Difference between revisions of "Pharisees" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(19 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Started}}{{Claimed}}{{Contracted}}
+
{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
 +
[[Image:Nicodemus.jpg|thumb|130px|The Pharisee Nicodemus, a member of the Sandhedrin who defended Jesus of Nazareth]]
 +
The '''Pharisees''' were a religious and political movement of ancient Israel and the precursors of [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. They emerged in opposition to the corruption of the [[Hasmonean]] dynasty and its allies, the [[Sadducees]], in the second century B.C.E. They were characterized by an emphasis on [[popular piety]] rather than priestly elitism, a tradition of [[Oral Law]] in addition to the written [[Torah]], and an affirmation of the doctrine of the [[resurrection]] of the dead in the coming messianic age as taught by the [[prophet]]s—all of which the Sadducees tended to reject.
  
{{For|the followers of the Vilna Gaon|Perushim}}
+
During the early years of the [[Common Era]], a major internal debate existed between the followers of the two Pharisaic sages, [[Hillel]] and [[Shammai]], representing a flexible versus a strict approach to the Jewish law, respectively. After the [[Jewish Revolt]] against [[Rome]] resulted in the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]] in 70 C.E., the followers of Hillel prevailed. The Pharisaic movement went on to create the foundations for what is now known as [[Rabbinic Judaism]], through its deliberations at [[Yavneh]] (Jamnia) in the second century C.E., and the later compiling of the [[Mishnah]] and teh [[Talmud]].
{{Jews and Judaism}}
+
{{toc}}
The word '''Pharisees''' comes from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] פרושים ''prushim'' from פרוש ''parush'', meaning  "separated" , that is, one who is separated for a life of purity. (Ernest Klein, ''Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language'') The Pharisees were, depending on the time, a political party, a social movement, and a school of thought among Jews that flourished during the [[Second Temple]] Era ([[530s B.C.E.|536 B.C.E.]]–70 C.E.).  After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Pharisaic sect was re-established as [[Rabbinic Judaism]] — which ultimately produced normative, traditional Judaism, the basis for all contemporary forms of Judaism, with the possible exception of the [[Karaites]].  
+
Christian portraits of the Pharisees in the [[New Testament]] tend to portray them as narrow-minded [[hypocrite]]s and the mortal opponents of [[Jesus]]. However, recent scholarship has shown that some Pharisees were supporters of Jesus and the early Christian movement, and some scholars see a direct influence of Pharisees such as [[Hillel]] on the teachings of Jesus. Deeper study of the nature and history of the Pharisees can help foster Jewish-Christian dialog in an atmosphere of mutual respect and understanding.
  
 
==Background==
 
==Background==
Generally, the Jews accepted foreign rule when they were only required to pay tribute, and otherwise allowed to govern themselves internally. However, when the Seleucid Greek ruler [[Antiochus IV]] imposed a program of forced Hellenization, requiring Jews to abandon their own laws and customs, [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah Maccabee]] assumed leadership of a bloody revolt against the Seleucids. Judah liberated Jerusalem in 165 B.C.E. and restored the Temple.  Judah's nephew [[John Hyrcanus]] established a new monarchy in the form of the priestly Hasmonean dynasty, thus establishing priests as political as well as religious authorities. Although the Hasmoneans were heroes for resisting the Seleucids, their reign lacked the legitimacy conferred by descent from the Davidic dynasty of the First Temple Era.
+
[[Image:Josephus.jpg|thumb|Josephus]]
 +
For the background of the Pharisees, historians are largely dependent on the accounts of [[Josephus]], the Jewish historian of the late first century C.E. who was himself a member of the Pharisees but later collaborated with the Romans during the [[Jewish Revolt]] of 66-70 C.E.
  
Around this time the [[Sadducees|Sadducee]]s emerged as the party of the priests and allied elites, the name ''Sadducee'' coming from the ancient priest[[Zadok]]). The Pharisee party emerged largely out of the group of scribes and sages who objected to the Hasmonean monopoly on power, hoped for a Davidic Messiah, and criticized the growing corruption of the Hasmonean elites. The emphasized that all Jews, not only the priests, were supposed to keep the entire Law of Moses.
+
The word '''Pharisees''' comes from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ( פרושים) ''prushim'' from (פרוש) ''parush,'' meaning  "separated"—referring to one who is separated for a life of purity. According to Josephus' accounts, the Pharisees emerged in opposition to the corruption of the Hasmonean dynasty of the second century B.C.E. The Hamoneans had assumed power in the wake of the successful revolt against the [[Seleucid]] Greeks. Led by [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah Maccabee]], the Jews had liberated [[Jerusalem]] from Greek rule in 165 B.C.E. and restored its Temple, which had been defiled under the [[Antiochus IV]]. Judah's nephew, [[John Hyrcanus]], established the Hasmonean dynasty, in which the priests held direct political power as well as religious authority. Although the Hasmoneans were heroes for resisting the Seleucids, their reign lacked the legitimacy conferred by the descent from the [[David]]ic dynasty of the First Temple Era. The hope of a [[Messiah]], son of David, developed during this period in tension with the reality of Hasmonean rule.
  
During the Hasmonean period, the Sadducees and Pharisees functioned primarily as political parties. The Pharisees opposed the Hasmonean wars of expansion of the Hasmoneans against the Samaritans and the forced conversion of the Idumeans. The political rift between them became wider when a Pharisee insisted that the Hasmonean king [[Alexander Jannaeus]] choose between being king and being high priest rather than occupying both positions himself. In response, Jannaeus sided with the Sadducees by adopting their rites in the Temple. His actions caused a riot in the Temple and led to a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees. Alexander was succeeded by his widow, [[Salome Alexandra]], whose brother, Shimon ben Shetach, was a leading Pharisee. Josephus attests that [[Salome Alexandra]] was very favorably inclined toward the Pharisees and that their political influence grew tremendously under her reign, especially in the institution known as the [[Sanhedrin]].
+
Around this time the [[Sadducees|Sadducee]]s emerged as the party of the priests and allied Hasmonean elites, taking their name, ''Sadducee,'' from King Solomon's loyal priest [[Zadok]]. The Pharisees emerged out of the group of scribes and sages who objected to the Hasmonean monopoly on power, hoped for a Davidic Messiah, and criticized the growing corruption of the Hasmonean court.
  
Upon Salome's death, her elder son, [[Hyrcanus]], sought the Pharisees' support, and her younger son, [[Aristobulus]], sought the support of the Sadducees. The conflict between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus culminated in a civil war that ended when the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] general [[Pompey]] captured [[Jerusalem]] in 63 B.C.E. and inaugurated the Roman period of Jewish history. Echoing Jeremiah's attitude toward the Babylonian capture of Jerusaelm in 586 B.C.E., the Pharisees regarded Pompey’s defilement of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] as a divine punishment of Sadducean misrule. They asked Pompey to restore the old priesthood and abolish the royalty of the Hasmoneans ("Ant." xiv. 3, § 2).  Pompey ended the monarchy and named Hyrcanus high priest and "ethnarch," a lesser title than "king."
+
During the Hasmonean period, the Sadducees and Pharisees functioned primarily as political parties. According to Josephus, the Pharisees opposed the Hasmonean war against the [[Samaritan]]s and the forced conversion of the [[Idumeans]]. The political rift between the two parties grew wider under the Hasmonean king [[Alexander Jannaeus]], who adopted Sadduceean rites in the Temple. There was a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees.
  
