Difference between revisions of "Polygyny" - New World Encyclopedia
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Polygyny is probably the most common mating system among [[vertebrate]]s, and is especially common among [[mammal]]s. It is characteristically associated with: | Polygyny is probably the most common mating system among [[vertebrate]]s, and is especially common among [[mammal]]s. It is characteristically associated with: | ||
*Sexual dimorphism, particularly of size, with males being bigger, more aggressive, better equipped for fighting, and more colorful than females. | *Sexual dimorphism, particularly of size, with males being bigger, more aggressive, better equipped for fighting, and more colorful than females. | ||
| − | *Uni-parental care of the young, with males contributing less than females or nothing at all | + | *Uni-parental care of the young, with males contributing less than females or nothing at all. |
| − | *Delayed sexual maturity among males | + | *Delayed sexual maturity among males relative to females of the same species, or to males of related species with different mating systems. |
| − | Some species show facilitative polygamy, with males mating with multiple females only when resource conditions are favorable. Research on [[vole]]s has identified | + | Some species show facilitative polygamy, with males mating with multiple females only when resource conditions are favorable. Research on [[vole]]s has identified a [[genetic]] difference that predisposes one species to polygyny and another closely related species to monogamous pair bonding. The [[brain]] [[hormone]] mechanisms through which this very slight genetic difference acts have also been identified; they involve the response to [[vasopressin]] and [[oxytocin]]. |
These findings have applications within human populations as men experience a drop in the initial hormonal excitement as they remain paired with the same woman. It has been well documented that the presence of a new woman will however raise those hormones. Men have been able to learn how to increase their hormonal stimulation. These findings have hope to be helpful to those seeking to maintain a monogamous relationship. It seems results are best within a cooperative, committed relationship between ine man and one woman. | These findings have applications within human populations as men experience a drop in the initial hormonal excitement as they remain paired with the same woman. It has been well documented that the presence of a new woman will however raise those hormones. Men have been able to learn how to increase their hormonal stimulation. These findings have hope to be helpful to those seeking to maintain a monogamous relationship. It seems results are best within a cooperative, committed relationship between ine man and one woman. | ||
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==Human polygyny== | ==Human polygyny== | ||
| − | While polygyny has been a widespread historical occurrence, it has never been a majority experience or complete norm within any society. | + | While polygyny has been a widespread historical occurrence, it has never been a majority experience or complete norm within any society. It was accepted in ancient [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] society, in classical [[China]], and in [[Islam]]. It has also been accepted in many traditional [[Africa]]n and [[Polynesia]]n cultures. In [[India]], polygyny was practiced from ancient times onward, though historically only kings were polygynous in practice. For example, the Vijanagar emperor Krishnadevaraya had multiple wives. |
| − | + | Polygyny was practiced by most of the patriarchs in the Hebrew [[Bible]] and Old Testament such as [[Abraham]], [[Jacob]], [[Moses]], and [[David]], and was practiced throughout the time of the New Testament up until the eleventh century. However, it was not accepted in ancient [[Greece]] or [[Rome]], and has never been accepted in mainstream [[Christianity]]. It was allowed in the early [[Mormon]] (LDS) church, but was ended in 1890 after government coercion was given that prohibited Utah from becoming a state as long as they allowed polygyny. The political and economic dominance of (at least nominally) Christian nations from the sixteenth to the twentieth century has meant that on the world scale polygyny is legally recognized in very few nations. Although many [[Muslim]] majority countries still retain traditional [[Sharia|Islamic law]] which permits polygyny, certain liberal movements within Islam continue to challenge its acceptability. | |
| − | In modern [[Latin America]], polygyny represents male status | + | In modern [[Latin America]], polygyny represents male status as wealthy enough to support more than one household. Although condemned by the [[Roman Catholic]] church, the status of [[adultery]] as a venial [[sin]] not a mortal one contributes to the occurrence of this officially illegal but commonplace occurrence. Though these couples do not officially marry, the tacit approval and knowledge of society qualify the practice as polygynous. |
