Difference between revisions of "Pope Marcellus I" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m
 
(41 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 +
{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{copyedited}}
 +
 
{{Infobox Pope|
 
{{Infobox Pope|
 
English name=Saint Marcellus I|
 
English name=Saint Marcellus I|
image=[[Image:Papa Marcelo I.jpg|200px]]|
+
image=[[Image:Papa Marcelo I.jpg|150px]]|
 
birth_name=Marcellus|
 
birth_name=Marcellus|
 
term_start=May 308|
 
term_start=May 308|
Line 7: Line 9:
 
predecessor=[[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]]|
 
predecessor=[[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]]|
 
successor=[[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]]|
 
successor=[[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]]|
birth_date=???|
+
birth_date=uknown||
birthplace=???|
 
 
dead=dead|death_date=309|
 
dead=dead|death_date=309|
deathplace=???|
 
other=Marcellus}}
 
  
'''Pope Saint Marcellus I''', pope from May 308 to 309, succeeded [[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]], after a considerable interval, most probably in May or June 308.
+
}}
 +
 
 +
'''Pope Saint Marcellus I''' was pope from May 308 to 309. He succeeded [[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]], after a considerable interval, in May or June 308. Marcellus is credited with having reorganized and re-invigorated the Roman church after a period of harsh persecution under Emperor [[Diocletian]]. However, he faced a serious challenge due to internal strife within the church over the question of re-admitting to [[communion]] those whose faith had lapsed and had offered sacrifice to pagan gods.
  
Under [[Maxentius]] he was banished from [[Rome]] in 309 on account of the tumult caused by the severity of the penances he had imposed on Christians who had lapsed under the recent persecution. He died the same year, being succeeded by [[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]]. His relics are under the altar of [[San Marcello al Corso]], in Rome. His [[feast day]] is commemorated on January 16.
+
Marcellus took a hard line in demanding strict public penances for those who had lapsed. Outbreaks of serious and widespread violence soon disrupted his flock. In 309, Emperor [[Maxentius]] banished Marcellus from [[Rome]] on account of this tumult. He died the same year, being succeeded by [[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]], who faced a similar fate.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Marcellus' [[relics]] are under the altar of the Roman Church of [[San Marcello al Corso]], which bears his name. His [[feast day]] is commemorated on January 16; it is no longer on the [[General Roman Calendar]] but is still celebrated on the [[Tridentine Calendar]].
  
 
==Reign as Pope==
 
==Reign as Pope==
For some time after the death of Marcellinus in 304 the [[Diocletian]] persecution continued with unabated severity. After the [[abdication]] of Diocletian in 305, and the accession in Rome of Maxentius to the throne of the Caesars in October of the following year, the Christians of the capital again enjoyed comparative peace. Nevertheless, nearly two years passed before a new [[Bishop of Rome]] was elected. Then in 308, according to the ''[[Catalogus Liberianus]]'', Pope Marcellus first entered on his office: ''"Fuit temporibus Maxenti a cons. X et Maximiano usque post consulatum X et septimum"''<ref>''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'', ed. [[Louis Duchesne]], I, 6-7.</ref>. This abbreviated notice is to be read: "A cons. Maximiano Herculio X et Maximiano Galerio VII [308] usque post cons. Maxim. Herc. X et Maxim. Galer. VII [309]"<ref>cf. [[Giovanni Battista de Rossi|de Rossi]], ''Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romæ'', I, 30.</ref>. At Rome, Marcellus found the Church in the greatest confusion. The meeting-places and some of the burial-places of the faithful had been confiscated, and the ordinary life and activity of the Church was interrupted. Added to this were the dissensions within the Church itself, caused by the large number of weaker members who had fallen away during the long period of active persecution and later, under the leadership of an apostate, violently demanded that they should be readmitted to communion without doing penance.
+
For some time after the death of Pope [[Marcellinus]], in 304, the [[Diocletian]] persecution continued with unabated severity. This was the last wave of persecution  thousands of Christians dead before [[Constantine I]] made Christianity the state's favored religion left. Many other Christians had chosen to compromise their faith and show loyalty to the state by offering incense sacrifice to the Roman gods. One of these was the previous pope, Marcellinus himself, or so it was later reported.
 +
 