In 57 B.C.E. Hyrcanus was deprived of the remainder of political authority and ultimate jurisdiction was given to the Roman Proconsul of [[Syria]]. The Proconsul Cabineus established five regional ''synhedria'' ([[Sanhedrin]]s, or councils) to regulate the internal affairs of the Jews.  The Sanhedrin was a legislative council of 71 elders chaired by the high priest, that interpreted Jewish law and adjudicated appeals, especially in ritual matters.  Their specific composure and powers actually varied depending on Roman policy.
+
Alexander was succeeded by his widow, [[Salome Alexandra]], who was more favorably inclined toward the Pharisees. Alexandra installed as high priest her eldest son, the pro-Pharisee [[Hyrcanus II]], and the [[Sanhedrin]], or ruling council, was reorganized along lines that strengthened Pharisaic influence.  
  
In matters of state finance, administration, and military affairs, the Proconsul ruled through Hyrcanus's [[Idumaean]] associate [[Antipater the Idumaean|Antipater]]. Laterm Antipater's sons governed the northern and southern districts of the the former territory of Israel: [[Phasael]] administering [[Judea]], and [[Herod the Great|Herod]] ruling [[Galilee]]. In 40 B.C.E..E., however, Aristobulus's son [[Antigonus]] overthrew Hyrcanus and named himself both king and high priest.
+
[[Image:Pompée dans le Temple de Jérusalem.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Pompey defiles the Temple.]]
  
Herod fled to Rome where he sought the support of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Caesar Augustus|Octavian]] and secured recognition by the [[Roman Senate]]. He soon dislodged Antigonus and was installed as king, thus bringin and end to the Hasmonean dynasty. Sadducean opposition to Herod led him to treat the Pharisees favorably at first. His Idumean background and his close association with Rome, however, made him an unpopular ruler. His massive restoration and expansion of the Second Temple may have been designed to gain support, but his notorious treatment of his family his ruthless suppression of the Hasmonaeans further eroded his popularity. In the later years of his reign, the certain groups of the Pharisees opposed him and thus fell victims  to his bloodthirstiness ("Ant." xvii. 2, § 4; 6, §§ 2-4). Meanwhile, Herod found willing allies among the Sadducees, who now re-emerged reclaim the high priesthood and challenge Pharisaic pre-eminence.
+
Upon Alexandra's death, [[Hyrcanus II]] gained the Pharisees' support, while her younger son, [[Aristobulus]], found support among the Sadducees. The conflict between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus culminated in another civil war that ended when the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] general [[Pompey]] captured [[Jerusalem]] in 63 B.C.E.. and inaugurated the Roman period of Jewish history. Echoing the prophet [[Jeremiah]]'s attitude toward the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.., the Pharisees regarded Pompey’s defilement of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] as a divine punishment for the Sadducean abuse of the priesthood. They asked Pompey to abolish the royalty of the Hasmoneans ("Ant." xiv. 3, § 2). Pompey named Hyrcanus II high priest and "ethnarch," a lesser title than "king." In 57 B.C.E. Hyrcanus was deprived of the remainder of his political authority, and ultimate jurisdiction was given to the Roman Proconsul of [[Syria]].
  
After Herod's death in 4 B.C.E.., various radical Jewish elements rose in revolt: Judas in the Galilee.
+
The Proconsul Cabineus established five regional ''synhedria'' ([[Sanhedrin]]s, or councils) to regulate the internal affairs of the Jews, while the Great Sanhedrin in [[Jerusalem]] interpreted Jewish law and adjudicated appeals. Its legislative powers varied, however, depending on Roman policy.
  
====Religious  life under Roman====
+
In matters of state finance, administration, and military affairs, the Proconsul ruled through Hyrcanus's [[Idumaean]] associate [[Antipater the Idumaean|Antipater]].<ref>The Idumeans were the latter day [[Edom]]ites, who had been forcibly converted to Judaism under John Hyrcanus.</ref> Later, Antipater's sons governed the northern and southern districts of the former territory of Israel: [[Phasael]] administering [[Judea]], and [[Herod the Great|Herod]] ruling [[Galilee]]. In 40 B.C.E., however, Aristobulus's son [[Antigonus]] overthrew Hyrcanus II and named himself both king and high priest, placing the Pharisees once again at a disadvantage.
In the first decades of Roman rule, the Temple remained the center of Jewish ritual life. Jews were supposed to travel to [[Jerusalem]] and offer sacrifices at the Temple three times a year: [[Passover]], [[Sukkot]], and [[Shavuot]]. However the 70 year exile in Babylon, Jewish houses of assembly—known in Hebrew as a "beit knesset" or in Greek as a "synagogue"—were the primary meeting place for prayer. After the building of the Second Temple in the time of Ezra, the local houses of assembly and study remained important institutions in Jewish life.
 
  
During the Roman period the Pharisees were politically quiescent, and studied, taught, and worshiped in their own way. Although popular and respected, they had no political power. Rather, they only had the power of persuasion. 
+
[[Image:Prise de Jérusalem par Hérode le Grand.jpg|thumb|250px|Herod enters Jerusalem.]]
  
During this period the theological differences between the Sadducees and Pharisees intensified. According to Jacob Neusner (1998), two things fundamentally distinguished the Pharisaic from the Sadducean approach to the Torah.
+
Herod fled to Rome, where he sought the support of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Caesar Augustus|Octavian]], and secured recognition by the [[Roman Senate]]. He soon dislodged Antigonus and was installed as king, thus bringing an end to the Hasmonean dynasty. Sadducean opposition to Herod led him to treat the Pharisees favorably at first. His Idumean background and his close association with Rome, however, made him an unpopular ruler. Herod's massive restoration and expansion of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]] may have been designed to gain popular support, but his notorious treatment of his family and his ruthless suppression of the Hasmonaeans further eroded his popularity. His willingness to adorn the new Temple with a gold Roman eagle was a particularly unpopular stance, which alienated the Pharisees, for whom resistance to [[Hellenization]] was a hallmark.
  
First, Pharisees interpreted Exodus 19:3-6 literally: "if you will obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my own possession among all peoples; for all the earth is mine, and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." Or, in the words of [[2 Maccabees]] 2:17, Pharisees believed that "God gave all the people the heritage, the kingdom, the priesthood, and the holiness." Moreover, the Torah already provided some ways for all Jews to lead a priestly life.The Pharisees believed that all Jews in their ordinary life, and not just the Temple priesthood or Jews visiting the Temple, should observe rules and rituals concerning purification.
+
Herod's paranoia toward any perceived threat to his throne also proved incompatible with the Pharisees' hope in the coming Davidic [[Messiah]]. In 6 B.C.E., Herod executed several Pharisaic leaders who had announced that the birth of the Messiah would mean the end of Herod's rule. Then, in 4 B.C.E., when young Pharisaic [[Torah]]-students smashed the golden Roman eagle over the main entrance of Herod's Temple, he had 40 of them, along with two of their professors, burned alive. ("Ant." xvii. 2, § 4; 6, §§ 2-4). Meanwhile, Herod found willing allies among the Sadducees, who now re-emerged to reclaim the high priesthood and challenge Pharisaic pre-eminence.
  
Second, the Pharisees believed that there were two Torahs.  In addition to the Torah recognized by both the Sadducees and Pharisees and believed to have been written by Moses, the Pharisees believed that there was another Torah.  They referred to the five books of Moses as the “Written Torah,” and the corpus of oral laws and traditions as the “Oral Torah,” because it was not written down but was rather transmittted by God to Moses orally, and was then memorized and then passed down orally by Moses and his successors over the generations.  In other words, they did not interpret the Written Torah liberally; rather, they asserted that the sacred scriptures were not complete and could therefore not be understood on their own terms.  The Oral Torah functioned to elaborate and explicate what was written; it is unclear whether or not the Pharisees and later rabbis believed they were interpreting the Torah.  
+
From this point onward, Josephus' accounts are joined by other sources, including various [[Talmud]]ic references and early Christian writings such as the letters of [[Saint Paul]] (himself a former Pharisee), the [[Gospels]], and the [[Book of Acts]].
  
