent, the results are true of the majority of individuals. The spectacular reversals of celebrity are held in the upper echelons of public awareness, but it should be emphasized that our history is filled with geniuses who have displayed phenomenal early talent. One must note that phenomenal early talent is de rigueur in classical musical performance, startlingly commonplace in the hard sciences and engineering, extremely well established in writing, journalism, debate, and law, and as is becoming increasingly clear as the World Wide Web opens up a showcase for blossoming talent, in artistic endeavours as well. One author notes that an extraordinary number of Nobel Prize winners in physics, Fields medalists, Dirac medalists, Abel medalists, and Turing Award winners were educationally accelerated (sometimes remarkably), had remarkable school careers, had an early obsession with computers, or more recently, won major international academic olympiads.

An interesting question concerns the effects of early public celebrity in mass media in the transition of child prodigies into adulthood. Some child prodigies, such as Gregory R. Smith (USA), James Harries (UK), or Carlos Blanco (Spain), attracted a strong public attention and even had frequent collaborations in high-share TV programs, where they were able to show their skills, however, this early public recognition might result in problems at later times, as it happened with William James Sidis (1898-1944).

List of child prodigies

This is a list of people who in childhood (at or before 11) showed abilities in a specific field comparable to those of a highly skilled adult; hence the term child prodigy.

Mathematics

  • Maria Gaetana Agnesi: Delivered a speech she translated into Latin at age 9.[1]
  • Jean-Philippe Baratier: Said to be well versed in math by age 8, published articles by age 10, joined the Academy at 14, and died before 20.[2]
  • Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz: He published astronomical tables at age 10.[3]
  • Alexis Clairault: He studied the work of Guillaume de L'Hôpital at 10 and presented a paper at 13.[4]
  • Carl Friedrich Gauss: His potential was noted at seven, and in his teens he unknowingly discovered the already extant Titius-Bode law.[5]
  • William Rowan Hamilton: (Originally a languages prodigy)[6][7]
  • Ruth Lawrence: The youngest student to enter the University of Oxford at age 11.[8]
  • Colin Maclaurin: Entered university at 11, a feat not particularly unusual at the time, but at 14 he defended a thesis concerning ideas at the forefront of contemporary human knowledge.[9]
  • John Von Neumann: A "mental calculator" by age 6 who could tell jokes in classical Greek.[10][11]
  • Blaise Pascal: At 11 or 12 he had secretly worked out the first twenty-three propositions of Euclid on his own.[12][13]
  • Regiomontanus (Johannes Müller)-Studied dialectics at 11.[14]
  • William James Sidis: Corrected E. V. Huntington's mathematics text galleys at age of eight and entered Harvard at 11 where he gave his self-conceived lecture on four dimensional geometry.[15]
  • Terence Tao: At eight he was attending Year 11 classes and scored a 760 on the SAT math section.[16]
  • Norbert Wiener: He entered Tufts at 11.[17]

Mental calculators

Note: Several mathematicians were mental calculators when they were still children. This section is for child prodigies largely or primarily known for calculating skills. It should be noted that mental calculators are sometimes more like savants than they are like child prodigies. They have skills that rarely exist in adults and they may not be truly "mature" in mathematical understanding.

  • Zerah Colburn: At the age of nine he was able to multiply six digit numbers in his head.[18]
  • Brian Greene:(As an adult he is an important physicist)[19]
  • Truman Henry Safford: At ten years old he could square 18 digit numbers, later in life he was an astronomer.[20]

Computer science

  • Steve Wozniak: Started developing complex electronics while still in grade 5. Went on to develop the world's first screen and keyboard desktop computer: Apple I.[21]

Engineering

  • Alia Sabur: 15 year old Doctoral candidate at Drexel University who entered college at 11.[22]

Physics

  • Song Yoo-geun: Physics prodigy who entered university at age 8.[23]
  • Tathagat Avatar Tulsi: Undergraduate degree at age 10[24]

