Principle

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For the term in chemistry, see principle (chemistry).
Not to be confused with principal.

Principle in philosophy and mathematics means the fundamental law or assumption. The word "principle" is derived from Latin "principium" (beginning), translated by Cicero from Greek "arche" (ἀρχή; the beginning, the first principle).

Principle is fundamental in the sense that it generally cannot be derived from others, while laws and rules can. Greek philosophy began as the quest for the principles (arche), and each Pre-Socratic philosophers identified different element as the principle. Aristotle made the first comprehensive analysis of the principles, by which he could differentiate disciplines and fields.

First principles in philosophy

In philosophy, a first principle is a basic, foundational proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption. In mathematics, first principles are referred to as axioms or postulates.

First principles in formal logic

In a formal logical system, that is, a set of propositions that are consistent with one another, it is probable that some of the statements can be deduced from one another. For example, in the syllogism, "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; Socrates is mortal" the last claim can be deduced from the former two.

A first principle is one that cannot be deduced from any other. The classic example is that of Euclid's (see Euclid's Elements) geometry; its hundreds of propositions can be deduced from a set of definitions, postulates, and common notions: all three of which constitute "first principles."

Aristotle's contribution

Aristotle, author of the earliest surviving text on logic, formulated a principle that later achieved the historical distinction of being called the first principle as a proper name. It occurs in those of his writings that have come to be called the Metaphysics. The principle in Greek, and its transliteration, is (Meta ta physica, 1005b):

"τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ ἅμα ὑπάρχειν τε καὶ μὴ ὑπάρχειν ἀδύνατον τῷ αὐτῷ καὶ κατὰ τὸ αὐτό"
"to gar auto hama hyparchein te kai me hyparchein adynaton to auto kai kata to auto."

and in English translation:

"For the same (characteristic) simultaneously to belong and not belong to the same (object) in the same (way) is impossible."

This principle is the first expression of consistency in western thought. Any defining and reasoning in any language on any topic assumes it a priori. It cannot be doubted, as all doubting is based on inconsistency, which assumes consistency a priori.

Principles in Chemistry

In modern chemistry, principles are the constituents of a substance, specifically those that produce a certain quality or effect in the substance, such as a bitter principle, which is any one of the numerous compounds having a bitter taste.

In pre-modern chemistry and alchemy, principles were the five fundamental substances believed to constitute all bodies. Three of these were called active or hypostatical principles: salt; sulfur, or oil; and spirit, or mercury. The salt was supposed to be the foundation of all savors; the sulfur, of odors; and the spirit, or mercury, of colors. The two passive or elementary principles were phlegm (or water), and earth (or caput mortuum).

Principle of Law

A principle of law is a codified philosophical statement ("principle"), which represents the core of a law as found in a constitution, in precedent, or else is interpreted to arise from either or both.

As most legal systems are nationalistic frameworks built upon a small core of legal concepts, jurisdiction and sovereignty often have bearing in making statements of principle. Legal conservatives may tend to be accordingly restricted or "practical" in their concept of a legal principle, while liberals tend to be more inclusive and universalist.

Laws

Laws in social sciences

Laws of economics are an attempt in modelization of economic behavior. Marxism criticized the belief in eternal "laws of economics", which it considered a product of the dominant ideology. It claimed that in fact, those so-called "laws of economics" were only the historical laws of capitalism, that is of a particular historical social formation. With the advent, in the 20th century, of the application of mathematical, statistical, and experimental techniques to economics, economic theory matured into a corpus of knowledge rooted in the scientific method rather than in philosophical argument.

Laws in physics

A physical law, scientific law, or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations of physical behavior. Empirical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments over many years, and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. The production of a summary description of nature in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.

Laws of nature are distinct from religious and civil law, and should not be confused with the concept of natural law. Nor should 'physical law' be confused with 'law of physics' - the term 'physical law' usually covers laws in other sciences (e.g. biology) as well.

Miscellaneous

Finally, the term "law" is sometimes applied to less rigorous ideas that may be interesting observations or relationships, practical or ethical guidelines (also called rules of thumb), and even humorous parodies of such laws.

Examples of scientific laws include Boyle's law of gases, conservation laws, Ohm's law, and others. Laws of other fields of study include Occam's razor as a principle of philosophy and Say's law in economics. Examples of observed phenomena often described as laws include the Titius-Bode law of planetary positions, Zipf's law of linguistics, Thomas Malthus's Principle of Population or Malthusian Growth Model, Moore's law of technological growth. Other laws are pragmatic and observational, such as the law of unintended consequences.

Some humorous parodies of such laws include adages such as Murphy's law and its many variants, and Godwin's Law of Internet conversations.


References
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  • This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain.
  • "Principle." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989.
  • Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. 1913.

See also

  • Principled approach
  • Law (principle)


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