Also, unlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees also believed in the resurrection of the dead in a future, messianic age.
+
==Theological characteristics==
 +
The Pharisaic approach to Judaism was characterized by several distinctive attitudes:
  
====The destruction of the Temple and the end of the Second Temple era====
+
First, Pharisees were a movement of [[popular piety]], rather than priestly elitism. They interpreted [[Exodus]] 19:4-5 literally: "If you will obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my own possession among all peoples; for all the earth is mine, and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." Moreover, in the Pharisees' view, the [[Torah]] already provided the way for every Jew to lead a priestly life. The Pharisees believed that all Jews in their ordinary lives should observe the rules and rituals concerning purification and all 613 of the commandments which the Pharisees discerned in the [[Law of Moses]].
By 66 C.E. Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated.  At first, the priests tried to suppress rebellion, even calling upon the Pharisees for help.  After the Roman garrison failed to stop Hellenists from desecrating a synagogue in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], however, the high priest suspended payment of tribute, inaugurating the [[Great Jewish Revolt]]. The destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 C.E. not only put an end to the revolt, it was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews that marked the end of an era.
 
  
==From Pharisees to rabbis==
+
[[Image:Tora JMW.jpg|thumb|250px|Open Torah scroll. The Pharisees believed in an Oral Torah as well as the written one.]]
Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed by the Romans, and had little credibility (the last Zealots died at [[Masada]] in 73 C.E.). Similarly, the Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the Temple cult, disappeared. The Essenes too disappeared, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the concerns of the times.
+
 
 +
Second, the Pharisees believed in an [[Oral Law]] as well as a [[Written Law]]. In addition to the [[Torah]] recognized by the [[Sadducee]]s, the Pharisees held that God had also revealed to [[Moses]] an Oral Torah that functioned to elaborate and explicate what was written. Therefore, the Law did not end with what was written in the Torah scrolls, but was also revealed orally by Moses ''and his successors'' into the present age. It was the function of the [[prophet]]s and [[sage]]s to explicate the Oral Torah and clarify its application in contemporary cirumstances.
  
Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remained, poised with teachings directed to all Jews that could replace Temple worship.  Such teachings extended beyond ritual practices.  According to the classic [[midrash]] in ''Avot D'Rabbi Nathan'' (4:5):
+
Third, the Pharisees believed in the [[resurrection]] of the dead in a future age, which would be ushered in by the [[Messiah]], in whom they earnestly hoped.
:The Temple is destroyed.  We never witnessed its glory. But Rabbi Joshua did.  And when he looked at the Temple ruins one day, he burst into tears. "Alas for us! The place which atoned for the sins of all the people Israel lies in ruins!"  Then Rabbi Yohannan ben Zakkai spoke to him these words of comfort:  "Be not grieved, my son. There is another way of gaining ritual atonement, even though the Temple is destroyed.  We must now gain ritual atonement through deeds of loving-kindness.
 
  
Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through a [[Procurator]] at Caesarea and a Jewish [[Patriarch]].  [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]], a leading Pharisee, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means [[prince]], or [[president]]), and he reestablished the Sanhedrin at Yavneh under Pharisee control.  Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities. Moreover, they argued that all Jews should study in local [[synagogue]]s, because [[Torah]] is "the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob" (Deut. 33: 4).
+
Fourth, the Pharisees placed a greater emphasis on the scriptural authority of the prophets and other biblical writings than did the Sadducees. (During this period, no authorized list of scriptures outside of the Torah yet existed.)
 
After the destruction of the First Temple, Jews believed that God would forgive them and enable them to rebuild the Temple &ndash; an event that actually occurred within three generations.  Would this happen again?  When the Emperor [[Hadrian]] threatened to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], in 132 C.E., some of the leading sages of the Sanhedrin supported a rebellion led by [[Simon bar Kokhba|Simon Bar Koziba]], who established a short-lived independent state that was conquered by the Romans in 135 C.E.  According to a [[midrash]], in addition to Bar Kochba the Romans executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin: the high priest, R. Ishmael; the president of the Sanhedrin, R. Shimon ben Gamaliel; R. Akiba; R. [[Hanania ben Teradion]]; the interpreter of the Sanhedrin, R. Huspith; R. [[Eliezer ben Shamua]]; R. [[Hanina ben Hakinai]]; the secretary of the Sanhedrin, R. Yeshevav; R. Yehuda ben Dama; and R. [[Yehuda ben Baba]].  The Rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: R. Akiba was flayed, and R. Hanania was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death.
 
  
Romans forbade Jews to enter Jerusalem and forbade any plan to rebuild the Temple.  Instead, it took over the Province of Judea directly, and renamed Jerusalem [[Aelia Capitolina]].  Romans did eventually reconstitute the Sanhedrin under the leadership of Judah haNasi (who claimed to be a descendant of King David).  They conferred the title of "Nasi" as hereditary, and Judah's sons served both as Patriarch and as heads of the Sanhedrin.
+
Finally, the Pharisees resisted [[Hellenization]], viewing the Sadducees as generally corrupted by their association with Hasmonean and Roman rulers.
  
 +
==Hillel vs. Shammai==
 +
Two great Pharisaic teachers emerged during early Common Era: [[Hillel]] and [[Shammai]]. Their two schools of Pharisaism would shape an internal debate within the movement that had a crucial impact on Jewish history.
  
 +
[[Image:Jesus- and -rabbis.jpg|thumb|220px|Jesus and the "teachers." Both Hillel and Shammai were active in Jerusalem during the early life of Jesus.]]
  
==Pharisaic principles and values==
+
Shammai was the stricter of the two sages, insisting on a narrow interpretation of the [[Torah]] on most issues, while Hillel was the more liberal. A famous story characterizing them tells of a time when a [[Gentile]] man came first to Shammai and asked to be converted to [[Judaism]], upon the condition that Shammai summarize the entire Torah while standing on one leg. Shammai took offense at the request, and he drove the applicant away with a measuring stick. Hillel, on the other hand, did as the seeker requested, standing on one leg and declaring: "What is hateful to you, do not unto your neighbor. This is the Law on the Prophets; the rest is commentary. Now, go and study." (Shabbat, 31a).  
At first the values of the Pharisees developed through their sectarian debates with the Sadducees; then they developed through internal, non-sectarian debates over the law as an adaptation to life without the Temple, and life in exile, and to a more limited degree, life in conflict with Christianity. These shifts mark the transformation of Pharasaic to Rabbinic Judaism.
 
  
One belief central to the Pharisees was shared by all Jews of the time: [[monotheism]].  This is evident in the practice of reciting the ''[[Shema]]'', select verses from the [[Torah]], at the Temple and in synagogues.  The Shema begins with the verses, "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God; the Lord is one.  You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might."  According to the Mishna, these passages were recited in the Temple along with the twice-daily ''Tamid'' offering; Jews in the [[diaspora]], who did not have access to the Temple, recited these passages in their houses of assembly (in Hebrew: "batei knesset"). According to the Mishnah and Talmud, the Men of the Great Assembly instituted that Jews both in Judea and in the diaspora were required to pray three times a day (morning, afternoon and evening), and include in their prayers a recitation of these passages in the morning ("[[Shacharit]]") and evening ("[[Ma'ariv]]") prayers.
+
Each of the two teachers—Hillel being the elder—served in turn as the leading figure of the [[Sanhedrin]], and debates raged far and wide among their disciples. In the years following their death, these disputations increased to such an extent as to give rise to the saying: "The one Law has become two laws" (Tosef., Hag. 2:9; Sanh. 88b; Sotah 47b).
  
