Difference between revisions of "Principle" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 22:57, 30 November 2022

The concept of blind justice is a moral principle

Principle in philosophy and mathematics means a fundamental law or assumption. The word "principle" is derived from Latin "principium" (beginning), translated by Cicero from Greek "arche" (ἀρχή; the beginning, the first principle).

A principle is fundamental in the sense that it generally cannot be derived from others, while laws and rules can. Greek philosophy began as the quest for the principles and each Pre-Socratic philosopher identified different elements as principles. Aristotle made the first comprehensive analysis of the principles, by which he could differentiate disciplines and fields. Principles, he argued, differ according to subject matter. For example, principles in practical fields such as politics and ethics, and those in exact sciences such as mathematics and logic are different. His studies of principles for why and how they should be differentiated led him to the division of sciences. Medieval Schoastics adopted Aristotle's works and further identified spiritual principles within Christian contexts.

Philosophers since the Pre-Socratics generally tried to find the principles in each or all phenomena as well as its own philosophical analysis itself. Critical self-analysis of its own procedures, methodologies, assumptions, and presuppositions is an inherent element of philosophy and this critical self-examination leads to the discovery of primordial principles. The quest for the principles may be the defining characteristic of philosophy itself.

Quest for the principles: Pre-Socratics

Euclid as depicted by Justus van Ghent, c. fifteenth-century

Pre-Socratic philosophers, the first philosophers in Greek philosophy, made a series of attempts to identify the fundamental principles (arche) that determined phenomena in the cosmos. Their quest for principles distinguishes philosophers from story tellers of Greek mythology. While their predecessors gave narrative explanations for phenomena in the world, philosophers consciously tried to find principles by which they could give consistent, coherent, and comprehensive accounts for phenomena.

The earliest philosopher, Thales for example, identified "water" as the principle (arche) of the cosmos. Water is vital to all living beings, and can take the form of gas (vapor), liquid (water), and solid (ice). He regarded all beings as modifications of one universal element. Euclid, a mathematician, identified certain postulates and axioms as the principles of mathematics, from which all other theorems and mathematical knowledge are derived. Principles were understood as the irreducible beginning of all mathematical knowledge. In his Geometry, hundreds of propositions can be deduced from a set of definitions, postulates, and common notions: All three of which constitute first principles. When certain principles are considered primordial, these principles are called "first principles."

Aristotle's analysis of principles

Aristotle

Aristotle is the first philosopher who examined the natures and types of principles in the history of philosophy. He assessed his predecessors' perspectives, and made comprehensive studies of the principles. Aristotle found different types of principles in different phenomena such as social, natural, logical, mathematical, and so on. The differences among principles became the foundation upon which he divide and classified subject matters and disciplines.

Aristotle further identified specific principles in each disciplines and subjects. In Metaphysics, for example, he identified God (in Aristotelian sense) as the first principle of being, and various causal principles as the constitutive principles of all beings. In logic, he identified such formal principles as the principle of identity, principle of contradiction, and principle of the excluded middle.

Medieval Scholastics adopted Aristotle's definitions and works and developed them within Christian contexts. They also identified spiritual principles as the foundation of Metaphysics, Epistemology and Ethics.

The first principles in modern philosophy

René Descartes

Descartes attempted to find the first principle of philosophy upon the critique of the Aristotelian Scholastic Medieval tradition. He attempted a thought experiment of methodical doubt, and claimed the existence of thinking ego-self (cogito) as the indubitable first principle upon which all other philosophical ideas can be established.

Descartes wrote Principles of Philosophy (Principia philosophiae) (published in 1644) intended to identify the first principles by which he can define philosophy and replace the Aristotelian Scholastic tradition.

The book is divided into four parts:

The principles of human knowledge
The principles of material things
An objective study of the composition of the universe
A study of the structure of land.

This identification of the first principles set the stage for modern philosophy. Subsequent philosophers criticized Descartes' claims and presented one's own perspectives. Leibniz identified such principles of metaphysics and logic as the principle of indiscernible, principle of sufficient reason, and others. Spinoza tried to identify principles of Ethics and presented his studies in his Ethics. The style and system of the book is, as Spinoza says, "demonstrated in geometrical order," with axioms and definitions followed by propositions.