===Causes of polygyny=== | ===Causes of polygyny=== | ||
| − | There are several theories of why polygyny has occurred. One hypothesis suggests that the desire for numerous | + | There are several theories of why polygyny has occurred in human societies. One hypothesis suggests that the desire for numerous sexual partners is a basic human biological [[instinct]] or need. Although this explanation could explain the almost universal occurrence, it does not address the exceptions or variations. |
| − | [[ | + | Other theories use population and ecological factors to explain polygyny as a response to lengthy periods of sexual abstinence that often follow child birth. High male mortality from [[war]]fare, feuding, occupational accident, and [[disease]] leave an imbalance of females outnumbering males, and represent another hypothesis as to why polygyny might occur. Not only are the men too involved in these activities to consider marriage, but the number arriving at the marriageable age is reduced, resulting in fewer marriageable men than women. |
| − | + | However, polygyny occurs in situations of relatively balanced gender ratios and also in cases like the Yanomamo, where males outnumber females. In this society, some men accumulate two or more wives at the expense of others who never marry. Some may eventually marry at a later age than the women do. Thus, the society becomes divided between young bachelors, who may remain single into their thirties and older polygynists. | |
| − | + | ||
| − | There are also hypotheses about social stratification where access to productive resources do not determine status, but rather control over people does. raditional South African marriage structures provide an appropriate example. Most societies were divided into [[social class|classes]] of commoner, noble, and royal strata. | + | [[Bridewealth]] requirements may also affect some men not acquiring brides until a later age. In some societies, men are required to "buy" their wives by presenting the bride's family with suitable and costly gifts, or carrying out long periods of work for them. Because bride prices are often collected by the groom's family, he is not able to marry untill he has been obedient to their will, usually for a long period. |
| + | |||
| + | There are also hypotheses about social stratification where access to productive resources do not determine status, but rather control over people does. raditional South African marriage structures provide an appropriate example. Most societies were divided into [[social class|classes]] of commoner, noble, and royal strata. A commoner was usually able to marry only one wife, nobles supported several, and royals could have as many as a hundred. | ||
=== The economics of polygyny === | === The economics of polygyny === | ||
| − | In many societies, only the wealthy and politically powerful among men could afford to have more than one wife (or would be permitted to in many cultures, for example within [[Islam]]). This requires special social conventions if it is not to produce instability in the society. It is not, however, a unique problem of polygyny: some men (and women) never obtain mates in [[monogamy|monogamous]] societies. | + | In many societies, only the wealthy and politically powerful among men could afford to have more than one wife (or would be permitted to in many cultures, for example within [[Islam]]). This requires special social conventions if it is not to produce instability in the society. It is not, however, a unique problem of polygyny: some men (and women) never obtain mates in [[monogamy|monogamous]] societies. |
| + | |||
| + | On the other hand, in some societies, especially [[subsistence farming|subsistence]] agricultural societies, the extra labor of multiple wives may be helpful. | ||
=== Modern polygyny === | === Modern polygyny === | ||
| − | Although polygamous marriages are not recognized in most modern societies, | + | Although polygamous marriages are not recognized in most modern societies, polygyny remains a widespread phenomenon. Some have commented on the practice of using mistresses and [[concubinage|concubine]]s openly or secretly supported by wealthy males is in fact a form of polygyny. In some cases the male may have a second (or more) [[family]] with the unofficial wife, supporting her and his illegitimate children. In some places the wife may feel it is preferable to help in the selection process rather than not be aware. There may be some ability to maintain status in this manner as well. |
| + | In some cases the male may have a second (or more) family with non-legally recognized wife, supporting her and his children. In some situations the wife not only is aware of the husband's mistress, but also has helped him select one that is "suitable" to his station. The estate of "mistress" or "concubine" does not rank as highly as "wife." In societies where [[patriarchy]] is still practiced, a mistress or concubine will be placed under the authority of a full wife. A man may have as many full wives as he can support, with concubines assigned to each wife to aid in managing the rather large family. | ||
