Difference between revisions of "Polygraph" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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{{Claimed}}
 
{{Claimed}}
:''Lie detector test redirects here. For other uses, see [[Lie detector test (disambiguation)]]''
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{{otheruses4|the forensic instrument|the automatic signing instrument|Autopen}}
:''For the early automatic-signing device, see [[Autopen]]''
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{{redirect|Lie detector test}}
 
[[Image:Patent 4333084.png|thumb|250px|Polygraph results are sometimes recorded on a [[chart recorder]]]]
 
[[Image:Patent 4333084.png|thumb|250px|Polygraph results are sometimes recorded on a [[chart recorder]]]]
  
A '''polygraph''' (commonly yet incorrectly referred to as a ''lie detector'') is a device that measures and records several physiological variables such as [[blood pressure]], [[pulse]], [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] and [[Galvanic skin response|skin conductivity]] while the subject is asked a series of questions. The measurements are posited to be indicators of anxiety that accompanies the telling of [[lie]]s. Thus, measured anxiety is equated with telling untruths. However, if the subject exhibits anxiety for other reasons, or can control his anxiety level voluntarily, a measured response can result in unreliable conclusions. A polygraph test is also questionably used as a '''psychophysiological detection of deception''' (PDD) examination.
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A '''polygraph''' (commonly referred to as a ''lie detector'') is in instrument that measures and records several physiological responses such as [[blood pressure]], [[pulse]], [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] and [[electrodermal|skin conductivity]] while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The polygraph measures physiological changes caused by the Sympathetic Nervous System during questioning. Within the Federal Government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a '''psychophysiological detection of deception''' (PDD) examination.
<!---Test --->
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==History==
 
==History==
The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In [[West Africa]] persons suspected of a crime were made to pass a [[bird]]'s [[Egg (biology)|egg]] to one another.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} If a person broke the egg, then he or she was considered guilty, based on the idea that their nervousness was to blame. In [[Ancient China]]  the suspect held a handful of [[rice]] in his or her [[mouth]] during a prosecutor's speech.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Since [[salivation]] was believed to cease at times of emotional [[anxiety]], the person was considered guilty if by the end of that speech the rice remained.
 
  
The origins of the modern polygraph date to 1913, when [[William Moulton Marston]], a [[psychology]] student at [[Harvard University]], first used the [[systolic blood-pressure]] test as a method of lie detection. He wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered [[Harvard Law School]] and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.<ref>Marston, William M. "Systolic Blood Pressure Changes in Deception," <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology,</i> 2:117-163.</ref> A more complex device recording both blood-pressure and galvanic skin response was invented by Dr. [[John A. Larson]] of the [[University of California]] and first applied in law enforcement work by the [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] Police Department under its nationally-renowned police chief [[August Vollmer]]. Larson's device was the first that could be referred to as a ''poly''graph, as Marston's earlier device recorded only one graph.
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The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In [[West Africa]] persons suspected of a crime were made to pass a [[bird]]'s egg to one another.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} If a person broke the egg, then he or she was considered guilty, based on the idea that their nervousness was to blame. In [[Ancient China]]  the suspect held a handful of [[rice]] in his or her [[mouth]] during a prosecutor's speech.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Since [[salivation]] was believed to cease at times of emotional [[anxiety]], the person was considered guilty if by the end of that speech the rice remained dry.
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The origins of the modern polygraph date to 1913, when [[William Moulton Marston]], a [[psychology]] student at [[Harvard University]], used the [[Blood pressure|systolic blood-pressure]] test as a method of lie detection. In his book, the "lie detector test" Marston erroneously claimed he was the first to use this method, even though many researchers were doing similar studies. He wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered [[Harvard Law School]] and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.<ref>Marston, William M. "Systolic Blood Pressure Changes in Deception," ''Journal of Experimental Psychology,'' 2:117-163.</ref> A more complex device recording both blood-pressure and [[galvanic skin response]] was invented by Dr. [[John A. Larson]] of the [[University of California]] and first applied in law enforcement work by the [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] Police Department under its nationally-renowned police chief [[August Vollmer]]. The first time the term "polygraph" was in 1908 by James MacKenzie in his invention the "ink polygraph" which was used for medical reasons.
  
 
Marston nevertheless remained the device's primary advocate, endlessly lobbying for its use in the courts. In 1938 he published a book, ''The Lie Detector'', where he documented the theory and use of the device. Nevertheless he was not above a little faked publicity, and in 1938 appeared in advertising by the Gillette company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason magazine]]|date=2001-05|title=William Marston's Secret Identity|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/28014.html}}</ref> <ref>Now! Lie Detector Charts Emotional Effects of Shaving - 1938 Gillette Advertisement [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-razor-high-res.pdf]</ref> <ref>FBI File of William Moulton Marston (including report on Gillette advertising campaign) [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-fbi-file.pdf]</ref>
 
Marston nevertheless remained the device's primary advocate, endlessly lobbying for its use in the courts. In 1938 he published a book, ''The Lie Detector'', where he documented the theory and use of the device. Nevertheless he was not above a little faked publicity, and in 1938 appeared in advertising by the Gillette company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason magazine]]|date=2001-05|title=William Marston's Secret Identity|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/28014.html}}</ref> <ref>Now! Lie Detector Charts Emotional Effects of Shaving - 1938 Gillette Advertisement [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-razor-high-res.pdf]</ref> <ref>FBI File of William Moulton Marston (including report on Gillette advertising campaign) [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-fbi-file.pdf]</ref>
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Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation, analog and computerized. In the United States, most examiners now use computerized instrumentation.
 
Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation, analog and computerized. In the United States, most examiners now use computerized instrumentation.
  