One way or another, philosophers try to find primordial principles.

Principles in chemistry

In modern chemistry, principles are the constituents of a substance, specifically those that produce a certain quality or effect in the substance, such as a bitter principle, which is any one of the numerous compounds having a bitter taste.

In pre-modern chemistry and alchemy, principles were the five fundamental substances believed to constitute all bodies. Three of these were called active or hypostatical principles: Salt, sulfur or oil, and spirit or mercury. Salt was supposed to be the foundation of all savors; the sulfur, of odors; and the spirit, or mercury, of colors. The two passive or elementary principles were phlegm (or water) and earth (or caput mortuum).

Principle of law

A principle of law is a codified philosophical statement, which represents the core of a law as found in a constitution, in precedent, or else as interpreted to arise from either or both.

As most legal systems are nationalistic frameworks built upon a small core of legal concepts, jurisdiction and sovereignty often have bearing in making statements of principle. Legal conservatives may tend to be accordingly restricted or "practical" in their concept of a legal principle, while liberals tend to be more inclusive and universalist.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Fetzer, James H. Principles of Philosophical Reasoning. APQ library of philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984. ISBN 0847671585
Guyer, Paul. The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 052182303X
MacIntyre, Alasdair C. First Principles, Final Ends, and Contemporary Philosophical Issues. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1990. ISBN 0585141401
Romano, Joseph J. Aristotle's Theory of Principle A Rationalistic-Empirical Bipolarity. Thesis—Bryn Mawr College, 1968.
Schmitz, Kenneth L. and Paul O'Herron. The Texture of Being Essays in First Philosophy. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2007. ISBN 0813214688

External links

All links retrieved November 30, 2022.

General philosophy sources

Credits

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This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain.