===The female in a polygynous marriage=== | ===The female in a polygynous marriage=== | ||
| − | + | Polygyny has degraded women and children, treating them as [[property]] and [[slavery|slaves]]. In many cases there are few laws, or little enforcement, to ensure the support of a [[family]] when a first wife is abandoned in favor of a new one. In some polygynous families where the households are separate, one or more wives may be abandoned and visited only occasionally. | |
| − | Polygamous marriages | + | Polygamous marriages vary in the amount of influence and control multiple wives can command. "Co-wives" may not even know about one another. On the other hand, they may not only know but support each other and help with domestic chores. In cases of "sororal polygamy" (sisters marrying the same man), close bonds may have already been formed. However, the "co-wives" may also compete with each other. There are instances of fighting and even violence within polygynous households that is damaging for the children. The wives may vie for their husband's attention, particularly when the first wife is supplanted by a newer, younger wife. Children of differing wives may have different status, or even no clarity in their relationships, resulting in [[incest]]uous situations. Lack of clarity increases tension among wives and their children. |
| − | It is hard to imagine true equality within a polygynous marriage. It is also notable that there have been no notable female scientists, or writers, or politicians that contribute to society in | + | It is hard to imagine true equality within a polygynous marriage. It is also notable that there have been no notable female scientists, or writers, or politicians that have emerged from polygynous marriages to contribute to society in significant ways. Perhaps it is because the environment naturally indicates the superiority of the man, and the woman must share her "privileges" for access to him with others. |
===Childrearing in polygynous marriages=== | ===Childrearing in polygynous marriages=== | ||
| − | There are instances where kind and loving husbands within a polygynous household have restored | + | There are instances where kind and loving husbands within a polygynous household have restored health to families where the original monogamous husbands were abusive. However, there are many more instances where children are, in fact, abandoned as a husband acquires newer, younger wives. When they maintain separate residences, this is facilitated by the circumstance. In most societies, women have much less access to make money or have viable status within the society and the children suffer. |
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 23:26, 16 December 2006
The term polygyny (neo-Greek: poly+gyne woman) is used in related ways in social anthropology and sociobiology. In social anthropology, polygyny is a marital practice in which a man has more than one wife simultaneously. This is the most common form of polygamy. The man may marry more than one woman at the same time, or marry one or more other women while he is already married. The opposite polygamous form—where a woman has more than one husband simultaneously—is known as polyandry. The anthropological meaning has been taken over into sociobiology, where "polygyny" refers to a mating system in which a male has a more or less stable breeding relationship with more than one female, but the females are only bonded to a single male. Even though historically polygyny has been socially acceptable in the majority of cultures, the majority of human marriages have been monogamous. The reasons for human beings maintaining unique relationships with one mate have varied, including demographic, economic, and religious concerns. Historical circumstances often resulted in polygyny being advantageous to the maintenance and development of particular societies. However, the most consistently successful form of human sexual relationship, leading to the greatest satisfaction for both men and women, as well as their offspring, and society as a whole, has been monogamy.
Polygyny in Nature
Polygyny is probably the most common mating system among vertebrates, and is especially common among mammals. It is characteristically associated with:
- Sexual dimorphism, particularly of size, with males being bigger, more aggressive, better equipped for fighting, and more colorful than females.
- Uni-parental care of the young, with males contributing less than females or nothing at all.
- Delayed sexual maturity among males relative to females of the same species, or to males of related species with different mating systems.
Some species show facilitative polygamy, with males mating with multiple females only when resource conditions are favorable. Research on voles has identified a genetic difference that predisposes one species to polygyny and another closely related species to monogamous pair bonding. The brain hormone mechanisms through which this very slight genetic difference acts have also been identified; they involve the response to vasopressin and oxytocin.