A typical polygraph test starts with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary information which will later be used for "Control Questions", or C. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test" is often conducted: the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are "Irrelevant " or IR ("Are you 35 years old?"), others are "probable-lie" Control Questions that most people will lie about ("Have you ever stolen money?") and the remainder are the "Relevant Questions ", or R, that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses during the probable-lie control questions (C) are larger than those during the relevant questions (R). If this is not the case, the tester attempts to elicit admissions during a post-test interview ("Your situation will only get worse if we don't clear this up").<ref>For details on the intricacies of various polygraph techniques, see the Federal Psychophysiological Detection of Deception Examiner Handook, the U.S. Government's official guide to the administration of polygraph examinations. [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/federal-polygraph-handbook-02-10-2006.pdf]</ref> <ref>For interrogation techniques associated with polygraph testing, see the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute's Interview & Interrogation Handbook. [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/dodpi-interrogation.pdf]</ref>
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A typical polygraph test starts with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary information which will later be used for "Control Questions," or C. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test" is often conducted: the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are "Irrelevant " or IR ("Is your name Rob T?"), others are "probable-lie" Control Questions that most people will lie about ("Have you ever stolen money?") and the remainder are the "Relevant Questions ," or R, that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses during the probable-lie control questions (C) are larger than those during the relevant questions (R). If this is not the case, the tester attempts to elicit admissions during a post-test interview ("Your situation will only get worse if we don't clear this up").<ref>For details on the intricacies of various polygraph techniques, see the Federal Psychophysiological Detection of Deception Examiner Handook, the U.S. Government's official guide to the administration of polygraph examinations. [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/federal-polygraph-handbook-02-10-2006.pdf]</ref> <ref>For interrogation techniques associated with polygraph testing, see the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute's Interview & Interrogation Handbook. [http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/dodpi-interrogation.pdf]</ref>
  
While some people believe that polygraph tests are reliable, there is little scientific evidence to buttress this claim. For example, while some claim the test to be accurate in 70% - 90% of the cases, critics charge that rather than a "test", the method amounts to an inherently unstandardizable [[interrogation]] technique whose accuracy cannot be established. Critics also argue that even given high estimates of the polygraph's accuracy a significant number of subjects (e.g. 10% given a 90% accuracy) will appear to be lying, and would unfairly suffer the consequences of "failing" the polygraph. Polygraph tests have also been criticized for failing to trap known [[spying|spies]] such as [[Aldrich Ames]], who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Soviet Union.<ref>Ames provides personal insight into the U.S. Government's reliance on polygraphs in a 2000 letter to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists. [http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ames.html]</ref> Other spies who passed the polygraph include [[Karl Koecher]],<ref>Kessler, Ron. "Moscow's Mole in the CIA: How a Swinging Czech Superspy Stole America's Most Sensitive Secrets," <i>Washington Post,</i> April 17, 1988, C1.</ref> [[Ana Montes|Ana Belen Montes]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Bachelet|first=Pablo|title=Book outlines how spy exposed U.S. intelligence secrets to Cuba|publisher=McClatchey Washington Bureau|date=October . 13, 2006|url=http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/15754464.htm}} "She first came under U.S. suspicion in 1994, when Cuba detected a highly secret electronic surveillance system. Montes took a polygraph test and passed it."</ref> and [[Leandro Aragoncillo]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Ross, Brian and Richard Esposito|title=Investigation Continues: Security Breach at the White House|publisher=[[ABC News]]|date=October . 6, 2005|url=http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1190375}} "Officials say Aragoncillo passed several lie detector tests that are routinely given to individuals with top secret clearances."</ref>
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Most academic studies on polygraph accuracy since 1980 place it in the high 90 percentile range on specific issue criminal examinations. For example, while some claim the test to be accurate in 90% - 95% of the cases, critics charge that rather than a "test," the method amounts to an inherently unstandardizable [[interrogation]] technique whose accuracy cannot be established. Critics also argue that even given high estimates of the polygraph's accuracy a significant number of subjects (e.g. 10% given a 90% accuracy) will appear to be lying, and would unfairly suffer the consequences of "failing" the polygraph. Polygraph tests have also been criticized for failing to trap known [[spying|spies]] such as double-agent [[Aldrich Ames]], who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Soviet Union.<ref>Ames provides personal insight into the U.S. Government's reliance on polygraphs in a 2000 letter to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists. [http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ames.html]</ref> Other spies who passed the polygraph include [[Karl Koecher]],<ref>Kessler, Ron. "Moscow's Mole in the CIA: How a Swinging Czech Superspy Stole America's Most Sensitive Secrets," ''Washington Post,'' April 17, 1988, C1.</ref> [[Ana Montes|Ana Belen Montes]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Bachelet|first=Pablo|title=Book outlines how spy exposed U.S. intelligence secrets to Cuba|publisher=McClatchey Washington Bureau|date=October . 13, 2006|url=http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/15754464.htm}} "She first came under U.S. suspicion in 1994, when Cuba detected a highly secret electronic surveillance system. Montes took a polygraph test and passed it."</ref> and [[Leandro Aragoncillo]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Ross, Brian and Richard Esposito|title=Investigation Continues: Security Breach at the White House|publisher=[[ABC News]]|date=October . 6, 2005|url=http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1190375}} "Officials say Aragoncillo passed several lie detector tests that are routinely given to individuals with top secret clearances."</ref> Noted [[pseudoscience]] debunker [[Robert L. Park|Bob Park]] recently commented, "The polygraph, in fact, has ruined careers, but never uncovered a single spy." [http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN07/wn051807.html]
  
Several countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described, the most important of which is never to make any damaging admissions. Additionally, several techniques can be used to increase the physiological response during control questions.<ref>Lykken, David T. <i>A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector,</i> 2nd ed., New York: Plenum Trade, 1998, pp. 273-279.</ref> Asked how he passed the polygraph test, Ames explained that he sought advice from his Soviet handler and received the simple instruction to: "Get a good night's sleep, and rest, and go into the test rested and relaxed. Be nice to the polygraph examiner, develop a rapport, and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm."<ref>Weiner, Tim, David Johnston, and Neil A. Lewis, <i>Betrayal: The Story of Aldrich Ames, an American Spy,</i> 1995.</ref>
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Several countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described, the most important of which is never to make any damaging admissions. Additionally, several techniques can be used to increase the physiological response during control questions.<ref>Lykken, David T. ''A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector,'' 2nd ed., New York: Plenum Trade, 1998, pp. 273-279.</ref> Asked how he passed the polygraph test, Ames explained that he sought advice from his Soviet handler and received the simple instruction to: "Get a good night's sleep, and rest, and go into the test rested and relaxed. Be nice to the polygraph examiner, develop a rapport, and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm."<ref>Weiner, Tim, David Johnston, and Neil A. Lewis, ''Betrayal: The Story of Aldrich Ames, an American Spy,'' 1995.</ref>
  