The book [[2 Maccabees]] was written by a Pharisee or someone sympathetic toward Pharisees. It includes several theological innovations: propitiatory prayer for the dead, judgment day, intercession of saints, and merits of the martyrs.
+
The Shammaites were said to have inherited the stern and unbending character of their founder. They were also intensely [[patriot]]ic, refusing to submit to foreign rule, and they opposed all friendly relations with the Romans. The House of Shammai particularly abhorred the Roman tax system, as well as the Jewish collaborators who served as tax collectors. Under the leadership of [[Zealot]] [[Judas the Galilean]] and a Shammaite named Zadok (Tosef., Eduy. ii. 2; Yeb. 15b), a popular political movement arose to oppose, even violently, Roman laws.
  
According to Josephus, whereas the Sadducees believed that people have total [[free will]] and the Essenes believed that all of a person's life is [[Predestination|predestined]], the Pharisees believed that people have free will but that God also has foreknowledge of human [[destiny]].  According to Josephus, Pharisees were further distinguished from the Sadducees in that Pharisees believed in the [[resurrection of the dead]].
+
The Hillelites, animated by a more tolerant and peaceful spirit, consequently lost influence. Feelings between the two schools grew so hostile that they even refused to worship together. As the struggle intensified, the Shammaites attempted to prevent all communication between Jews and Gentiles, prohibiting Jews even from buying food from their Gentile neighbors. The Hillelites opposed such extreme exclusiveness. However, in the Sanhedrin, the Shammaites, together with the Zealots, carried the day.
  
It is likely that Josephus highlighted these differences because he was writing for a [[Gentile]] audience, and questions concerning fate and a life after death were important in Hellenic [[philosophy]]. In fact, it is difficult, or impossible, to reconstruct a Second Temple Pharisaic theology, because Judaism itself is non-creedal; that is, there is no [[dogma]] or set of [[orthodox]] beliefs that Jews believed were required of Jews.  [[Josephus]] himself emphasized laws rather than beliefs when he described the characteristics of an [[apostate]] (a Jew who does not follow traditional customs) and the requirements for conversion to Judaism (circumcision, and adherence to traditional customs).  In fact, the most important divisions among different Jewish sects had to do with debates over three areas of law: [[marriage]], the [[Sabbath]] and [[religious festival]]s, and the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] and purity.  Debates over these and other matters of law continue to define Judaism more than any particular dogma or creed.
+
==The destruction of the Temple==
 +
[[Image:Sack of jerusalem.JPG|thumb|320px|Image from the Triumphal Arch of Titus shows Roman soldiers carrying off the Temple's sacred artifacts.]]
 +
By 66 C.E. Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated beyond the point of no return, and the [[Jewish Revolt]] broke out in full force. The Romans did not succeed in controlling Jerusalem until 70 C.E. when they destroyed the [[Temple of Jerusalem]] and broke the back of the revolt, although pockets of resistance remained. The event was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews that marked the end of an era. Ironically, however, it would place the Pharisees in a position of unrivaled leadership, since the priesthood and its affiliated [[Sadducee|Sadducean]] party was left without a base, and the [[Zealot]]s had been discredited by the catastrophic outcome of the revolt.
  
Not one tractate of the key Rabbinic texts, the Mishnah and the Talmud, is devoted to theological issues; these texts are concerned primarily with interpretations of Jewish law.  Only one chapter of the Mishnah deals with theological issues; it asserts that three kinds of people will have no share in "the world to come:" those who deny the resurrection of the dead, those who deny the divinity of the Torah, and [[Epicurean]]s (who deny divine supervision of human affairs). Another passage suggests a different set of core principles: normally, a Jew may violate any law to save a life, but in Sanhedrin 74a, a ruling orders Jews to accept [[martyr]]dom rather than violate the laws against [[idolatry]], [[murder]], or [[adultery]]. ([[Judah haNasi]], however, said that Jews must "be meticulous in small religious duties as well as large ones, because you do not know what sort of reward is coming for any of the religious duties," suggesting that all laws are of equal importance). In comparison with [[Christianity]], the Rabbis were not especially concerned with the [[messiah]] or claims about the messiah.
+
The House of [[Shammai]] and the House of [[Hillel]] continued their disputes even after the demise of the Temple, probably until the reorganization of the Sanhedrin under the presidency of [[Gamaliel II]] around 80 C.E.. By that time, all hope for victory over Rome had been lost for the time being, and the House of Shammai was obliged to take a subservient role. Formerly disputed legal points were brought up for review, and in nearly every case the opinion of the Hillelites prevailed (Tosef., Yeb. i. 13; Yer. Ber. i. 3b). Henceforth, the House of Hillel would be the leading voice of Pharisaism, and Pharisaism would be the leading voice of [[Judaism]].
  
Fundamentally, the Pharisees continued a form of Judaism that extended beyond the Temple, applying Jewish law to mundane activities in order to sanctify the every-day world. This was a more participatory (or "democratic") form of Judaism, in which rituals were not monopolized by an inherited priesthood but rather could be performed by all adult Jews individually or collectively; whose leaders were not determined by birth but by scholarly achievement.  In general, the Pharisees emphasized a commitment to social justice, belief in the brotherhood of mankind, and a faith in the redemption of the Jewish nation and, ultimately, [[humanity]]. Moreover, they believed that these ends would be achieved through [[halakha]] ("the way," or "the way things are done"), a corpus of laws derived from a close reading of sacred texts.  This belief entailed both a commitment to relate religion to ordinary concerns and daily life, and a commitment to study and scholarly debate.
+
==From Pharisees to rabbis==
 +
[[Image:Akiba ben joseph.jpg|thumb|Rabbi Akiva, a leading Pharisee of the second century C.E. and primary spiritual supporter of the Bar Kochba revolt]]
 +
Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through a Roman [[Procurator]] at Caesarea and a Jewish [[Patriarch]]. [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]], a leading Pharisee, was appointed the first Patriarch (his Hebrew tile was ''Nasi,'' which means both "prince" and "president). He reestablished the [[Sanhedrin]] at [[Yavneh]] (Jamnia) under Pharisaic control. With the Temple no longer operating, the [[rabbi]]s instructed Jews to support their synagogues and give money to charities in lieu of offering tithes to the priests and making costly sacrifices at the Temple. Study and prayer in local [[synagogue]]s replaced tithing and Temple pilgrimages as important religious duties.  
  
The commitment to relate religion to daily life through the law has led some to infer that the Pharisees were more legalistic than other sects in the Second Temple Era. This is not true &mdash; the Sadducees were committed to obeying the commandments of the Torah, and the Essenes governed themselves through elaborate rules and regulations (Josephus does claim that the Pharisees were the "strictest" observers of the law, but he likely meant "most accurate").  It is more accurate to say they were legalistic in a different way. In some cases Pharisaic values led to an extension of the law &mdash; for example, the Torah requires priests to bathe themselves before entering the Temple. The Pharisees washed themselves before Sabbath and festival meals (in effect, making these holidays "temples in time"), and, eventually, before all meals. Although this seems burdensome compared to the practices of other sects, in other cases, Pharisaic law was less strict. For example, Biblical law prohibits Jews from carrying objects from a private domain ("reshut ha-yachid") to a public domain ("reshut ha-rabim") on the Sabbath. This law could have prevented Jews from carrying cooked dishes to the homes of friends for Sabbath meals. The Pharisees ruled that adjacent houses connected by lintels or fences could become connected by a legal procedure creating a partnership among homeowners; thereby, clarifying the status of those common areas as a private domain relative to the members of the partnership. In that manner people could carry objects from building to building.  
+
The Pharisees' hope in the coming of a Messianic king, however, had not been extinguished. When the Emperor [[Hadrian]] threatened to rebuild [[Jerusalem]] as a pagan city dedicated to [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], in 132 C.E., some of the leading sages of the [[Sanhedrin]] supported a major rebellion led by [[Simon bar Kokhba|Simon Bar Kochba]]. Rabbi [[Akiva]], one of the greatest sages of his day, went so far as to declare Bar Kochba to be the long-awaited Messiah. [[Image:Talmud-page.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A page from the [[Talumud]], with a Mishnah section printed in the center, surrounded by commentaries.]] Bar Kochba succeeded in establishing a short-lived independent Jewish state that was conquered by the Romans in 135 C.E. The Romans executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin, including Akiva, and the slaughter of the Jewish population reached more than 100,000 souls.
  