These findings have applications within human populations as men experience a drop in the initial hormonal excitement as they remain paired with the same woman. It has been well documented that the presence of a new woman will however raise those hormones. Men have been able to learn how to increase their hormonal stimulation. These findings have hope to be helpful to those seeking to maintain a monogamous relationship. It seems results are best within a cooperative, committed relationship between ine man and one woman.
Considered in relation to other primates, humans are moderately sexually dimorphic. Humans show much more flexibility in mating systems than many other animal species and almost every possible kind of mating system exists in some society. It should be noted that historically monogamy is becoming the norm. The dominance of monogamy within the human society may be indicative of the dominance of thought within the human population of primates. Since the primary feature of dominance in human society involves thought, not only strength, the female human is capable to devise strategies to ensure preferential and solitary bonding.
Human polygyny
While polygyny has been a widespread historical occurrence, it has never been a majority experience or complete norm within any society. It was accepted in ancient Hebrew society, in classical China, and in Islam. It has also been accepted in many traditional African and Polynesian cultures. In India, polygyny was practiced from ancient times onward, though historically only kings were polygynous in practice. For example, the Vijanagar emperor Krishnadevaraya had multiple wives.
Polygyny was practiced by most of the patriarchs in the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament such as Abraham, Jacob, Moses, and David, and was practiced throughout the time of the New Testament up until the eleventh century. However, it was not accepted in ancient Greece or Rome, and has never been accepted in mainstream Christianity. It was allowed in the early Mormon (LDS) church, but was ended in 1890 after government coercion was given that prohibited Utah from becoming a state as long as they allowed polygyny. The political and economic dominance of (at least nominally) Christian nations from the sixteenth to the twentieth century has meant that on the world scale polygyny is legally recognized in very few nations. Although many Muslim majority countries still retain traditional Islamic law which permits polygyny, certain liberal movements within Islam continue to challenge its acceptability.
In modern Latin America, polygyny represents male status as wealthy enough to support more than one household. Although condemned by the Roman Catholic church, the status of adultery as a venial sin not a mortal one contributes to the occurrence of this officially illegal but commonplace occurrence. Though these couples do not officially marry, the tacit approval and knowledge of society qualify the practice as polygynous.
Causes of polygyny
There are several theories of why polygyny has occurred in human societies. One hypothesis suggests that the desire for numerous sexual partners is a basic human biological instinct or need. Although this explanation could explain the almost universal occurrence, it does not address the exceptions or variations.
Other theories use population and ecological factors to explain polygyny as a response to lengthy periods of sexual abstinence that often follow child birth. High male mortality from warfare, feuding, occupational accident, and disease leave an imbalance of females outnumbering males, and represent another hypothesis as to why polygyny might occur. Not only are the men too involved in these activities to consider marriage, but the number arriving at the marriageable age is reduced, resulting in fewer marriageable men than women.
However, polygyny occurs in situations of relatively balanced gender ratios and also in cases like the Yanomamo, where males outnumber females. In this society, some men accumulate two or more wives at the expense of others who never marry. Some may eventually marry at a later age than the women do. Thus, the society becomes divided between young bachelors, who may remain single into their thirties and older polygynists.
Bridewealth requirements may also affect some men not acquiring brides until a later age. In some societies, men are required to "buy" their wives by presenting the bride's family with suitable and costly gifts, or carrying out long periods of work for them. Because bride prices are often collected by the groom's family, he is not able to marry untill he has been obedient to their will, usually for a long period.
There are also hypotheses about social stratification where access to productive resources do not determine status, but rather control over people does. raditional South African marriage structures provide an appropriate example. Most societies were divided into classes of commoner, noble, and royal strata. A commoner was usually able to marry only one wife, nobles supported several, and royals could have as many as a hundred.
The economics of polygyny
In many societies, only the wealthy and politically powerful among men could afford to have more than one wife (or would be permitted to in many cultures, for example within Islam). This requires special social conventions if it is not to produce instability in the society. It is not, however, a unique problem of polygyny: some men (and women) never obtain mates in monogamous societies.