 
==2003 National Academy of Sciences Report==   
 
==2003 National Academy of Sciences Report==   
  
The accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device. In 2003, the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS) issued a report entitled “The Polygraph and Lie Detection”. The NAS found that the majority of polygraph research was of low quality. It is interesting to note that, so far, no scientific study has been published that offers convincing evidence of the validity of the polygraph test. After culling through the numerous studies of the accuracy of polygraph detection the NAS identified 57 that had “sufficient scientific rigor”. These studies concluded that a polygraph test regarding a specific incident can discern the truth at “a level greater than chance, yet short of perfection”. The report also concluded that this level of accuracy was probably overstated and the levels of accuracy shown in these studies "are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific-incident testing in the field.” [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309084369/html/]   
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The accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device. In 2003, the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS) issued a report entitled “The Polygraph and Lie Detection.The NAS found that the majority of polygraph research was of low quality. It is interesting to note that, so far, no scientific study has been published that offers convincing evidence of the validity of the polygraph test. After culling through the numerous studies of the accuracy of polygraph detection the NAS identified 57 that had “sufficient scientific rigor.These studies concluded that a polygraph test regarding a specific incident can discern the truth at “a level greater than chance, yet short of perfection.The report also concluded that this level of accuracy was probably overstated and the levels of accuracy shown in these studies "are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific-incident testing in the field.” [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309084369/html/]   
 
      
 
      
When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in national security matters and for law enforcement agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that “Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in federal agencies.” In fact, the NAS extrapolated that if the test were sensitive enough to detect 80% of spies (a level of accuracy which it did not assume), in a hypothetical polygraph screening of 10,000 employees including 10 spies, 8 spies and 1,598 non-spies would fail the test. Thus, roughly 99.6 percent of positives (those failing the test) would be <i>false</i> positives. The NAS concluded that the polygraph “…may have some utility” [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309084369/html/] but that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy."[http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309084369/html/212.html]
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When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in national security matters and for law enforcement agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that “Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in federal agencies.” In fact, the NAS extrapolated that if the test were sensitive enough to detect 80% of spies (a level of accuracy which it did not assume), in a hypothetical polygraph screening of 10,000 employees including 10 spies, 8 spies and 1,598 non-spies would fail the test. Thus, roughly 99.6 percent of positives (those failing the test) would be ''false'' positives. The NAS concluded that the polygraph “…may have some utility” [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309084369/html/] but that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy."[http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309084369/html/212.html]
  
 
The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier [[United States Congress]] [[Office of Technology Assessment]] report "Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation”.[http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ota/]
 
The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier [[United States Congress]] [[Office of Technology Assessment]] report "Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation”.[http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ota/]
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==Admissibility of polygraphs in Court==
 
==Admissibility of polygraphs in Court==
 
===United States===
 
===United States===
While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test.  In ''United States v. Scheffer'' (1998) [http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/96-1133.ZS.html], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases. Nevertheless, it is used extensively by prosecutors, defense attorneys, and law enforcement agencies who believe in its utility.  
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The use of polygraphs is a very controversial topic in today's courts. In ''United States v. Frye'' (1923) [http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~cyberlaw/wiki/index.php/Frye_v._United_States], lie detectors were excluded from evidence on the premise that they were not generally accepted in the scientific community.
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While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test.  In ''[[United States v. Scheffer]]'' (1998) [http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/96-1133.ZS.html], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases. Nevertheless, it is used extensively by [[prosecutor]]s, [[defense attorney]]s, and [[Policing in the United States|law enforcement agencies]] who believe in its utility. In the States of [[Massachusetts]] and [[Maryland]], it is illegal for any employer to order a polygraph either as conditions to gain employment, or if an employee has been suspected of wrongdoing.
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In the United States, the State of [[New Mexico]] admits polygraph testing in front of [[Jury|juries]] under certain circumstances. In many other states, polygraph examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges in various types of [[hearing]]s ([[Motion (legal)|Motion]] to Revoke [[Probation]], Motion to Adjudicate Guilt).
  
In the United States, the State of New Mexico admits polygraph testing in front of juries under certain circumstances. In many other states, polygraph examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges in various types of hearings (Motion to Revoke Probation, Motion to Adjudicate Guilt).
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In 2007, an Ohio trial court overruled the objections of a prosecutor and allowed an examiner to testify regarding a specific issue criminal examination. The court took the position that the prosecutors regularly used the same examiner to conduct criminal tests against defendants, but only objected to the examiner's testimony when the results contradicted what they hoped to achieve.
  
 
===Europe===
 
===Europe===
In most [[Europe|European]] jurisdictions, polygraphs are not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by police forces. However, in any lawsuit, an involved party can order a psychologist to write an opinion based on polygraph results to substantiate the credibility of its claims. The party must bear the expense themselves, and the court weighs the opinion like any other opinion the party has ordered. Courts themselves do not order or pay for polygraph tests. An example of this practice would be a rape trial in which the defendant tries to fortify their testimony by submitting themselves to a polygraph session.  
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In most [[Europe]]an jurisdictions, polygraphs are not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by police forces. However, in any lawsuit, an involved party can order a psychologist to write an opinion based on polygraph results to substantiate the credibility of its claims. The party must bear the expense themselves, and the court weighs the opinion like any other opinion the party has ordered. Courts themselves do not order or pay for polygraph tests. An example of this practice would be a rape trial in which the defendant tries to fortify one's testimony by submitting themselves to a polygraph session.  
  