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-{{claimed}}
+{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Paid}}{{copyedited}}
-:''For the term in chemistry, see [[principle (chemistry)]].''
+[[File:Statua Iustitiae.jpg|thumb|300px|The concept of blind justice is a moral principle]]
-:''Not to be confused with [[principal]].''
+'''Principle''' in [[philosophy]] and [[mathematics]] means a fundamental law or assumption. The word "principle" is derived from Latin "principium" (beginning), translated by [[Cicero]] from Greek "arche" (ἀρχή; the beginning, the first principle).
-'''Principle''' in [[philosophy]] and [[mathematics]] means the fundamental law or assumption. The word "principle" is derived from Latin "principium" (beginning), translated by [[Cicero]] from Greek "arche" (ἀρχή; the beginning, the first principle).
+A principle is fundamental in the sense that it generally cannot be derived from others, while [[laws]] and [[rules]] can. [[Greek philosophy]] began as the quest for the principles and each [[Pre-Socratics|Pre-Socratic]] philosopher identified different elements as principles. [[Aristotle]] made the first comprehensive analysis of the principles, by which he could differentiate disciplines and fields. Principles, he argued, differ according to subject matter. For example, principles in practical fields such as [[politics]] and [[ethics]], and those in exact sciences such as [[mathematics]] and [[logic]] are different. His studies of principles for why and how they should be differentiated led him to the division of sciences. Medieval [[Scholasticism|Schoastics]] adopted Aristotle's works and further identified spiritual principles within [[Christianity|Christian]] contexts.
+{{toc}}
-Principle is fundamental in the sense that it generally cannot be derived from others, while [[laws]] and [[rules]] can. [[Greek philosophy]] began as the quest for the principles (arche), and each [[Pre-Socratics|Pre-Socratic]] philosophers identified different element as the principle. [[Aristotle]] made the first comprehensive analysis of the principles, by which he could differentiate disciplines and fields. Principles, he argued, differ according to subject matter. For example, principles in practical fields such as [[politics]] and [[ethics]], and those in exact sciences such as [[mathematics]] and [[logic]] are different. His studies of principles for why and how they should be differentiated led him to the division of sciences.
+Philosophers since the Pre-Socratics generally tried to find the principles in each or all phenomena as well as its own philosophical analysis itself. Critical self-analysis of its own procedures, methodologies, assumptions, and presuppositions is an inherent element of philosophy and this critical self-examination leads to the discovery of primordial principles. The quest for the principles may be the defining characteristic of philosophy itself.
 ==Quest for the principles: Pre-Socratics==
+[[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Euclid]] as depicted by Justus van Ghent, c. fifteenth-century]]
+[[Pre-Socratics|Pre-Socratic]] philosophers, the first philosophers in [[Greek philosophy]], made a series of attempts to identify the fundamental principles (arche) that determined phenomena in the [[cosmos]]. Their quest for principles distinguishes philosophers from story tellers of [[Greek mythology]]. While their predecessors gave narrative explanations for phenomena in the world, philosophers consciously tried to find principles by which they could give consistent, coherent, and comprehensive accounts for phenomena.
-[[Pre-Socratics|Pre-Socratic]] philosophers, the firs philosophers in [[Greek philosophy]], made a series of attempts to identify the fundamental principles (arche) which determined phenomena in the [[cosmos]]. Their quest for principles distinguishes philosophers from story tellers of [[Greek mythology]]. While their predecessors gave narrative explanation to the phenomena of the world, those philosophers consciously tried to find principles by which they could give consistent. coherent, and comprehensive account for the phenomena.
+The earliest philosopher, [[Thales]] for example, identified "water" as the principle (arche) of the cosmos. Water is vital to all living beings, and can take the form of gas (vapor), liquid (water), and solid (ice). He regarded all beings as modifications of one universal element. [[Euclid]], a mathematician, identified certain [[postulate]]s and [[axiom]]s as the principles of mathematics, from which all other theorems and mathematical knowledge are derived. Principles were understood as the irreducible beginning of all mathematical knowledge. In his ''Geometry,'' hundreds of propositions can be deduced from a set of definitions, postulates, and common notions: All three of which constitute first principles. When certain principles are considered primordial, these principles are called "first principles."
-The earliest philosopher, [[Thales]] for example, identified "water" as the principle (arche) of the cosmos. Water is vital to all living beings, can take a form of gas (vapor), liquid (water), and solid (ice). He regarded all beings as modifications of one universal element. [[Euclid]], a mathematician, identified certain postulates and [[axiom]]s as the principles of mathematics, from which all other theorems and mathematical knowledge are derived. Principles were understood as the irreduceable beginning of all mathematical knowledge.
+==Aristotle's analysis of principles==
+[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aristotle]]]]