On the other hand, in some societies, especially subsistence agricultural societies, the extra labor of multiple wives may be helpful.
Modern polygyny
Although polygamous marriages are not recognized in most modern societies, polygyny remains a widespread phenomenon. Some have commented on the practice of using mistresses and concubines openly or secretly supported by wealthy males is in fact a form of polygyny. In some cases the male may have a second (or more) family with the unofficial wife, supporting her and his illegitimate children. In some places the wife may feel it is preferable to help in the selection process rather than not be aware. There may be some ability to maintain status in this manner as well. In some cases the male may have a second (or more) family with non-legally recognized wife, supporting her and his children. In some situations the wife not only is aware of the husband's mistress, but also has helped him select one that is "suitable" to his station. The estate of "mistress" or "concubine" does not rank as highly as "wife." In societies where patriarchy is still practiced, a mistress or concubine will be placed under the authority of a full wife. A man may have as many full wives as he can support, with concubines assigned to each wife to aid in managing the rather large family.
The female in a polygynous marriage
Polygyny has degraded women and children, treating them as property and slaves. In many cases there are few laws, or little enforcement, to ensure the support of a family when a first wife is abandoned in favor of a new one. In some polygynous families where the households are separate, one or more wives may be abandoned and visited only occasionally.
Polygamous marriages vary in the amount of influence and control multiple wives can command. "Co-wives" may not even know about one another. On the other hand, they may not only know but support each other and help with domestic chores. In cases of "sororal polygamy" (sisters marrying the same man), close bonds may have already been formed. However, the "co-wives" may also compete with each other. There are instances of fighting and even violence within polygynous households that is damaging for the children. The wives may vie for their husband's attention, particularly when the first wife is supplanted by a newer, younger wife. Children of differing wives may have different status, or even no clarity in their relationships, resulting in incestuous situations. Lack of clarity increases tension among wives and their children.
It is hard to imagine true equality within a polygynous marriage. It is also notable that there have been no notable female scientists, or writers, or politicians that have emerged from polygynous marriages to contribute to society in significant ways. Perhaps it is because the environment naturally indicates the superiority of the man, and the woman must share her "privileges" for access to him with others.
Childrearing in polygynous marriages
There are instances where kind and loving husbands within a polygynous household have restored health to families where the original monogamous husbands were abusive. However, there are many more instances where children are, in fact, abandoned as a husband acquires newer, younger wives. When they maintain separate residences, this is facilitated by the circumstance. In most societies, women have much less access to make money or have viable status within the society and the children suffer.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Ember, Carol R., Melvin Ember. 2004. Eleventh edition "Cultural Anthropology" New Jersey: Pearson, Prentis Hall ISBN 0-13-111636-3
- What Polygyny Has Given Me! by a daughter of polygyny Retrieved December 8, 2006.
- Polygyny by Brian Schwimmer, September 2003. Retrieved December 8, 2006.
External links
- Pro-Polygamy.com - Provides op-eds and press releases on polygamy-related current events for the secular mass media.
- Tapestry against Polygamy Anti-polygamy (polygyny) website
- The history of the "Christian polygamy" movement - Presents the history of the new, modern social movement which has no connection to Mormon polygamy.
- TruthBearer.org — Organization for Christian polygamy Provides activists with teachings, resources, and media interviews
- Polygamy, slavery and Qur'anic sexual ethics Reformist Muslim perspective
- www.polygamypage.info Site that favors tolerance of polygyny from an Evangelical Christian point of view, exploring references to polygyny in The Bible. Includes legal, academic and historical bibliography.
- Biblical Polygamy - Presents biblical exegesis of arguments to support polygamy and lists out all the polygamists in the Bible
- Principle Voices- An advocacy organization of Fundamentalist Mormon women whose purpose is to educate government agencies, NGO's and the public about the Fundamentalist Mormon culture and polygamy, and to encouraging empowerment of individuals and families in and from that culture.
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