 +
After the [[abdication]] of Diocletian in 305, and the accession of [[Maxentius]] to the imperial throne in Rome in October of the following year, the Christians of the capital again enjoyed comparative peace. Nevertheless, the threat of renewed persecution made the episcopacy of Rome dangerous for its occupant. A crisis was also brewing over the question of how to deal with those Christians who had lapsed in their faith and now sought to be readmitted to communion. Nearly two years passed before a new [[bishop of Rome]] was elected. Then, in 308, according to the ''[[Catalogus Liberianus]],'' Pope Marcellus was elected to his office. (The tradition that Marcellus was already serving as pope when his predecessor Marcellinus was buried under miraculous circumstances in 304 is dismissed by most scholars as legendary.)
 +
[[Image:Maxentius02 pushkin.jpg|thumb|left|Maxentius, who exiled Pope Marcellus after internal strife within the church led to riots in Rome.]]
 +
Marcellus thus took charge of the church at Rome in a time of great confusion. The meeting places and some of the burial sites of the faithful had been confiscated by the state due to Diocletian's earlier edicts. Thus, the ordinary life and activity of the Roman church had been interrupted. Added to this were the dissensions within the church itself, caused by the large number of members who had fallen away during the long period of active persecution. Some members who had kept the faith held that these lapsed Christians should not be readmitted to [[communion]], while others believed they should be shown compassion after a period of penance. Meanwhile some of the lapsed, themselves, loudly demanded that they should be readmitted to communion even without doing penance, especially in public.
 +
 
 +
Meanwhile, Marcellus showed himself a capable leader in reorganizing the external administration of the church. According to the ''[[Liber Pontificalis]],'' Marcellus divided the territorial administration of the Church into 25 districts ''(tituli)'', appointing over each a [[presbyter]], who saw to the preparation of the [[catechumens]] (prospective new members) for [[baptism]] and directed the performance of public [[penance]]s. This presbyter was also made responsible for the burial of the dead and for the celebrations commemorating the deaths of the [[martyr]]s. The pope also had a new burial place, the ''Cœmeterium Novellœ'' on the Via Salaria (opposite the Catacomb of [[Saint Priscilla]]), laid out. (As late as the beginning of the seventh century there were still 25 titular churches in Rome.)
 +
 
 +
The work of the pope was, however, quickly interrupted by controversies over the question of the re-admittance of the ''lapsi'' (lapsed Christians) into the church. A poetic tribute composed by [[Pope Damasus I]] (d. 384) relates that Marcellus was looked upon as a wicked enemy by the lapsed, because he insisted that they should perform a prescribed public penance for their guilt. The exact form of the penance is not indicated, but it was apparently harsh enough that the requirement of its public performance provoked a severe reaction from many of the lapsed.
 +
 
 +
As a result, serious conflicts arose, some of which ended in bloodshed. The peace of the Roman church was utterly broken, and riots broke out throughout the city, where the newly reorganized churches carried out Marcellus' strict policy. Church sources relate that at the head of the dissenters was a lapsed Christian who had denied the faith even before the outbreak of severe persecution.
 +
 
 +
The disruption of civic peace resulting from these internal disputes provoked Emperor Maxentius to have the pope seized and sent into exile. This took place at the end of 308 or the beginning of 309, according to the ''Catalogus Liberianus''. Marcellus apparently died shortly after leaving Rome. After his death, he was venerated as a saint and confessor.
 +
 
 +
===Alternate account===
 +
A fifth century version of Marcellus' death was included in the legendary story of the martyrdom of [[Saint Cyriacus]]. This tradition, which was adopted by the ''[[Liber Pontificalis]],'' gives a different account of the end of Marcellus' life. According to this version, the pope was required by Maxentius, who was enraged at his effective reorganization of the church, to lay aside his episcopal dignity and make an offering to the gods. When Marcellus refused, he was condemned to work as a slave at a station on the public highway. At the end of nine months he was set free by the clergy. However, when he proceeded to consecrate the house of a matron named Lucina as a church ("titulus Marcelli") he was again condemned to work as a slave, this time attending to the horses brought into the above-mentioned station. It was while working in this menial occupation that he died for the faith.
 +
 