Mechanical engineering

  • Karl Benz: at the age of nine he started at the scientifically oriented Lyzeum, went on to study at the Poly-Technical University under the instruction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher, and at age fifteen he passed the entrance exam for mechanical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe

Medicine

  • Balamurali Ambati: He graduated from High School at 11, was a college junior by age 12, and a doctor at 17.[25]
  • Ibn Sina often known by his Latin name of Avicenna: Memorized the Quran at age ten, studying medicine at 13.[26]
  • Sho Yano: He started college at age 9 and graduated summa cum laude at age 12 from Loyola University Chicago. At 15 he attends the Pritzker School of Medicine[27]
  • Akrit Jaswal: India's youngest university student. He carried out an operation aged 7.[28][29][30]

Biology and psychology

  • Jean Piaget: Published a paper on the albino sparrow at 11, later a psychologist.[31]

The Arts

Acting/directing

Note: This section is mostly limited to child actors or directors who were respected enough to be nominated or win awards against adult competitors and were declared prodigies. It also includes a few actors from eras predating film who were declared theatrical prodigies. This section must be limited in this way because being even an award-winning child actor is not, in itself, prodigious. (See Academy Juvenile Award for why being an award winning child actor does not equate to being competitive with adults.)

  • William Henry West Betty: A sensation as a boy doing Voltaire and Shakespeare roles.[32][33]
  • Dakota Fanning: Since her breakthrough role in I Am Sam in 2001, has won numerous awards, and is currently the youngest person ever to be nominated for a Screen Actors Guild award. In her performance in the 2005 film Hide and Seek, many said that her performance equaled (or even surpassed), the performance of veteran actor Robert De Niro.
  • Hana Makhmalbaf: (director at age 8, currently 18)[34][35]
  • Tatum O'Neal: Won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar at age 10 for her 1973 role in Paper Moon, making her the youngest person ever to win a regularly awarded Oscar.[36]
  • Haley Joel Osment: Nominee for the Best Supporting Actor Oscar at age 11.[37][38]
  • Anna Paquin: She won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar at age 11.[39][40]
  • Shirley Temple: At 5 years old she proved a spontaneous talent as an actress in Hollywood; she was also a great tap dancer. When she was 7 she received a special Academy Award.[41]
  • Ernest Truex: He did Shakespeare at age 6.[42][43]
  • Elijah Wood: Began acting at age 7, known for his incredibly mature performances in adult themed movies and additional off-screen maturity. Cited by some as the most gifted child actor in history.

Literature

  • William Cullen Bryant: Published at ten, had a book of political satire poems at 13.[44]
  • Thomas Chatterton: Composing poems that would make him famous at age 12.[45][46]
  • Lucretia Maria Davidson: By 11 had written some poems of note and before her death at 16 received praise as a writer.[47]
  • H. P. Lovecraft: recited poetry at age 2 and wrote long poems at age 5[48][49]
  • Mattie Stepanek: Successful writer when he died at 13.[50]
  • Lope de Vega: wrote his first play at the age of 12.[51][52] Could read Latin at 5 and was translating Latin verse at ten.
  • Henriett Seth-F.: Hungarian autistic prodigy, wrote her first poem at the age of 9. She has also been a painter from an early age.[53][54]

Music

  • Isaac Albéniz-Public performance at age 4.[43]
  • Martha Argerich-Public performance at age 4. Orchestral debut at age 8.[44]
  • Claudio Arrau-First public concert at 5. Could read notes before letters.[45]
  • Steve Barakatt-First public concert at 5. Guest soloist of Quebec Symphonic Orchestra at 13.[46]
  • David Oistrakh-Debut at age six.[47]
  • Gregor Piatigorsky-At the Moscow Conservatory by age 11, heading a quartet at 15.[48]
  • Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga-Composing at 11 and a two-act opera at thirteen.[49]
  • Samuel Barber-Composing at age seven, attempted an opera at age ten, and attended the Curtis Institute of Music at 14.[50]
  • Georges Bizet-Paris Conservatoire at age 10.[51]
  • Frédéric Chopin-Concerts and polonaises at seven, well-known composer by 15.[52]