+[[Aristotle]] is the first philosopher who examined the natures and types of principles in the history of philosophy. He assessed his predecessors' perspectives, and made comprehensive studies of the principles. Aristotle found different types of principles in different phenomena such as social, natural, logical, mathematical, and so on. The differences among principles became the foundation upon which he divide and classified subject matters and disciplines.
+Aristotle further identified specific principles in each disciplines and subjects. In [[Metaphysics]], for example, he identified God (in Aristotelian sense) as the first principle of being, and various [[cause|causal]] principles as the constitutive principles of all beings. In [[logic]], he identified such formal principles as the [[principle of identity]], [[principle of contradiction]], and [[principle of the excluded middle]].
+Medieval [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]] adopted Aristotle's definitions and works and developed them within [[Christianity|Christian]] contexts. They also identified spiritual principles as the foundation of [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]] and [[Ethics]].
-In [[philosophy]], a '''first principle''' is a basic, foundational proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption. In [[mathematics]], first principles are referred to as [[axiom]]s or [[postulate]]s.
+== The first principles in modern philosophy ==
+[[File:Descartes.jpg|thumb|300px|[[René Descartes]]]]
+[[Descartes]] attempted to find the first principle of philosophy upon the critique of the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Medieval tradition. He attempted a thought experiment of [[methodical doubt]], and claimed the existence of thinking ego-[[self]] ''(cogito)'' as the indubitable first principle upon which all other philosophical ideas can be established.
-===First principles in formal logic===
+Descartes wrote ''Principles of Philosophy'' ''(Principia philosophiae)'' (published in 1644) intended to identify the first principles by which he can define philosophy and replace the Aristotelian Scholastic tradition.
-In a formal logical system, that is, a set of [[propositions]] that are consistent with one another, it is probable that some of the statements can be deduced from one another. For example, in the [[syllogism]], "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; Socrates is mortal" the last claim can be deduced from the former two.
-A '''first principle''' is one that cannot be deduced from any other. The classic example is that of [[Euclid]]'s (see [[Euclid's Elements]]) geometry; its hundreds of propositions can be deduced from a set of definitions, postulates, and common notions: all three of which constitute "first principles."
+The book is divided into four parts:
-===Aristotle's contribution===
+#The principles of human knowledge
-[[Aristotle]], author of the earliest surviving text on logic, formulated a principle that later achieved the historical distinction of being called '''the first principle''' as a proper name. It occurs  in those of his writings that have come to be called the [[Metaphysics]]. The principle in Greek, and its transliteration, is (''Meta ta physica'', 1005b):
+#The principles of material things
+#An objective study of the composition of the universe
+#A study of the structure of land.
-:"τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ ἅμα ὑπάρχειν τε καὶ μὴ ὑπάρχειν ἀδύνατον τῷ αὐτῷ καὶ κατὰ τὸ αὐτό"
+This identification of the first principles set the stage for [[modern philosophy]]. Subsequent philosophers criticized Descartes' claims and presented one's own perspectives. [[Leibniz]] identified such principles of metaphysics and logic as the [[principle of indiscernible]], [[principle of sufficient reason]], and others. [[Spinoza]] tried to identify principles of [[Ethics]] and presented his studies in his ''Ethics''. The style and system of the book is, as Spinoza says, "demonstrated in [[geometry|geometrical]] order," with [[axiom]]s and [[definition]]s followed by [[proposition]]s.
-:"to gar auto hama hyparchein te kai me hyparchein adynaton to auto kai kata to auto."
-and in English translation:
+One way or another, philosophers try to find primordial principles.
-:"For the same (characteristic) simultaneously to belong and not belong to the same (object) in the same (way) is impossible."
+==Principles in chemistry==
+In modern [[chemistry]], '''principles''' are the constituents of a substance, specifically those that produce a certain quality or effect in the substance, such as a bitter principle, which is any one of the numerous compounds having a [[bitter]] taste.
-This principle is the first expression of consistency in western thought. Any defining and reasoning in any language on any topic assumes it [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]. It cannot be doubted, as all doubting is based on inconsistency, which assumes consistency a priori.
+In pre-modern chemistry and [[alchemy]], principles were the five fundamental substances believed to constitute all bodies. Three of these were called ''active'' or ''hypostatical'' principles: [[Salt]], [[sulfur]] or [[oil]], and [[spirit]] or [[Mercury (element)|mercury]]. Salt was supposed to be the foundation of all [[taste|savors]]; the sulfur, of [[odor]]s; and the spirit, or mercury, of [[color]]s. The two ''passive'' or ''elementary'' principles were [[Four humours|phlegm]] (or [[water]]) and [[Earth (chemistry)|earth]] (or ''[[caput mortuum]]'').
-==Principles in Chemistry==
+==Principle of law==
-In modern [[chemistry]], '''principles''' are the constituents of a substance, specifically those that produce a certain quality or effect in the substance, such as a ''bitter principle'', which is any one of the numerous compounds having a [[bitter]] taste.