 +
The tradition related in the verses of Damasus cannot be completely reconciled with the legendary account above, although it is possible that more than one factor—both the civil strife among Roman Christians ''and'' Maxentius' anger at Marcellus' re-invigoration of the Roman church—may have provided reasons for Marcellus' exile. Indeed, it does seem that Marcellus' effectiveness as an administrator may have been related to the rioting of the ''lapsi,'' who, as a result of the pope's reorganization of the churches, could no longer find priests who would treat them as Christians.
 +
 
 +
==Legacy==
 +
[[Image:San Marcello al Corso.jpg|thumb|Rome's Church of San Marcello al Corso is traditionally believed to have been originally consecrated by Marcellus I.]]
 +
The feast of Pope Saint Marcellus is celebrated on January 16. This is the date of his death according to the ''Depositio episcoporum'' of the [[Chronography of 354]] and other Roman authorities. However, it is not known whether this is the true date of his death or that of the burial of his remains, after these had been brought back from the unknown place to which he had been exiled. He was buried in the Catacomb of [[Saint Priscilla]], where his grave is mentioned by the itineraries to the graves of the Roman [[martyr]]s.
  
According to the ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'', Marcellus divided the territorial administration of the Church into twenty-five districts (tituli), appointing over each a presbyter, who saw to the preparation of the catechumens for baptism and directed the performance of public penances. The presbyter was also made responsible for the burial of the dead and for the celebrations commemorating the deaths of the martyrs. The pope also had a new burial-place, the Cœmeterium Novellœ on the Via Salaria (opposite the Catacomb of St. Priscilla), laid out. The ''Liber Pontificalis'' (ed. Duchesne, I, 164) says: "''Hic fecit cymiterium Novellae via Salaria et XXV titulos in urbe Roma constituit quasi diœcesis propter baptismum et pœnitentiam multorum qui convertebantur ex paganis et propter sepulturas Inartyrum''." At the beginning of the seventh century there were probably twenty-five titular churches in Rome; even granting that, perhaps, the compiler of the ''Liber Pontificalis'' referred this number to the time of Marcellus, there is still a clear historical tradition in support of his declaration that the ecclesiastical administration in Rome was reorganized by this pope after the great persecution.
+
Marcellus' name is, to this day, borne by the church at Rome mentioned in the above legend. It is known today as the Church of San Marcello al Corso. In art, he is pictured with symbols related to the story of his work as a slave, sometimes with a donkey or horse nearby, or standing in a stable.
  
The work of the pope was, however, quickly interrupted by the controversies to which the question of the readmittance of the lapsi into the Church gave rise. As to this, we gather some light from the poetic tribute composed by Damasus in memory of his predecessor and placed over his grave (De Rossi, "Inscr. christ. urbis Romæ," II, 62, 103, 138; cf. Idem, "Roma sotterranea," II, 204-5). Damasus relates that Marcellus was looked upon as a wicked enemy by all the lapsed, because he insisted that they should perform the prescribed penance for their guilt. As a result serious conflicts arose, some of which ended in bloodshed, and every bond of peace was broken. At the head of this band of dissenters was an apostate who had denied the Faith even before the outbreak of persecution. The tyrannical Maxentius had the pope seized and sent into exile. This took place at the end of 308 or the beginning of 309 according to the passages cited above from the ''Catalogus Liberianus'', which gives the length of the pontificate as no more than one year, six (or seven) months, and twenty days. Marcellus died shortly after leaving Rome, and was venerated as a saint.
+
The issue which plagued Marcellus' papacy—the question of readmitting the lapsed to [[communion]]--would continue to challenge the Christian church for a long time. Both the contemporary [[Novatianist]] movement and the later [[Donatist]] movements adopted the attitude that sins as serious as [[apostasy]] or turning over the church's sacred books to the state were intolerable sins. Marcellus' strict insistence that the lapsed must do public penance would place him in the position of a moderate in the "holy vs. Catholic" controversies.
  