Visual arts

  • Akiane Kramarik: 12 year old Christian artist who has been featured on television and in museums since age 10.[55]
  • Jan Lievens: Painter apprenticed at 8 and an independent artist at 12.[56]
  • John Everett Millais: Painter who entered the Royal Academy at eleven.[57][58]
  • Alexandra Nechita: Painter with solo exhibit at age eight.[59]
  • Dylan Scott Pierce: Wildlife art illustrator at 10.[60]
  • Pablo Picasso: His Picador is from age eight, see List of Picasso artworks 1889-1900.
  • Stephen Wiltshire: An example of autistic artist child prodigies, he is an English artist[61][62]
  • Zhu Da: Prodigy poet by age 7 and later a painter.[63][64]

Humanities

Academics

  • Michael Kearney: Several degrees with the first being earned at age 10. He is currently noted as a "17 year old professor."[65][66]
  • Gregory R. Smith: He entered college at age 10 and was first nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize at age 12.[67][68]
  • Kim Ung-Yong: Attended university physics courses at age 4, Ph.D in physics before age 11.[69]

Business

  • Y.Siddharth Reddy: Youngest-ever CEO of a Public Limited Company[70]

Law/philosophy

  • Jeremy Bentham: He studied Latin at age 3 and entered The Queen's College, Oxford at 12.[71][72]
  • Saul Kripke: philosopher by 12 and invited to apply for a teaching post at Harvard while still in high school.[73][74]
  • John Stuart Mill: Knew several dead languages by age eight and studied scholastic philosophy at 12.[75][76]
  • Eugene Volokh: Earned a BS in math/computer science from UCLA when he was 15. Proceeded to earn a JD, and clerk for judge Alex Kozinski and justice Sandra Day O'Connor before becoming a professor at the age of 26. [77]

Linguistics/translation

  • Jean-François Champollion: He knew several dead languages at age 10 and at 16 he read an important paper at the Grenoble Academy.[78][79]
  • Thomas Young (scientist): More noted as a physicist, he was a polyglot at a young age who worked on translating Demotic Egyptian[80][81][82]
  • Émilie du Châtelet: translated ancient Greek and other ancient texts in her late childhood. Later famous for translations of Newton's works, with her own additional commentary and analysis, into French.

Sports

  • Freddy Adu: Joined the Major League Soccer's D.C. United at age 14.
  • Rhain Davis: Joined English football giants Manchester United at the age of 9 after the club where sent a DVD of him in action.
  • Wayne Gretzky: Began skating at the age of 2 and then scored 378 goals in one season at the age of ten. He went on to become the greatest player in hockey history.
  • Lionel Messi: Was signed by soccer team FC Barcelona at age 13.
  • Cherno Samba: He was signed by Millwall FC after scoring 132 goals in 32 goals as a 13 year old.
  • Sonny Pike: He was signed by Dutch football club Ajax, at the age of 7.
  • Fu Mingxia: Referred to as a child prodigy by at least two sources,[83][84] and was an Olympic gold medalist at 13. She is a diver.
  • Ronnie O'Sullivan: snooker player. Scored his first century break aged 10,[85] his first maximum at 15 and was youngest ever winner of a ranking event at 17.
  • Ricky Rubio: Youngest ever to play in Spanish basketball league ACB at age 14.
  • John Tavares: Drafted by the OHL‘s Oshawa Generals at age 14.
  • Mike Tyson: Beat world-class heavyweights such as Frank Bruno in training before turning 18.
  • Michelle Wie: Qualified for the USGA Women's Amateur Public Links at 10 and won the same event at 13, making her the youngest person both to qualify for and win a USGA adult national championship.[86]
  • Tiger Woods: He first won the Optimist International Junior tournament at age 8, playing in the 9-10 age group since there was no group for 8-year-olds at the time.[87][88]

Legendary

This is for historic children who have become representatives of the "prodigy" phenomenon, inspiring literature on it, but whose actual accomplishments have not been firmly established due to the poor sourcing or records of their era.