Just as important as (if not more important than) any particular law was the value the rabbis placed on legal study and debate.  The sages of the Talmud believed that when they taught the Oral Torah to their students, they were imitating Moses, who taught the law to the children of Israel. Moreover, the rabbis believed that "the heavenly court studies Torah precisely as does the earthly one, even arguing about the same questions" (Neusner 1998: 8).  Thus, in debating and disagreeing over the meaning of the Torah or how best to put it into practice, no rabbi felt that he (or his opponent) were in some way rejecting God or threatening Judaism; on the contrary, it was precisely through such arguments that the rabbis imitated and honored God.  
+
In the aftermath of the revolt, the Romans forbade Jews to even enter Jerusalem, let alone promote the rebuilding of the Temple. The Romans eventually reconstituted the Sanhedrin under the leadership of [[Judah ha-Nasi]] and declared the position of "Nasi" to be hereditary.  
  
One sign of the Pharisaic emphasis on debate and differences of opinion is that the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]] mark different generations of scholars in terms of different pairs of contending schools.  Around the time the Romans conquered Judea, for example, the two major Pharisaic schools were those of Hillel and Shammai.  After Hillel died in 20 C.E., Shammai assumed the office of president of the Sanhedrin until he died in 30 C.E.  Followers of these two sages dominated scholarly debate over the following decades (although the Talmud records the arguments and positions of the school of Shammai, the teachings of the school of Hillel were ultimately taken as authoritative).  
+
Around 200 C.E. Judah ha-Nasi is traditionally thought to have edited the collection of rabbinical opinions and rulings known as the [[Mishnah]]. These often divergent religious views, championed by Pharisaic sages known as the ''[[Tannaim]]'' between 70-200 C.E., are considered the first work of [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. The Mishnah also serves as the foundation for the vast later compendium of Jewish thought known as the [[Talmud]]. The inclusion by Judah ha-Nasi of often opposing rabbinical opinions in the Misnah led to a Jewish attitude of theological inclusiveness, accepting a wide range of opinion on nearly every issue of Jewish [[theology]].
  
Pharisaic wisdom was compiled in one book of the Mishna, ''Pirke Avot''. The Pharisaic attitude is perhaps best exemplified by a story about [[Hillel the Elder]], who lived at the end of the [[1st century B.C.E.]].  A man once challenged the sage to explain the law while standing on one foot.  Hillel replied, "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor. That is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary. Go and study it."
+
The Pharisaic attitude of emphasizing learning and personal piety over Temple ritual had thus come to dominate Judaism nearly completely. One exception were the Karaites, Jews who rejected the concept of the [[Oral Torah]] and thus refused to accept the authority of rabbinical interpretations or additions to the Law of Moses. Some [[Karaite]] communities still exist in parts of Asia Minor and Eastern Europe.
  
 
=="Pharisees" and Christianity==
 
=="Pharisees" and Christianity==
{{globalize}}
+
The [[New Testament]] often portrays the Pharisees in the role of [[Jesus]]' opponents. They emerge as self-righteous rule-followers, hypocrites, and religious conservatives who conspire to do away with Jesus. Indeed, the word "pharisee" has come into semi-common usage in English to describe a hypocritical and arrogant person who places the letter of the law above its spirit.
{{npov}}
+
 
In the [[4th century|4th century CE]], Christians canonized a "[[New Testament]]" consisting of texts written between 60 C.E.. and about 95 C.E., which spell out a [[New Covenant (theology)|New Covenant]] and provides the case for its basis in the Bible. In the "New Testament" the ruling Pharisees of his time (the house of Shammai) are often represented as being the ideological foes of [[Jesus]].
+
[[Image:Jesus-pharisees.jpg|thumb|200px|These particular Pharisees were apparently satisfied by Jesus' answer to their question regarding paying taxes to Caesar (Mt. 22).]]  
 +
However, a close examination of the [[Gospels]] reveals that it was actually the Sadducean high priest and his family who had Jesus arrested and turned him over to the Romans on a charge of treason against Rome (John 18). No Pharisee is named as a persecutor of Jesus, while several Sadducees are named as such; and one Pharisee, [[Nicodemus]], is depicted as courageously defending Jesus before the [[Sanhedrin]] (John 7:50-51). Later, in the [[Book of Acts]], another Pharisee, [[Gamaliel I]], known to Jewish history as the grandson of [[Hillel]], successfully defended the disciples before the Sanhedrin against Sadducean persecution (Acts 5:33-40). Acts also mentions that some of the members of the [[Jerusalem church]] were Pharisees themselves (Acts 15:5) and that thousands of early Christians were "zealous for the Law." (Acts 21:21) Later, when [[Saint Paul]] found himself on trial before the Sanhedrin, (Acts 23) he identified himself as a Pharisee who believed in the [[resurrection]], which Sadducees denied, and thus won a temporary reprieve from the accusations of the Sadducean high priest.
  
An important binary in the New Testament is the opposition between law and love.  Accordingly, the New Testament presents the Pharisees as obsessed with man-made rules (especially concerning purity) whereas Jesus is more concerned with God’s love; the Pharisees scorn [[sin]]ners whereas Jesus seeks them out. Because of the [[New Testament]]'s frequent depictions of Pharisees as self-righteous rule-followers, the word "pharisee" (and its derivatives: "pharisaical," etc.) has come into semi-common usage in English to describe a hypocritical and arrogant person who places the letter of the law above its spirit.  Jews today (who subscribe to Pharisaic Judaism) typically find this insulting if not [[anti-Semitic]].
+
Some scholars have argued that Jesus was himself a Pharisee, and that his arguments with Pharisees is a sign of inclusion, since disputation is the dominant narrative mode in the [[Talmud]]. According to this theory, the portrait of the Pharisees in the New Testament is an anachronistic caricature, arising from the attitude of the church at the time the Gospels were written, when Christians no longer considered themselves to be part of the Jewish community.
  
Many non-Christians object that the four Gospels, which were canonized after Christianity had separated from [[Judaism]] (and after Pharisaism emerged as the dominant form of Judaism), are likely a very biased source concerning the conduct of the Pharisees.  Some have argued that Jesus was himself a Pharisee, and that his arguments with Pharisees is a sign of inclusion rather than fundamental conflict (disputation is the dominant narrative mode in the Talmud).{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Jesus' emphasis on loving one's neighbor, for example, echoes the teaching of the school of Hillel (Jesus' views of divorce, however, are closer to those of the school of Shammai, another Pharisee).  Others have argued that the portrait of the Pharisees in the New Testament is an anachronistic caricature. For example, when Jesus declares the sins of a paralytic man forgiven, the New Testament has the Pharisees criticizing Jesus' [[blasphemy]].  But Jewish sources from the time commonly associate illness with sin and healing with forgiveness, and there is no actual Rabbinic source that questions or criticizes this practice.  Although the New Testament presents the Pharisees as obsessed with avoiding impurity, Rabbinic texts reveal that the Pharisees were concerned merely with offering means for removing impurities, so that a person could again participate in the community. According to the New Testament, Pharisees wanted to punish Jesus for healing a man's withered hand on the [[Sabbath]], but there is no Rabbinic rule according to which Jesus had violated the Sabbath. According to the New Testament the Pharisees objected to Jesus's mission to outcast groups such as [[beggar]]s and tax-collectors, but Rabbinic texts actually emphasize the availability of forgiveness to all.  Indeed, much of Jesus' teaching, for example the [[Sermon on the Mount]], is consistent with that of the Pharisees.
+
Another way of looking at the portrayal of the Pharisees in the New Testament is that it represents the strict attitude of the House of [[Shammai]] rather than that of [[Hillel]]. For example, Jesus' willingness to associate with tax collectors might have been offensive to the followers of Shammai, but probably not to the disciples of Hillel. Similarly, when Jesus indicated that one should "render unto Caesar" the taxes due to him (Mt. 22), he adopted an attitude acceptable to the followers of Hillel, but opposed by the House of Shammai in the period leading up to the [[Jewish Revolt]].
  