His feast-day was 16 January, according to the ''Depositio episcoporum'' of the [[Chronography of 354]] and every other Roman authority. Nevertheless, it is not known whether this is the date of his death or that of the burial of his remains, after these had been brought back from the unknown quarter to which he had been exiled. He was buried in the catacomb of St. Priscilla where his grave is mentioned by the itineraries to the graves of the Roman martyrs as existing in the basilica of St. Silvester (De Rossi, ''Roma sotterranea'', I, 176).
+
Marcellus was succeeded by [[Pope Eusebius]], who followed Marcellus' policy on the question of the readmission of the lapsed. Eusebius faced a similar fate to his predecessor, being exiled after a short reign due to continued strife between internal church factions on this issue.
  
A fifth-century "Passio Marcelli," which is included in the legendary account of the martyrdom of St. Cyriacus (cf. Acta Sanct., Jan., II, 369) and is followed by the ''Liber Pontificalis'', gives a different account of the end of Marcellus. According to this version, the pope was required by Maxentius, who was enraged at his reorganization of the Church, to lay aside his episcopal dignity and make an offering to the gods. On his refusal, he was condemned to work as a slave at a station on the public highway (catabulum). At the end of nine months he was set free by the clergy; but a matron named Lucina having had her house on the Via Lata consecrated by him as "titulus Marcelli" he was again condemned to the work of attending to the horses brought into the station, in which menial occupation he died. All this is probably legendary, the reference to the restoration of ecclesiastical activity by Marcellus alone having an historical basis. The tradition related in the verses of Damasus seems much more worthy of belief. The feast of St. Marcellus, whose name is to this day borne by the church at Rome mentioned in the above legend, is still celebrated on January 16. There still remains to be mentioned Mommsen's peculiar view that Marcellus was not really a bishop, but a simple Roman presbyter to whom was committed the ecclesiastical administration during the latter part of the period of vacancy of the papal chair. According to this view, 16 January was really the date of Marcellus' death, the next occupant of the chair being Eusebius (Neues Archiv, 1896, XXI, 350-3). This hypothesis has, however, found no support.
+
 
 +
{{Pope before 376|Predecessor=[[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]]|Successor=[[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]]|Dates=308–309}}
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
* ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'', ed. [[Louis Duchesne]], I, 164-6; cf. Introduction, xcix-c; Acta SS., Jan., II, 369
+
* Curtis, A. Kenneth, and Carsten Peter Thiede. ''From Christ to Constantine: The Trial and Testimony of the Early Church''. Worcester, Pa: Christian History Institute, 1991. ISBN 9781563642005.  
* [[Joseph Langen]], ''Geschichte der Römischen Kirche'' I, 379 sqq.
+
* Eno, Robert B. ''The Rise of the Papacy''. Wilmington, Del: M. Glazier, 1990. ISBN 9780814658024.
* [[Paul Allard]], ''Histoire des persécutions'', V, 122-4
+
* Farley, Lawrence R. ''A Daily Calendar of Saints''. Minneapolis: Light & Life Pub, 1999. ISBN 9781880971246.  
* Louis Duchesne, ''Histoire ancienne de l'Église'', II, 95-7.
+
* Fortescue, Adrian.'' Early Papacy: To the Synod of Calcedon in 451''. San Francisco: Ignatius, 2008. ISBN 9781586171766.
 
+
* Loomis, Louise Ropes. ''The Book of the Popes: To the Pontificate of Gregory I''. Merchantville N.J.: Evolution Pub, 2006. ISBN 9781889758862.
==Notes==
+
* Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present''. Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500017980.
{{reflist}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_0308-0309-_Marcellus_I,_Sanctus.html Opera Omnia]
+
All links retrieved November 25, 2022.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09640b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: ''Pope St. Marcellus I'']
+
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09640b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: ''Pope St. Marcellus I''] ''www.newadvent.org''
{{catholic}}
 
  
{{Pope before 376|Predecessor=[[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]]|Successor=[[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]]|Dates=308–309}}
 
  
 
{{Popes}}
 
{{Popes}}
Line 48: Line 70:
 
[[Category:religion]]
 
[[Category:religion]]
 
[[Category:biography]]
 
[[Category:biography]]
 +
[[category:popes]]
 +
[[category:religious figures]]
 +
[[category:Christianity]]
 