 
===Canada===
 
===Canada===
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===Australia===
 
===Australia===
The [[High Court of Australia]] has not yet considered the admissibility of polygraph evidence. However, the [[New South Wales]] District Court rejected the use of the device in a criminal trial. In ''Raymond George Murray'' 1982 7A Crim R48 Sinclair DCJ refused to admit polygraph evidence tending to support the defence. His Honour rejected the evidence because:
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The [[High Court of Australia]] has not yet considered the admissibility of polygraph evidence. However, the [[New South Wales]] District Court rejected the use of the device in a criminal trial. In ''Raymond George Murray'' 1982 7A Crim R48 Sinclair DCJ refused to admit polygraph evidence tending to support the defence. His Honour rejected the evidence because
 
#The veracity of the accused and the weight to be given to his evidence, and other witnesses called in the trial, was a matter for the jury.
 
#The veracity of the accused and the weight to be given to his evidence, and other witnesses called in the trial, was a matter for the jury.
 
#The polygraph "expert" sought to express an opinion as to ultimate facts in issue, which is peculiarly the province of the jury.
 
#The polygraph "expert" sought to express an opinion as to ultimate facts in issue, which is peculiarly the province of the jury.
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#Devoid of any proved or accepted scientific basis, the evidence of the operator is [[hearsay]] which is inadmissible.
 
#Devoid of any proved or accepted scientific basis, the evidence of the operator is [[hearsay]] which is inadmissible.
 
The Court cited, with approval, the Canadian case of ''Phillion v R'' 1978 1SCR 18.
 
The Court cited, with approval, the Canadian case of ''Phillion v R'' 1978 1SCR 18.
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==Use with espionage and security clearances==
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In the American military and intelligence communities, polygraphs have been administered both as terms of qualifying for a security clearance and as part of a periodic reinvestigation to retain a clearance. There is no uniform standard for whether the polygraph is needed, as some methods of adjudication do not demand a successful polygraph test to earn a clearance. Other agencies, particularly certain military units, actually prohibit polygraph testing on their members.
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It is shaky at best to determine a polygraph's effectiveness in regards to detection and/or deterrance of spying. Failure of a polygraph test could cause revocation of a security clearance, but it is inadmissable evidence in most federal courts and military courts martials. The polygraph is more often used as a deterrant to espionage rather than detection. One exception to this was the case of [[Harold James Nicholson]], a CIA employee later convicted of spying for [[Russia]]. In 1995, Nicholson had undergone his periodic five year reinvestigation where he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later launched an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to "scare straight" those who would consider espionage. [[Jonathan Pollard]] was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test. As part of his [[plea bargain]] agreement for his case of espionage against the [[Soviet Union]], [[Robert Hanssen]] would be made to undergo a polygraph at any time as part of damage assessment. In Hanssen's 25-year career with the [[FBI]], not once was he made to undergo a polygraph. He later said if he had been ordered; he may have thought twice about espionage.
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It is also worth noting that polygraph tests are not a perfect deterrant to stopping espionage. From 1945 to the present, at least six Americans had been committing espionage while they successfully passed polygraph tests. Two of the most notable cases of two men who created a false negative result with the polygraphs were [[Larry Wu-Tai Chin]] and [[Aldrich Ames]].
  
 
==Use with sex offenders==
 
==Use with sex offenders==
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==Popular culture==
 
==Popular culture==
*Used in the movie ''[[Meet The Parents]]'' by [[Ben Stiller]] and [[Robert Deniro]].
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*[[William Moulton Marston]], who was a staunch advocate of the device, co-created, along with his wife, [[Elizabeth Holloway Marston]], the comic book character [[Wonder Woman]], who carries a golden lariat, which, when used to ensare someone, compels them to tell the truth.
*Used in numerous episodes of ''[[Homicide: Life on the Street]]''.  
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*The polygraph is used on [[The Jeremy Kyle Show]], usually when couples wanted to know if their partner was having an affair with someone else.
*In season four of "[[The Shield]]", Shane Vendrell (a corrupt detective) successfully passes a polygraph examination while lying.
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*The polygraph was used in The [[Three Stooges]] short "Shivering Sherlocks" When [[Moe]] asks [[Shemp]], "Did you or did you not take that quarter out of my shoe last night"?
*In the ''[[Seinfeld]]'' episode "[[The Beard]]" (Season 6), Jerry Seinfeld is asked to take a polygraph exam at the police station by his date (a police officer) who thinks he's lying about not ever watching ''[[Melrose Place]]''.
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*The polygraph was used in the movie ''[[Meet The Parents]]'' by [[Robert Deniro]]'s character on his daughter's boyfriend ([[Ben Stiller]]).
*A polygraph machine is featured heavily in the music video for the second single off [[Taking Back Sunday]]'s album Much Louder Now, "Liar (Takes One To Know One)". The band, as well as other images, are animated on the paper of the polygraph machine.
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*The polygraph was used in numerous episodes of ''[[Homicide: Life on the Street]]''.
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*The polygraph was used in the 2007 thriller ''[[Hannibal Rising (film)|Hannibal Rising]]''.
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*The polygraph was used in the 2001 action thriller ''[[Spy Game]]''.
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*A computer-based polygraph is used in the 2003 spy thriller, ''[[The Recruit]]''.
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*In the movie ''[[Harsh Times]]'', the character Jim defeats a polygraph by tensing his muscles. This should not be possible. <ref>http://truth.boisestate.edu/jcaawp/9602/9602.html</ref>
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*The polygraph was used numerous times throughout the tv series ''[[Alias (TV series)|Alias]]''.
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*In a season four episode of ''[[The Shield]]'', Shane Vendrell (a corrupt detective) successfully passes a polygraph examination while lying.
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*In the sixth-season ''[[Seinfeld]]'' episode "[[The Beard]]," Jerry Seinfeld is asked to take a polygraph exam at the police station by his date, a police officer who thinks he's lying about not having watched ''[[Melrose Place]]''.
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*The [[punk rock]] band [[Dead Kennedys]] has a song called "Lie Detector" on their final album, ''[[Bedtime for Democracy]]'', about taking a polygraph test at one's place of employment.
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*A polygraph machine is featured heavily in the music video for the second single off [[Taking Back Sunday]]'s album Louder Now, "Liar (Takes One To Know One)."  The band, as well as other images, are animated on the paper of the polygraph machine.
 