Some scholars believe that those passages of the New Testament that present a caricature of the Pharisees were written sometime after the destruction of [[Herod's Temple]] in 70 C.E. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}, at a time when it had become clear that most Jews did not consider Jesus to be the messiah.  At this time Christians sought most new converts from among the gentiles. They thus would have presented a story of Jesus that was more sympathetic to Romans than to Jews. It was only after 70 C.E. that Phariseeism emerged as the dominant form of Judaism.
+
Like Hillel, Jesus took a flexible stand on many issues in the [[Torah]]—such as healing on the [[Sabbath]] and association with Gentiles and sinners—while holding firm to basics such as "love the Lord God with all thy heart" (Deuteronomy 6:5) and "Love thy neighbor as thyself." (Leviticus 19:18) Some suggest that Jesus may even have been a hearer of [[Hillel]] when he spoke with the teachers in the Temple as a 12-year-old.
  
The Apostle [[Paul of Tarsus]], who authored much of the [[New Testament]], spoke positively of being a Pharisee. [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 23:6 records Paul on trial in the Temple Courts. He apologized for speaking against a priest without knowing who he insulted, and then claimed his belief in the resurrection was based on his doctrinal beliefs as a Pharisee. Paul emphasized the disagreements between Pharisees and Sadducees for his own benefit, resulting in his release.  As [[F.F. Bruce]] notes in a commentary on Acts, "A Sadducee could not become a Christian without abandoning a distinctive theological tenet of his party; a Pharisee could become a Christian and remain a Pharisee—in the apostolic age, at least." (F.F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, p. 428).  
+
Nevertheless, the portrait of the Pharisees as Jesus' mortal opponents is etched deeply into Christian culture and remains a divisive factor in Jewish-Christian dialog even today.
  
In the event known as the [[Council of Jerusalem]], Paul argued strenuously that the ritual requirements of Judaism do not apply to Gentile Christians ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15:1-29). In his writings to the church in Philippi, Paul referred to his strict Jewish credentials as a cause for boasting ([[Philippians]] 3:4-6), but then stated his belief in Christ Jesus was more glorious.
+
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
* Boccaccini, Gabriele. ''Roots of Rabbinic Judaism.'' William B. Eerdmans Pub., 2001. ISBN 0802843611
 +
* Bowker, John. ''Jesus and the Pharisees.'' Cambridge University Press, 1973. ISBN 9780521200554
 +
* Cohen, Shaye J. D. ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah.'' Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0664250173
 +
* Fredriksen, Paula. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' Yale University Press, 1990. ISBN 0300048645
 +
* Neusner, Jacob, and Bruce Chilton. ''In Quest of the Historical Pharisees.'' Baylor University Press, 2007. ISBN 1932792724
 +
* Neusner, Jacob. ''Torah From our Sages: Pirke Avot.'' Rossel Books; 1st edition, 1983. ISBN 0940646056
 +
*___________. ''Judaism in the Beginning of Christianity.'' Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2000. ISBN 9780800617509 
 +
* Schwarz, Leo, ed. ''Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People.'' (original 1956) Modern Library, (Random House) 1977. ISBN 039460413X
  
*Boccaccini, Gabriele 2002 ''Roots of Rabbinic Judaism'' ISBN 0-8028-4361-1
 
*[[F.F. Bruce|Bruce, F.F.]], The Book of Acts, Revised Edition (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988)
 
*Cohen, Shaye J.D. 1988 ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'' ISBN 0-664-25017-3
 
*Fredriksen, Paula 1988 ''From Jesus to Christ'' ISBN 0-300-04864-5
 
*Neusner, Jacob ''Torah From our Sages: Pirke Avot'' ISBN 0-940646-05-6
 
*Neusner, Jacob ''Invitation to the Talmud: a Teaching Book'' (1998) ISBN 1-59244-155-6
 
*Roth, Cecil ''A History of the Jews: From Earliest Times Through the Six Day War'' 1970 ISBN 0-8052-0009-6
 
*Schwartz, Leo, ed. ''Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People'' ISBN 0-394-60413-X
 
*Halevi, Yitzchak Isaac "Dorot Ha'Rishonim" (Heb.)
 
*Baron, Salo W. "A Social and Religious History of the Jews" Vol 2.
 
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=429&rsid=478 Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Jewish Sects ] The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
+
All links retrieved November 23, 2022.
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=252&letter=P&search=Pharisees Jewish Encyclopedia: Pharisees]
+
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=252&letter=P&search=Pharisees Jewish Encyclopedia: Pharisees]. ''jewishencyclopedia.com''.
  
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
{{Credit|127094872}}
 
{{Credit|127094872}}

Latest revision as of 02:55, 24 November 2022

The Pharisee Nicodemus, a member of the Sandhedrin who defended Jesus of Nazareth

The Pharisees were a religious and political movement of ancient Israel and the precursors of Rabbinic Judaism. They emerged in opposition to the corruption of the Hasmonean dynasty and its allies, the Sadducees, in the second century B.C.E. They were characterized by an emphasis on popular piety rather than priestly elitism, a tradition of Oral Law in addition to the written Torah, and an affirmation of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead in the coming messianic age as taught by the prophets—all of which the Sadducees tended to reject.

During the early years of the Common Era, a major internal debate existed between the followers of the two Pharisaic sages, Hillel and Shammai, representing a flexible versus a strict approach to the Jewish law, respectively. After the Jewish Revolt against Rome resulted in the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., the followers of Hillel prevailed. The Pharisaic movement went on to create the foundations for what is now known as Rabbinic Judaism, through its deliberations at Yavneh (Jamnia) in the second century C.E., and the later compiling of the Mishnah and teh Talmud.

Christian portraits of the Pharisees in the New Testament tend to portray them as narrow-minded hypocrites and the mortal opponents of Jesus. However, recent scholarship has shown that some Pharisees were supporters of Jesus and the early Christian movement, and some scholars see a direct influence of Pharisees such as Hillel on the teachings of Jesus. Deeper study of the nature and history of the Pharisees can help foster Jewish-Christian dialog in an atmosphere of mutual respect and understanding.

Background

Josephus

For the background of the Pharisees, historians are largely dependent on the accounts of Josephus, the Jewish historian of the late first century C.E. who was himself a member of the Pharisees but later collaborated with the Romans during the Jewish Revolt of 66-70 C.E.

The word Pharisees comes from the Hebrew ( פרושים) prushim from (פרוש) parush, meaning "separated"—referring to one who is separated for a life of purity. According to Josephus' accounts, the Pharisees emerged in opposition to the corruption of the Hasmonean dynasty of the second century B.C.E. The Hamoneans had assumed power in the wake of the successful revolt against the Seleucid Greeks. Led by Judah Maccabee, the Jews had liberated Jerusalem from Greek rule in 165 B.C.E. and restored its Temple, which had been defiled under the Antiochus IV. Judah's nephew, John Hyrcanus, established the Hasmonean dynasty, in which the priests held direct political power as well as religious authority. Although the Hasmoneans were heroes for resisting the Seleucids, their reign lacked the legitimacy conferred by the descent from the Davidic dynasty of the First Temple Era. The hope of a Messiah, son of David, developed during this period in tension with the reality of Hasmonean rule.