{{Credit|198446871}}
 
{{Credit|198446871}}

Latest revision as of 04:04, 26 November 2022


Saint Marcellus I
Papa Marcelo I.jpg
Birth name Marcellus
Papacy began May 308
Papacy ended 309
Predecessor Marcellinus
Successor Eusebius
Born uknown
Died 309

Pope Saint Marcellus I was pope from May 308 to 309. He succeeded Marcellinus, after a considerable interval, in May or June 308. Marcellus is credited with having reorganized and re-invigorated the Roman church after a period of harsh persecution under Emperor Diocletian. However, he faced a serious challenge due to internal strife within the church over the question of re-admitting to communion those whose faith had lapsed and had offered sacrifice to pagan gods.

Marcellus took a hard line in demanding strict public penances for those who had lapsed. Outbreaks of serious and widespread violence soon disrupted his flock. In 309, Emperor Maxentius banished Marcellus from Rome on account of this tumult. He died the same year, being succeeded by Eusebius, who faced a similar fate.

Marcellus' relics are under the altar of the Roman Church of San Marcello al Corso, which bears his name. His feast day is commemorated on January 16; it is no longer on the General Roman Calendar but is still celebrated on the Tridentine Calendar.

Reign as Pope

For some time after the death of Pope Marcellinus, in 304, the Diocletian persecution continued with unabated severity. This was the last wave of persecution thousands of Christians dead before Constantine I made Christianity the state's favored religion left. Many other Christians had chosen to compromise their faith and show loyalty to the state by offering incense sacrifice to the Roman gods. One of these was the previous pope, Marcellinus himself, or so it was later reported.

After the abdication of Diocletian in 305, and the accession of Maxentius to the imperial throne in Rome in October of the following year, the Christians of the capital again enjoyed comparative peace. Nevertheless, the threat of renewed persecution made the episcopacy of Rome dangerous for its occupant. A crisis was also brewing over the question of how to deal with those Christians who had lapsed in their faith and now sought to be readmitted to communion. Nearly two years passed before a new bishop of Rome was elected. Then, in 308, according to the Catalogus Liberianus, Pope Marcellus was elected to his office. (The tradition that Marcellus was already serving as pope when his predecessor Marcellinus was buried under miraculous circumstances in 304 is dismissed by most scholars as legendary.)

Maxentius, who exiled Pope Marcellus after internal strife within the church led to riots in Rome.

Marcellus thus took charge of the church at Rome in a time of great confusion. The meeting places and some of the burial sites of the faithful had been confiscated by the state due to Diocletian's earlier edicts. Thus, the ordinary life and activity of the Roman church had been interrupted. Added to this were the dissensions within the church itself, caused by the large number of members who had fallen away during the long period of active persecution. Some members who had kept the faith held that these lapsed Christians should not be readmitted to communion, while others believed they should be shown compassion after a period of penance. Meanwhile some of the lapsed, themselves, loudly demanded that they should be readmitted to communion even without doing penance, especially in public.

Meanwhile, Marcellus showed himself a capable leader in reorganizing the external administration of the church. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Marcellus divided the territorial administration of the Church into 25 districts (tituli), appointing over each a presbyter, who saw to the preparation of the catechumens (prospective new members) for baptism and directed the performance of public penances. This presbyter was also made responsible for the burial of the dead and for the celebrations commemorating the deaths of the martyrs. The pope also had a new burial place, the Cœmeterium Novellœ on the Via Salaria (opposite the Catacomb of Saint Priscilla), laid out. (As late as the beginning of the seventh century there were still 25 titular churches in Rome.)

The work of the pope was, however, quickly interrupted by controversies over the question of the re-admittance of the lapsi (lapsed Christians) into the church. A poetic tribute composed by Pope Damasus I (d. 384) relates that Marcellus was looked upon as a wicked enemy by the lapsed, because he insisted that they should perform a prescribed public penance for their guilt. The exact form of the penance is not indicated, but it was apparently harsh enough that the requirement of its public performance provoked a severe reaction from many of the lapsed.