*The staff of WNYX are forced to take polygraph tests in episode four of season four of "[[Newsradio]]" and must lie on the test to protect Lisa, who has an extensive criminal record.
 
*The staff of WNYX are forced to take polygraph tests in episode four of season four of "[[Newsradio]]" and must lie on the test to protect Lisa, who has an extensive criminal record.
*In the episode "[[The Springfield Files]]" of the ''[[The Simpsons]]'', Homer answers "yes" when asked if he understood how the polygraph test worked, causing the machine to explode. In the second part of the episode "[[Who Shot Mr. Burns?]]", [[Moe Szyslak|Moe]] also takes the test, and lies, then subsequently admits parts of his plans for that evening.
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*In the episode "[[The Springfield Files]]" of the ''[[The Simpsons]]'', Homer answers, "Yes" when asked if he understood how the polygraph test worked, causing the machine to explode. In the second part of the episode "[[Who Shot Mr. Burns?]]," [[Moe Szyslak]] also takes the test, and lies, beginning a short series of lies and alarmed corrections, whereby he gives away embarrassing personal details of his evening plans.
*In ''[[Basic Instinct]]'', both Nick and Catherine can defeat polygraph testing.
+
*In ''[[Basic Instinct]]'', both [[Michael Douglas]] and [[Sharon Stone]]'s characters are given polygraph tests, which is beaten by the latter.
*Used in an episode of ''[[Myth Busters]]'' to determine the validity of [[Cleve Backster|Backster's]] theory of [[plant perception|primary perception]]. The machine was used to measure a [[dragon tree]]'s stress levels in response to various stimuli.
+
*The polygraph was used in an episode of ''[[MythBusters]]'' to determine the validity of [[Cleve Backster|Backster's]] theory of [[Plant perception (paranormal)|primary perception]]. The machine was used to measure a [[dragon tree]]'s stress levels in response to various stimuli.
*Used in the movie ''Deceiver'' (1997) where [[Chris Penn]] and [[Michael Rooker]] used it in an attempt to make [[Tim Roth]] confess a murder he's accused of.
+
*The polygraph was used in the movie ''Deceiver'' (1997) where [[Chris Penn]] and [[Michael Rooker]] used it in an attempt to make [[Tim Roth]] confess a murder he's accused of.
*Has been used in various [[talk shows]] to detect if the cheater is lying or not. Shows to utilise this include ''[[Maury (TV series)|Maury]]'', ''[[Dr. Phil (TV series)|Dr. Phil]]'' and ''[[Trisha]]''.
+
*The polygrah has been used in various [[talk shows]] to detect if the cheater is lying or not. Shows to utilize this include ''[[Maury (TV series)|Maury]]'', ''[[Dr. Phil (TV series)|Dr. Phil]]'' and ''[[Trisha]]''.
 +
*The polygraph was used in the 1948 film ''[[Call Northside 777]]''.
 +
*In one episode of the tv [[sitcom]] ''[[Roseanne (TV series)|Roseanne]]'', the main character has to take a polygraph test in which she is asked, among other things, if she has ever stolen any food from the diner in which she works.
 +
*Most of the main characters in the 2004 crime thriller ''[[Mindhunters]]'' claim that they are able to defeat polygraph testing.
 +
*The polygraph was used in "[[Angel of Death]]," a May 2007 ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'' episode.
 +
*The polygraph was used in the 1955 noir film "[[The Big Combo]]"
 +
*In early seasons of ''[[The Practice]]'', Bobby rather frequently uses a polygraph to determine if clients of his are lying to him, claiming that despite what is commonly believed, the device is extremely accurate.
 +
 
 +
==See also==
 +
 
 +
* [[Cleve Backster|Biocommunication in plant and animal cells]]
 +
* [[Brain fingerprinting]]
 +
* [[Lie detection]]
 +
* [[Voice stress analysis]]
  
==References==
+
== Notes ==
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
  
Line 79: Line 112:
 
* {{fnb|3}} BBC "http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6197458.stm"  
 
* {{fnb|3}} BBC "http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6197458.stm"  
  
==Further Reading==
+
==References==
 +
 
 +
*Alder, Ken (2007) ''The Lie Detectors: The History of an American Obession.'' (New York: The Free Press, 2007)
 
*[[Steve Blinkhorn|Blinkhorn, S.]] (1988) "Lie Detection as a psychometric procedure" In "The Polygraph Test" (Gale, A. ed. 1988) 29-39.
 
*[[Steve Blinkhorn|Blinkhorn, S.]] (1988) "Lie Detection as a psychometric procedure" In "The Polygraph Test" (Gale, A. ed. 1988) 29-39.
 
*[[David T. Lykken|Lykken, D.T.]] (1998) <i>A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector.<i> 2nd edition. (New York: Plenum Trade, 1998).
 
*[[David T. Lykken|Lykken, D.T.]] (1998) <i>A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector.<i> 2nd edition. (New York: Plenum Trade, 1998).
 