  • Gaon of Vilna: A historically significant rabbi called a prodigy in youth and who has been said to have had a variety of skills by age 11.[89]
  • Christian Friedrich Heinecken: The book The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lubeck was based on his life and he was an influence on The Hampdenshire Wonder. He allegedly "knew by heart the principal incidents in the Pentateuch" by age 1.[90]
  • Okita Sōji (1842 or 1844-1868): Prodigy of kenjutsu (swordsmanship), who defeated a kenjutsu master by age 12 and became a master of kenjutsu and a school head (Jukutou) at 18 or so. He died from tuberculosis in his mid-twenties.

See also

  • Chess prodigy
  • List of people youngest in their field

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Web sources

External links

In fiction

An early film example is Dear Brigitte with Bill Mumy as a prodigious son of a professor, although there are films with child prodigies that predate that one. The Royal Tenenbaums, a recent work shows characters who began life as child prodigies. Another example is Little Man Tate, a film depicting the struggles of a doting working-class mother trying to care for a child prodigy.

Child prodigies are also a staple in much science fiction. Several episodes of the X-Files featured varying kinds of child prodigies; ranging from noble to violent and psychotic. Books such as Ender's Game, Matilda, Odd John, Beggars in Spain, Dune, Artemis Fowl and others deal with child prodigies or focus on them. There is also the Wesley Crusher character in Star Trek: The Next Generation and Anakin Skywalker in Star Wars.

Television characters who are relatively well adjusted prodigies include Charlie Eppes, Doogie Howser, Gregory House, and Lisa Simpson, although in these cases some degree of isolation and difficulty is shown in their stories. A polar opposite to these is Asuka Langley Soryu from Neon Genesis Evangelion, whose extreme arrogance is implied to be largely induced by her extraordinary intelligence and emotional insecurity. Accordingly, despite an appearance of depression over the tragic death of her mother, a young Sydney Bristow from the television series Alias pieces together in minutes a Jenga-like puzzle that her father Jack Bristow could never solve during a flashback scene of the Season Five series finale. He uses this discovery to determine that Sidney possessed a special skill set and essentially labels her a unique girl. During a flash-forward at the end of the episode, her daughter Isabelle pieces together the same puzzle but no one is aware of it, and she knocks it down.

Most fictional examples given here ultimately could be deemed troubled or even tortured prodigies, even the seemingly happy ones.

The final episode of Doogie Howser, M.D. seems to parody the idea: he appears on a talk show with child prodigies who end up confessing outrageous mental problems, but at the end he essentially agrees it applies to him as well. He therefore quits medicine in search of some kind of philosophical answer to his problems. Anakin Skywalker clashes with authority and eventually falls to the dark side, only to be redeemed in the end.

A few films take a slightly different approach. In Little Man Tate, the character suffers from burnout in the middle of the film, but by the end he recovers and is ultimately better adjusted than he was before the film story began. A vaguely similar result occurs in Searching for Bobby Fischer where, after a tormenting level of external pressure, the prodigy finds his own way toward stability and even being "a good person."

Films intending to deal, comically or seriously, with the more tortured variety include Shine, the William H. Macy character in Magnolia, and The Royal Tenenbaums, as mentioned. The film Real Genius takes a mixed approach. It seems to indicate that impressive early ability, leading to grand self and external expectations, coupled with obsessive studiousness and a seriousness toward one's work and life, leads people toward burnout, a phenomenon well understood within the real life version of the thinly veiled environment that is portrayed (the California Institute of Technology). The central epiphany in that film occurs when the younger Mitch and the older Chris develop a balance within their lives, fueled by their rediscovered love of science.

In the series Artemis Fowl of books by Eoin Colfer, Artemis Fowl II is a 12 year old (turns 13) criminal prodigy, who also experiences family problems, his father was abducted and this led to Artemis's mother going through serious depression. In the Chronicles of Narnia Lucy Pevensie is portrayed as a wunderkind in the movie soundtrack in a song by Alanis Morissette called 'Wunderkind'.

References


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.