As a result, serious conflicts arose, some of which ended in bloodshed. The peace of the Roman church was utterly broken, and riots broke out throughout the city, where the newly reorganized churches carried out Marcellus' strict policy. Church sources relate that at the head of the dissenters was a lapsed Christian who had denied the faith even before the outbreak of severe persecution.

The disruption of civic peace resulting from these internal disputes provoked Emperor Maxentius to have the pope seized and sent into exile. This took place at the end of 308 or the beginning of 309, according to the Catalogus Liberianus. Marcellus apparently died shortly after leaving Rome. After his death, he was venerated as a saint and confessor.

Alternate account

A fifth century version of Marcellus' death was included in the legendary story of the martyrdom of Saint Cyriacus. This tradition, which was adopted by the Liber Pontificalis, gives a different account of the end of Marcellus' life. According to this version, the pope was required by Maxentius, who was enraged at his effective reorganization of the church, to lay aside his episcopal dignity and make an offering to the gods. When Marcellus refused, he was condemned to work as a slave at a station on the public highway. At the end of nine months he was set free by the clergy. However, when he proceeded to consecrate the house of a matron named Lucina as a church ("titulus Marcelli") he was again condemned to work as a slave, this time attending to the horses brought into the above-mentioned station. It was while working in this menial occupation that he died for the faith.

The tradition related in the verses of Damasus cannot be completely reconciled with the legendary account above, although it is possible that more than one factor—both the civil strife among Roman Christians and Maxentius' anger at Marcellus' re-invigoration of the Roman church—may have provided reasons for Marcellus' exile. Indeed, it does seem that Marcellus' effectiveness as an administrator may have been related to the rioting of the lapsi, who, as a result of the pope's reorganization of the churches, could no longer find priests who would treat them as Christians.

Legacy

Rome's Church of San Marcello al Corso is traditionally believed to have been originally consecrated by Marcellus I.

The feast of Pope Saint Marcellus is celebrated on January 16. This is the date of his death according to the Depositio episcoporum of the Chronography of 354 and other Roman authorities. However, it is not known whether this is the true date of his death or that of the burial of his remains, after these had been brought back from the unknown place to which he had been exiled. He was buried in the Catacomb of Saint Priscilla, where his grave is mentioned by the itineraries to the graves of the Roman martyrs.

Marcellus' name is, to this day, borne by the church at Rome mentioned in the above legend. It is known today as the Church of San Marcello al Corso. In art, he is pictured with symbols related to the story of his work as a slave, sometimes with a donkey or horse nearby, or standing in a stable.

The issue which plagued Marcellus' papacy—the question of readmitting the lapsed to communion—would continue to challenge the Christian church for a long time. Both the contemporary Novatianist movement and the later Donatist movements adopted the attitude that sins as serious as apostasy or turning over the church's sacred books to the state were intolerable sins. Marcellus' strict insistence that the lapsed must do public penance would place him in the position of a moderate in the "holy vs. Catholic" controversies.

Marcellus was succeeded by Pope Eusebius, who followed Marcellus' policy on the question of the readmission of the lapsed. Eusebius faced a similar fate to his predecessor, being exiled after a short reign due to continued strife between internal church factions on this issue.


Roman Catholic Popes
Preceded by:
Marcellinus
Bishop of Rome Pope
308–309
Succeeded by: Eusebius


References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Curtis, A. Kenneth, and Carsten Peter Thiede. From Christ to Constantine: The Trial and Testimony of the Early Church. Worcester, Pa: Christian History Institute, 1991. ISBN 9781563642005.
  • Eno, Robert B. The Rise of the Papacy. Wilmington, Del: M. Glazier, 1990. ISBN 9780814658024.
  • Farley, Lawrence R. A Daily Calendar of Saints. Minneapolis: Light & Life Pub, 1999. ISBN 9781880971246.
  • Fortescue, Adrian. Early Papacy: To the Synod of Calcedon in 451. San Francisco: Ignatius, 2008. ISBN 9781586171766.
  • Loomis, Louise Ropes. The Book of the Popes: To the Pontificate of Gregory I. Merchantville N.J.: Evolution Pub, 2006. ISBN 9781889758862.
  • Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present. Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500017980.

External links

All links retrieved November 25, 2022.


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.