==See also==
 
* [[Cleve Backster|Biocommunication in plant and animal cells]]
 
* [[Brain fingerprinting]]
 
* [[Lie detection]]
 
* [[Voice stress analysis]]
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
 
* [http://www.polygraph.org American Polygraph Association]
 
* [http://www.polygraph.org American Polygraph Association]
* [http://www.europeanpolygraph.org British and European Polygraph Association]
+
* [http://www.antipolygraph.org AntiPolygraph.org], a website critical of polygraphy
 
* [http://www.antipolygraph.org/articles/article-018.shtml Forensic 'Lie Detection': Procedures Without Scientific Basis] by William G. Iacono
 
* [http://www.antipolygraph.org/articles/article-018.shtml Forensic 'Lie Detection': Procedures Without Scientific Basis] by William G. Iacono
 +
* [http://www.edinboro.edu/cwis/polisci/jimfisher/forensics/polywar1.html History of the Polygraph] by Jim Fisher
 
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/nsa-interview.pdf Interviewing with an Intelligence Agency] First person account of NSA interview (including polygraph)
 
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/nsa-interview.pdf Interviewing with an Intelligence Agency] First person account of NSA interview (including polygraph)
* [http://www.edinboro.edu/cwis/polisci/jimfisher/forensics/polywar1.html History of the Polygraph] by Jim Fisher
 
 
* [http://www.nzzfolio.ch/www/d80bd71b-b264-4db4-afd0-277884b93470/showarticle/f213a4d9-ea9f-4ca1-ae24-96284b2e1861.aspx Technology of Truth] by Ken Alder. Magazine article about the history of the lie detector.
 
* [http://www.nzzfolio.ch/www/d80bd71b-b264-4db4-afd0-277884b93470/showarticle/f213a4d9-ea9f-4ca1-ae24-96284b2e1861.aspx Technology of Truth] by Ken Alder. Magazine article about the history of the lie detector.
 
* [http://www.antipolygraph.org/lie-behind-the-lie-detector.pdf The Lie Behind the Lie Detector] by George W. Maschke and Gino J. Scalabrini
 
* [http://www.antipolygraph.org/lie-behind-the-lie-detector.pdf The Lie Behind the Lie Detector] by George W. Maschke and Gino J. Scalabrini
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~furedy/napoly.htm The North American Polygraph and Psychophysiology: Disinterested, Uninterested, and Interested Perspectives] by John J. Furedy, <i>International Journal of Psychophysiology,</i> Spring/Summer 1996
+
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~furedy/napoly.htm The North American Polygraph and Psychophysiology: Disinterested, Uninterested, and Interested Perspectives] by John J. Furedy, ''International Journal of Psychophysiology,'' Spring/Summer 1996
 
*[http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v7n1/clarke71_text.html Trial By Ordeal? Polygraph Testing In Australia]
 
*[http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v7n1/clarke71_text.html Trial By Ordeal? Polygraph Testing In Australia]
* [http://www.antipolygraph.org AntiPolygraph.org], a website critical of polygraphy
+
* [http://ahp.yorku.ca/?p=79 Bibliography on the histories of lie detectors]
  
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Forensics technology]]
 
[[Category:Forensics technology]]
  
{{credit|112137287}}
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{{credit|146393738}}

Revision as of 20:32, 29 July 2007

This article is about the forensic instrument. For the automatic signing instrument, see Autopen.
File:Patent 4333084.png
Polygraph results are sometimes recorded on a chart recorder

A polygraph (commonly referred to as a lie detector) is in instrument that measures and records several physiological responses such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The polygraph measures physiological changes caused by the Sympathetic Nervous System during questioning. Within the Federal Government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD) examination.

History

The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In West Africa persons suspected of a crime were made to pass a bird's egg to one another.[citation needed] If a person broke the egg, then he or she was considered guilty, based on the idea that their nervousness was to blame. In Ancient China the suspect held a handful of rice in his or her mouth during a prosecutor's speech.[citation needed] Since salivation was believed to cease at times of emotional anxiety, the person was considered guilty if by the end of that speech the rice remained dry.

The origins of the modern polygraph date to 1913, when William Moulton Marston, a psychology student at Harvard University, used the systolic blood-pressure test as a method of lie detection. In his book, the "lie detector test" Marston erroneously claimed he was the first to use this method, even though many researchers were doing similar studies. He wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.[1] A more complex device recording both blood-pressure and galvanic skin response was invented by Dr. John A. Larson of the University of California and first applied in law enforcement work by the Berkeley Police Department under its nationally-renowned police chief August Vollmer. The first time the term "polygraph" was in 1908 by James MacKenzie in his invention the "ink polygraph" which was used for medical reasons.

Marston nevertheless remained the device's primary advocate, endlessly lobbying for its use in the courts. In 1938 he published a book, The Lie Detector, where he documented the theory and use of the device. Nevertheless he was not above a little faked publicity, and in 1938 appeared in advertising by the Gillette company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.[2] [3] [4]

Testing Procedure

Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation, analog and computerized. In the United States, most examiners now use computerized instrumentation.

A typical polygraph test starts with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary information which will later be used for "Control Questions," or C. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test" is often conducted: the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are "Irrelevant " or IR ("Is your name Rob T?"), others are "probable-lie" Control Questions that most people will lie about ("Have you ever stolen money?") and the remainder are the "Relevant Questions ," or R, that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses during the probable-lie control questions (C) are larger than those during the relevant questions (R). If this is not the case, the tester attempts to elicit admissions during a post-test interview ("Your situation will only get worse if we don't clear this up").[5] [6]

Most academic studies on polygraph accuracy since 1980 place it in the high 90 percentile range on specific issue criminal examinations. For example, while some claim the test to be accurate in 90% - 95% of the cases, critics charge that rather than a "test," the method amounts to an inherently unstandardizable interrogation technique whose accuracy cannot be established. Critics also argue that even given high estimates of the polygraph's accuracy a significant number of subjects (e.g. 10% given a 90% accuracy) will appear to be lying, and would unfairly suffer the consequences of "failing" the polygraph. Polygraph tests have also been criticized for failing to trap known spies such as double-agent Aldrich Ames, who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Soviet Union.[7] Other spies who passed the polygraph include Karl Koecher,[8] Ana Belen Montes,[9] and Leandro Aragoncillo.[10] Noted pseudoscience debunker Bob Park recently commented, "The polygraph, in fact, has ruined careers, but never uncovered a single spy." [6]