-In pre-modern chemistry and [[alchemy]], '''principles''' were the five fundamental substances believed to constitute all bodies. Three of these were called ''active'' or ''hypostatical'' principles: [[salt]]; [[sulfur]], or [[oil]]; and [[spirit]], or [[Mercury (element)|mercury]]. The salt was supposed to be the foundation of all [[taste|savors]]; the sulfur, of [[odor]]s; and the spirit, or mercury, of [[color]]s. The two ''passive'' or ''elementary'' principles were [[Four humours|phlegm]] (or [[water]]), and [[Earth (chemistry)|earth]] (or ''[[caput mortuum]]'').
+A '''principle of law''' is a codified philosophical statement, which represents the core of a [[law]] as found in a [[constitution]], in [[precedent]], or else as interpreted to arise from either or both.
-==Principle of Law==
-A '''principle of law''' is a codified philosophical statement ("[[principle]]"), which represents the core of a [[law]] as found in a [[constitution]], in [[precedent]], or else is interpreted to arise from either or both.
 As most legal systems are [[nation]]alistic frameworks built upon a small core of legal concepts, [[jurisdiction]] and [[sovereignty]] often have bearing in making statements of principle.
 Legal conservatives may tend to be accordingly restricted or "[[practicality|practical]]" in their concept of a legal principle, while liberals tend to be more inclusive and [[universalist]].
-==Laws ==
+==References==
-=== Laws in social sciences ===
+*Fetzer, James H. ''Principles of Philosophical Reasoning.'' APQ library of philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984. ISBN 0847671585
+*Guyer, Paul. ''The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 052182303X
-Laws of [[economics]] are an attempt in [[modelization]] of economic behavior. [[Marxism]] criticized the [[belief]] in eternal "laws of economics", which it considered a product of the [[ideology#Ideology as an instrument of social reproduction|dominant ideology]]. It claimed that in fact, those so-called "laws of economics" were only the historical laws of [[capitalism]], that is of a particular historical social formation. With the advent, in the 20th century, of the application of mathematical, statistical, and experimental techniques to economics, economic theory matured into a corpus of knowledge rooted in the scientific method rather than in philosophical argument.
+*MacIntyre, Alasdair C. ''First Principles, Final Ends, and Contemporary Philosophical Issues.'' Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1990. ISBN 0585141401
+*Romano, Joseph J. ''Aristotle's Theory of Principle A Rationalistic-Empirical Bipolarity.'' Thesis—Bryn Mawr College, 1968.
-===Laws in physics ===
+*Schmitz, Kenneth L. and Paul O'Herron. ''The Texture of Being Essays in First Philosophy.'' Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2007. ISBN 0813214688
-A '''physical law''', '''scientific law''', or a '''law of nature''' is a [[scientific]] generalization based on [[empiricism|empirical]] [[observation]]s of physical behavior. Empirical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated [[Science|scientific]] [[experiment]]s over many years, and which have become accepted universally within the [[scientific community]]. The production of a summary description of nature in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.
-Laws of nature are distinct from [[religious law|religious]] and [[law|civil]] law, and should not be confused with the concept of [[natural law]].
-Nor should 'physical law' be confused with 'law of [[physics]]' - the term 'physical law' usually covers laws in other sciences (e.g. biology) as well.
-=== Miscellaneous ===
-Finally, the term "law" is sometimes applied to less rigorous ideas that may be interesting observations or relationships, practical or ethical guidelines (also called [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]]), and even humorous parodies of such laws.
-Examples of scientific laws include [[Boyle's law]] of gases, [[conservation law]]s, [[Ohm's law]], and others. Laws of other fields of study include [[Occam's razor]] as a principle of [[philosophy]] and [[Say's law]] in [[economics]]. Examples of observed phenomena often described as laws include the [[Titius-Bode law]] of planetary positions, [[Zipf's law]] of linguistics, [[Thomas Malthus]]'s '''Principle of Population''' or [[Malthusian Growth Model]], [[Moore's law]] of technological growth. Other laws are pragmatic and observational, such as the [[law of unintended consequences]].
-Some humorous parodies of such laws include [[adage]]s such as [[Murphy's law]] and its many variants, and [[Godwin's Law]] of [[Internet]] conversations.
+==External links==
+All links retrieved November 30, 2022.
+===General philosophy sources===
+*[http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy].
+*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy].
+*[http://www.bu.edu/wcp/PaidArch.html Paideia Project Online].
+*[http://www.gutenberg.org/ Project Gutenberg].
+[[category:Philosophy and religion]]
+[[Category:philosophy]]
+{{credits|Principle|136478925|Principle_(chemistry)|130067982|Principle_of_law|146346093|Physical_law|174362191|Principle_(disambiguation)|106237313|First_principle|173218000|Ethics_(book)|171288298|Principles_of_Philosophy|174378334}}
-==References==
 *{{1728}}
-*"Principle." ''Oxford English Dictionary''. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989.
-*''Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary''. 1913.
-==See also==
-{{wiktionarypar|principle}}
-*[[Principled approach]]
-*[[Law (principle)]]
-{{philo-stub}}
-{{credits|Principle|136478925|Principle_(chemistry)|130067982|Principle_of_law|146346093|Physical_law|174362191|Principle_(disambiguation)|106237313|First_principle|173218000|}}