Around this time the Sadducees emerged as the party of the priests and allied Hasmonean elites, taking their name, Sadducee, from King Solomon's loyal priest Zadok. The Pharisees emerged out of the group of scribes and sages who objected to the Hasmonean monopoly on power, hoped for a Davidic Messiah, and criticized the growing corruption of the Hasmonean court.

During the Hasmonean period, the Sadducees and Pharisees functioned primarily as political parties. According to Josephus, the Pharisees opposed the Hasmonean war against the Samaritans and the forced conversion of the Idumeans. The political rift between the two parties grew wider under the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus, who adopted Sadduceean rites in the Temple. There was a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees.

Alexander was succeeded by his widow, Salome Alexandra, who was more favorably inclined toward the Pharisees. Alexandra installed as high priest her eldest son, the pro-Pharisee Hyrcanus II, and the Sanhedrin, or ruling council, was reorganized along lines that strengthened Pharisaic influence.

Pompey defiles the Temple.

Upon Alexandra's death, Hyrcanus II gained the Pharisees' support, while her younger son, Aristobulus, found support among the Sadducees. The conflict between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus culminated in another civil war that ended when the Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem in 63 B.C.E. and inaugurated the Roman period of Jewish history. Echoing the prophet Jeremiah's attitude toward the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E., the Pharisees regarded Pompey’s defilement of the Temple in Jerusalem as a divine punishment for the Sadducean abuse of the priesthood. They asked Pompey to abolish the royalty of the Hasmoneans ("Ant." xiv. 3, § 2). Pompey named Hyrcanus II high priest and "ethnarch," a lesser title than "king." In 57 B.C.E. Hyrcanus was deprived of the remainder of his political authority, and ultimate jurisdiction was given to the Roman Proconsul of Syria.

The Proconsul Cabineus established five regional synhedria (Sanhedrins, or councils) to regulate the internal affairs of the Jews, while the Great Sanhedrin in Jerusalem interpreted Jewish law and adjudicated appeals. Its legislative powers varied, however, depending on Roman policy.

In matters of state finance, administration, and military affairs, the Proconsul ruled through Hyrcanus's Idumaean associate Antipater.[1] Later, Antipater's sons governed the northern and southern districts of the former territory of Israel: Phasael administering Judea, and Herod ruling Galilee. In 40 B.C.E., however, Aristobulus's son Antigonus overthrew Hyrcanus II and named himself both king and high priest, placing the Pharisees once again at a disadvantage.

Herod enters Jerusalem.

Herod fled to Rome, where he sought the support of Mark Antony and Octavian, and secured recognition by the Roman Senate. He soon dislodged Antigonus and was installed as king, thus bringing an end to the Hasmonean dynasty. Sadducean opposition to Herod led him to treat the Pharisees favorably at first. His Idumean background and his close association with Rome, however, made him an unpopular ruler. Herod's massive restoration and expansion of the Temple of Jerusalem may have been designed to gain popular support, but his notorious treatment of his family and his ruthless suppression of the Hasmonaeans further eroded his popularity. His willingness to adorn the new Temple with a gold Roman eagle was a particularly unpopular stance, which alienated the Pharisees, for whom resistance to Hellenization was a hallmark.

Herod's paranoia toward any perceived threat to his throne also proved incompatible with the Pharisees' hope in the coming Davidic Messiah. In 6 B.C.E., Herod executed several Pharisaic leaders who had announced that the birth of the Messiah would mean the end of Herod's rule. Then, in 4 B.C.E., when young Pharisaic Torah-students smashed the golden Roman eagle over the main entrance of Herod's Temple, he had 40 of them, along with two of their professors, burned alive. ("Ant." xvii. 2, § 4; 6, §§ 2-4). Meanwhile, Herod found willing allies among the Sadducees, who now re-emerged to reclaim the high priesthood and challenge Pharisaic pre-eminence.

From this point onward, Josephus' accounts are joined by other sources, including various Talmudic references and early Christian writings such as the letters of Saint Paul (himself a former Pharisee), the Gospels, and the Book of Acts.

Theological characteristics

The Pharisaic approach to Judaism was characterized by several distinctive attitudes:

First, Pharisees were a movement of popular piety, rather than priestly elitism. They interpreted Exodus 19:4-5 literally: "If you will obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my own possession among all peoples; for all the earth is mine, and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." Moreover, in the Pharisees' view, the Torah already provided the way for every Jew to lead a priestly life. The Pharisees believed that all Jews in their ordinary lives should observe the rules and rituals concerning purification and all 613 of the commandments which the Pharisees discerned in the Law of Moses.

Open Torah scroll. The Pharisees believed in an Oral Torah as well as the written one.

Second, the Pharisees believed in an Oral Law as well as a Written Law. In addition to the Torah recognized by the Sadducees, the Pharisees held that God had also revealed to Moses an Oral Torah that functioned to elaborate and explicate what was written. Therefore, the Law did not end with what was written in the Torah scrolls, but was also revealed orally by Moses and his successors into the present age. It was the function of the prophets and sages to explicate the Oral Torah and clarify its application in contemporary cirumstances.

Third, the Pharisees believed in the resurrection of the dead in a future age, which would be ushered in by the Messiah, in whom they earnestly hoped.

Fourth, the Pharisees placed a greater emphasis on the scriptural authority of the prophets and other biblical writings than did the Sadducees. (During this period, no authorized list of scriptures outside of the Torah yet existed.)

Finally, the Pharisees resisted Hellenization, viewing the Sadducees as generally corrupted by their association with Hasmonean and Roman rulers.

Hillel vs. Shammai

Two great Pharisaic teachers emerged during early Common Era: Hillel and Shammai. Their two schools of Pharisaism would shape an internal debate within the movement that had a crucial impact on Jewish history.

Jesus and the "teachers." Both Hillel and Shammai were active in Jerusalem during the early life of Jesus.

Shammai was the stricter of the two sages, insisting on a narrow interpretation of the Torah on most issues, while Hillel was the more liberal. A famous story characterizing them tells of a time when a Gentile man came first to Shammai and asked to be converted to Judaism, upon the condition that Shammai summarize the entire Torah while standing on one leg. Shammai took offense at the request, and he drove the applicant away with a measuring stick. Hillel, on the other hand, did as the seeker requested, standing on one leg and declaring: "What is hateful to you, do not unto your neighbor. This is the Law on the Prophets; the rest is commentary. Now, go and study." (Shabbat, 31a).

Each of the two teachers—Hillel being the elder—served in turn as the leading figure of the Sanhedrin, and debates raged far and wide among their disciples. In the years following their death, these disputations increased to such an extent as to give rise to the saying: "The one Law has become two laws" (Tosef., Hag. 2:9; Sanh. 88b; Sotah 47b).

The Shammaites were said to have inherited the stern and unbending character of their founder. They were also intensely patriotic, refusing to submit to foreign rule, and they opposed all friendly relations with the Romans. The House of Shammai particularly abhorred the Roman tax system, as well as the Jewish collaborators who served as tax collectors. Under the leadership of Zealot Judas the Galilean and a Shammaite named Zadok (Tosef., Eduy. ii. 2; Yeb. 15b), a popular political movement arose to oppose, even violently, Roman laws.

The Hillelites, animated by a more tolerant and peaceful spirit, consequently lost influence. Feelings between the two schools grew so hostile that they even refused to worship together. As the struggle intensified, the Shammaites attempted to prevent all communication between Jews and Gentiles, prohibiting Jews even from buying food from their Gentile neighbors. The Hillelites opposed such extreme exclusiveness. However, in the Sanhedrin, the Shammaites, together with the Zealots, carried the day.