Several countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described, the most important of which is never to make any damaging admissions. Additionally, several techniques can be used to increase the physiological response during control questions.[11] Asked how he passed the polygraph test, Ames explained that he sought advice from his Soviet handler and received the simple instruction to: "Get a good night's sleep, and rest, and go into the test rested and relaxed. Be nice to the polygraph examiner, develop a rapport, and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm."[12]

2003 National Academy of Sciences Report

The accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device. In 2003, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) issued a report entitled “The Polygraph and Lie Detection.” The NAS found that the majority of polygraph research was of low quality. It is interesting to note that, so far, no scientific study has been published that offers convincing evidence of the validity of the polygraph test. After culling through the numerous studies of the accuracy of polygraph detection the NAS identified 57 that had “sufficient scientific rigor.” These studies concluded that a polygraph test regarding a specific incident can discern the truth at “a level greater than chance, yet short of perfection.” The report also concluded that this level of accuracy was probably overstated and the levels of accuracy shown in these studies "are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific-incident testing in the field.” [7]

When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in national security matters and for law enforcement agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that “Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in federal agencies.” In fact, the NAS extrapolated that if the test were sensitive enough to detect 80% of spies (a level of accuracy which it did not assume), in a hypothetical polygraph screening of 10,000 employees including 10 spies, 8 spies and 1,598 non-spies would fail the test. Thus, roughly 99.6 percent of positives (those failing the test) would be false positives. The NAS concluded that the polygraph “…may have some utility” [8] but that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy."[9]

The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment report "Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation”.[10]

Admissibility of polygraphs in Court

United States

The use of polygraphs is a very controversial topic in today's courts. In United States v. Frye (1923) [11], lie detectors were excluded from evidence on the premise that they were not generally accepted in the scientific community. While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test. In United States v. Scheffer (1998) [12], the U.S. Supreme Court left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases. Nevertheless, it is used extensively by prosecutors, defense attorneys, and law enforcement agencies who believe in its utility. In the States of Massachusetts and Maryland, it is illegal for any employer to order a polygraph either as conditions to gain employment, or if an employee has been suspected of wrongdoing.

In the United States, the State of New Mexico admits polygraph testing in front of juries under certain circumstances. In many other states, polygraph examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges in various types of hearings (Motion to Revoke Probation, Motion to Adjudicate Guilt).

In 2007, an Ohio trial court overruled the objections of a prosecutor and allowed an examiner to testify regarding a specific issue criminal examination. The court took the position that the prosecutors regularly used the same examiner to conduct criminal tests against defendants, but only objected to the examiner's testimony when the results contradicted what they hoped to achieve.

Europe

In most European jurisdictions, polygraphs are not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by police forces. However, in any lawsuit, an involved party can order a psychologist to write an opinion based on polygraph results to substantiate the credibility of its claims. The party must bear the expense themselves, and the court weighs the opinion like any other opinion the party has ordered. Courts themselves do not order or pay for polygraph tests. An example of this practice would be a rape trial in which the defendant tries to fortify one's testimony by submitting themselves to a polygraph session.

Canada

In Canada, the use of a polygraph is sometimes employed in screening employees for government organizations. However, in the 1987 decision of R. v. Béland, the Supreme Court of Canada rejected the use of polygraph results as evidence in court.

Australia

The High Court of Australia has not yet considered the admissibility of polygraph evidence. However, the New South Wales District Court rejected the use of the device in a criminal trial. In Raymond George Murray 1982 7A Crim R48 Sinclair DCJ refused to admit polygraph evidence tending to support the defence. His Honour rejected the evidence because

  1. The veracity of the accused and the weight to be given to his evidence, and other witnesses called in the trial, was a matter for the jury.
  2. The polygraph "expert" sought to express an opinion as to ultimate facts in issue, which is peculiarly the province of the jury.
  3. The test purported to be expert evidence by the witness who was not qualified as an expert, he was merely an operator and assessor of a polygraph. The scientific premise upon which his assessment was based had not been proved in any Court in Australia.
  4. Devoid of any proved or accepted scientific basis, the evidence of the operator is hearsay which is inadmissible.

The Court cited, with approval, the Canadian case of Phillion v R 1978 1SCR 18.

Use with espionage and security clearances

In the American military and intelligence communities, polygraphs have been administered both as terms of qualifying for a security clearance and as part of a periodic reinvestigation to retain a clearance. There is no uniform standard for whether the polygraph is needed, as some methods of adjudication do not demand a successful polygraph test to earn a clearance. Other agencies, particularly certain military units, actually prohibit polygraph testing on their members.

It is shaky at best to determine a polygraph's effectiveness in regards to detection and/or deterrance of spying. Failure of a polygraph test could cause revocation of a security clearance, but it is inadmissable evidence in most federal courts and military courts martials. The polygraph is more often used as a deterrant to espionage rather than detection. One exception to this was the case of Harold James Nicholson, a CIA employee later convicted of spying for Russia. In 1995, Nicholson had undergone his periodic five year reinvestigation where he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later launched an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to "scare straight" those who would consider espionage. Jonathan Pollard was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test. As part of his plea bargain agreement for his case of espionage against the Soviet Union, Robert Hanssen would be made to undergo a polygraph at any time as part of damage assessment. In Hanssen's 25-year career with the FBI, not once was he made to undergo a polygraph. He later said if he had been ordered; he may have thought twice about espionage.

It is also worth noting that polygraph tests are not a perfect deterrant to stopping espionage. From 1945 to the present, at least six Americans had been committing espionage while they successfully passed polygraph tests. Two of the most notable cases of two men who created a false negative result with the polygraphs were Larry Wu-Tai Chin and Aldrich Ames.

Use with sex offenders

Sexual offenders are now routinely polygraphed in many states of the United States and it is often a mandatory condition of probation or parole. In Texas, a state appellate court has upheld the testing of sex offenders under community supervision and has also upheld written statements given by sex offenders if they have re-offended with new victims. These statements are then used when a motion is filed to revoke probation and the probationer may then be sentenced to prison for having violated his or her probation.

A significant number of Federal appeals courts have upheld polygraph testing for Federal probationers as well. The most recent decision was by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals regarding a New York sex offender.

The UK is considering compulsory lie detector tests for sex offenders.[13]

Popular culture

  • William Moulton Marston, who was a staunch advocate of the device, co-created, along with his wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, the comic book character Wonder Woman, who carries a golden lariat, which, when used to ensare someone, compels them to tell the truth.
  • The polygraph is used on The Jeremy Kyle Show, usually when couples wanted to know if their partner was having an affair with someone else.
  • The polygraph was used in The Three Stooges short "Shivering Sherlocks" When Moe asks Shemp, "Did you or did you not take that quarter out of my shoe last night"?
  • The polygraph was used in the movie Meet The Parents by Robert Deniro's character on his daughter's boyfriend (Ben Stiller).
  • The polygraph was used in numerous episodes of Homicide: Life on the Street.
  • The polygraph was used in the 2007 thriller Hannibal Rising.
  • The polygraph was used in the 2001 action thriller Spy Game.
  • A computer-based polygraph is used in the 2003 spy thriller, The Recruit.
  • In the movie Harsh Times, the character Jim defeats a polygraph by tensing his muscles. This should not be possible. [13]
  • The polygraph was used numerous times throughout the tv series Alias.
  • In a season four episode of The Shield, Shane Vendrell (a corrupt detective) successfully passes a polygraph examination while lying.
  • In the sixth-season Seinfeld episode "The Beard," Jerry Seinfeld is asked to take a polygraph exam at the police station by his date, a police officer who thinks he's lying about not having watched Melrose Place.
  • The punk rock band Dead Kennedys has a song called "Lie Detector" on their final album, Bedtime for Democracy, about taking a polygraph test at one's place of employment.
  • A polygraph machine is featured heavily in the music video for the second single off Taking Back Sunday's album Louder Now, "Liar (Takes One To Know One)." The band, as well as other images, are animated on the paper of the polygraph machine.
  • The staff of WNYX are forced to take polygraph tests in episode four of season four of "Newsradio" and must lie on the test to protect Lisa, who has an extensive criminal record.
  • In the episode "The Springfield Files" of the The Simpsons, Homer answers, "Yes" when asked if he understood how the polygraph test worked, causing the machine to explode. In the second part of the episode "Who Shot Mr. Burns?," Moe Szyslak also takes the test, and lies, beginning a short series of lies and alarmed corrections, whereby he gives away embarrassing personal details of his evening plans.
  • In Basic Instinct, both Michael Douglas and Sharon Stone's characters are given polygraph tests, which is beaten by the latter.
  • The polygraph was used in an episode of MythBusters to determine the validity of Backster's theory of primary perception. The machine was used to measure a dragon tree's stress levels in response to various stimuli.
  • The polygraph was used in the movie Deceiver (1997) where Chris Penn and Michael Rooker used it in an attempt to make Tim Roth confess a murder he's accused of.
  • The polygrah has been used in various talk shows to detect if the cheater is lying or not. Shows to utilize this include Maury, Dr. Phil and Trisha.
  • The polygraph was used in the 1948 film Call Northside 777.
  • In one episode of the tv sitcom Roseanne, the main character has to take a polygraph test in which she is asked, among other things, if she has ever stolen any food from the diner in which she works.
  • Most of the main characters in the 2004 crime thriller Mindhunters claim that they are able to defeat polygraph testing.
  • The polygraph was used in "Angel of Death," a May 2007 NCIS episode.
  • The polygraph was used in the 1955 noir film "The Big Combo"
  • In early seasons of The Practice, Bobby rather frequently uses a polygraph to determine if clients of his are lying to him, claiming that despite what is commonly believed, the device is extremely accurate.

See also

  • Biocommunication in plant and animal cells
  • Brain fingerprinting
  • Lie detection
  • Voice stress analysis

Notes

  1. Marston, William M. "Systolic Blood Pressure Changes in Deception," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2:117-163.
  2. William Marston's Secret Identity. Reason magazine (2001-05).
  3. Now! Lie Detector Charts Emotional Effects of Shaving - 1938 Gillette Advertisement [1]
  4. FBI File of William Moulton Marston (including report on Gillette advertising campaign) [2]
  5. For details on the intricacies of various polygraph techniques, see the Federal Psychophysiological Detection of Deception Examiner Handook, the U.S. Government's official guide to the administration of polygraph examinations. [3]
  6. For interrogation techniques associated with polygraph testing, see the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute's Interview & Interrogation Handbook. [4]
  7. Ames provides personal insight into the U.S. Government's reliance on polygraphs in a 2000 letter to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists. [5]
  8. Kessler, Ron. "Moscow's Mole in the CIA: How a Swinging Czech Superspy Stole America's Most Sensitive Secrets," Washington Post, April 17, 1988, C1.
  9. Bachelet, Pablo (October . 13, 2006). Book outlines how spy exposed U.S. intelligence secrets to Cuba. McClatchey Washington Bureau. "She first came under U.S. suspicion in 1994, when Cuba detected a highly secret electronic surveillance system. Montes took a polygraph test and passed it."
  10. Ross, Brian and Richard Esposito (October . 6, 2005). Investigation Continues: Security Breach at the White House. ABC News. "Officials say Aragoncillo passed several lie detector tests that are routinely given to individuals with top secret clearances."
  11. Lykken, David T. A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector, 2nd ed., New York: Plenum Trade, 1998, pp. 273-279.
  12. Weiner, Tim, David Johnston, and Neil A. Lewis, Betrayal: The Story of Aldrich Ames, an American Spy, 1995.
  13. http://truth.boisestate.edu/jcaawp/9602/9602.html

Notes

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Alder, Ken (2007) The Lie Detectors: The History of an American Obession. (New York: The Free Press, 2007)
  • Blinkhorn, S. (1988) "Lie Detection as a psychometric procedure" In "The Polygraph Test" (Gale, A. ed. 1988) 29-39.
  • Lykken, D.T. (1998) A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector. 2nd edition. (New York: Plenum Trade, 1998).

External links

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