The destruction of the Temple

Image from the Triumphal Arch of Titus shows Roman soldiers carrying off the Temple's sacred artifacts.

By 66 C.E. Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated beyond the point of no return, and the Jewish Revolt broke out in full force. The Romans did not succeed in controlling Jerusalem until 70 C.E. when they destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and broke the back of the revolt, although pockets of resistance remained. The event was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews that marked the end of an era. Ironically, however, it would place the Pharisees in a position of unrivaled leadership, since the priesthood and its affiliated Sadducean party was left without a base, and the Zealots had been discredited by the catastrophic outcome of the revolt.

The House of Shammai and the House of Hillel continued their disputes even after the demise of the Temple, probably until the reorganization of the Sanhedrin under the presidency of Gamaliel II around 80 C.E. By that time, all hope for victory over Rome had been lost for the time being, and the House of Shammai was obliged to take a subservient role. Formerly disputed legal points were brought up for review, and in nearly every case the opinion of the Hillelites prevailed (Tosef., Yeb. i. 13; Yer. Ber. i. 3b). Henceforth, the House of Hillel would be the leading voice of Pharisaism, and Pharisaism would be the leading voice of Judaism.

From Pharisees to rabbis

Rabbi Akiva, a leading Pharisee of the second century C.E. and primary spiritual supporter of the Bar Kochba revolt

Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through a Roman Procurator at Caesarea and a Jewish Patriarch. Yohanan ben Zakkai, a leading Pharisee, was appointed the first Patriarch (his Hebrew tile was Nasi, which means both "prince" and "president). He reestablished the Sanhedrin at Yavneh (Jamnia) under Pharisaic control. With the Temple no longer operating, the rabbis instructed Jews to support their synagogues and give money to charities in lieu of offering tithes to the priests and making costly sacrifices at the Temple. Study and prayer in local synagogues replaced tithing and Temple pilgrimages as important religious duties.

The Pharisees' hope in the coming of a Messianic king, however, had not been extinguished. When the Emperor Hadrian threatened to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to Jupiter, in 132 C.E., some of the leading sages of the Sanhedrin supported a major rebellion led by Simon Bar Kochba. Rabbi Akiva, one of the greatest sages of his day, went so far as to declare Bar Kochba to be the long-awaited Messiah.

A page from the Talumud, with a Mishnah section printed in the center, surrounded by commentaries.

Bar Kochba succeeded in establishing a short-lived independent Jewish state that was conquered by the Romans in 135 C.E. The Romans executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin, including Akiva, and the slaughter of the Jewish population reached more than 100,000 souls.

In the aftermath of the revolt, the Romans forbade Jews to even enter Jerusalem, let alone promote the rebuilding of the Temple. The Romans eventually reconstituted the Sanhedrin under the leadership of Judah ha-Nasi and declared the position of "Nasi" to be hereditary.

Around 200 C.E. Judah ha-Nasi is traditionally thought to have edited the collection of rabbinical opinions and rulings known as the Mishnah. These often divergent religious views, championed by Pharisaic sages known as the Tannaim between 70-200 C.E., are considered the first work of Rabbinic Judaism. The Mishnah also serves as the foundation for the vast later compendium of Jewish thought known as the Talmud. The inclusion by Judah ha-Nasi of often opposing rabbinical opinions in the Misnah led to a Jewish attitude of theological inclusiveness, accepting a wide range of opinion on nearly every issue of Jewish theology.

The Pharisaic attitude of emphasizing learning and personal piety over Temple ritual had thus come to dominate Judaism nearly completely. One exception were the Karaites, Jews who rejected the concept of the Oral Torah and thus refused to accept the authority of rabbinical interpretations or additions to the Law of Moses. Some Karaite communities still exist in parts of Asia Minor and Eastern Europe.

"Pharisees" and Christianity

The New Testament often portrays the Pharisees in the role of Jesus' opponents. They emerge as self-righteous rule-followers, hypocrites, and religious conservatives who conspire to do away with Jesus. Indeed, the word "pharisee" has come into semi-common usage in English to describe a hypocritical and arrogant person who places the letter of the law above its spirit.

These particular Pharisees were apparently satisfied by Jesus' answer to their question regarding paying taxes to Caesar (Mt. 22).

However, a close examination of the Gospels reveals that it was actually the Sadducean high priest and his family who had Jesus arrested and turned him over to the Romans on a charge of treason against Rome (John 18). No Pharisee is named as a persecutor of Jesus, while several Sadducees are named as such; and one Pharisee, Nicodemus, is depicted as courageously defending Jesus before the Sanhedrin (John 7:50-51). Later, in the Book of Acts, another Pharisee, Gamaliel I, known to Jewish history as the grandson of Hillel, successfully defended the disciples before the Sanhedrin against Sadducean persecution (Acts 5:33-40). Acts also mentions that some of the members of the Jerusalem church were Pharisees themselves (Acts 15:5) and that thousands of early Christians were "zealous for the Law." (Acts 21:21) Later, when Saint Paul found himself on trial before the Sanhedrin, (Acts 23) he identified himself as a Pharisee who believed in the resurrection, which Sadducees denied, and thus won a temporary reprieve from the accusations of the Sadducean high priest.

Some scholars have argued that Jesus was himself a Pharisee, and that his arguments with Pharisees is a sign of inclusion, since disputation is the dominant narrative mode in the Talmud. According to this theory, the portrait of the Pharisees in the New Testament is an anachronistic caricature, arising from the attitude of the church at the time the Gospels were written, when Christians no longer considered themselves to be part of the Jewish community.

Another way of looking at the portrayal of the Pharisees in the New Testament is that it represents the strict attitude of the House of Shammai rather than that of Hillel. For example, Jesus' willingness to associate with tax collectors might have been offensive to the followers of Shammai, but probably not to the disciples of Hillel. Similarly, when Jesus indicated that one should "render unto Caesar" the taxes due to him (Mt. 22), he adopted an attitude acceptable to the followers of Hillel, but opposed by the House of Shammai in the period leading up to the Jewish Revolt.

Like Hillel, Jesus took a flexible stand on many issues in the Torah—such as healing on the Sabbath and association with Gentiles and sinners—while holding firm to basics such as "love the Lord God with all thy heart" (Deuteronomy 6:5) and "Love thy neighbor as thyself." (Leviticus 19:18) Some suggest that Jesus may even have been a hearer of Hillel when he spoke with the teachers in the Temple as a 12-year-old.

Nevertheless, the portrait of the Pharisees as Jesus' mortal opponents is etched deeply into Christian culture and remains a divisive factor in Jewish-Christian dialog even today.

Notes

  1. The Idumeans were the latter day Edomites, who had been forcibly converted to Judaism under John Hyrcanus.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Boccaccini, Gabriele. Roots of Rabbinic Judaism. William B. Eerdmans Pub., 2001. ISBN 0802843611
  • Bowker, John. Jesus and the Pharisees. Cambridge University Press, 1973. ISBN 9780521200554
  • Cohen, Shaye J. D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0664250173
  • Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ. Yale University Press, 1990. ISBN 0300048645
  • Neusner, Jacob, and Bruce Chilton. In Quest of the Historical Pharisees. Baylor University Press, 2007. ISBN 1932792724
  • Neusner, Jacob. Torah From our Sages: Pirke Avot. Rossel Books; 1st edition, 1983. ISBN 0940646056
  • ___________. Judaism in the Beginning of Christianity. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2000. ISBN 9780800617509
  • Schwarz, Leo, ed. Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People. (original 1956) Modern Library, (Random House) 1977. ISBN 039460413X

External links

All links retrieved November 23, 2022.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.