Difference between revisions of "Passenger pigeon" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m (Robot: Remove claimed tag)
 
(26 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 
+
{{Images OK}}{{Approved}}{{copyedited}}
 
{{Taxobox
 
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
 
 
| name = Passenger Pigeon
 
| name = Passenger Pigeon
 
| status = EX
 
| status = EX
 
| extinct = 1914
 
| extinct = 1914
 
| status_system = iucn3.1
 
| status_system = iucn3.1
| image = Ectopistes migratoriusMCN2P28CA.jpg
+
| image = Passengerpigeon.jpg
 
| image_width = 200px
 
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Male Passenger Pigeon—chromolithograph
+
| image_caption = 1898 photograph of a live Passenger Pigeon
 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
 
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
 
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
Line 20: Line 19:
 
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1766)
 
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1766)
 
}}
 
}}
The '''Passenger Pigeon''' (''Ectopistes migratorius'') or '''Wild Pigeon''' was a species of [[Dove|pigeon]] that was once the most common [[bird]] in [[North America]]. It is estimated that there were as many as five billion passenger pigeons in the [[United States]] at the time [[Europe]]ans arrived in North
+
'''Passenger pigeon''' is the common name for an [[extinct]] migratory [[bird]], '''''Ectopistes migratorius,''''' of the [[Columbidae]] family, that was a very common bird in [[North America]] as recently as the mid-nineteenth century. These short-billed, small-headed, social [[pigeon]]s, about one foot long and with a long-pointed tail, lived in enormous flocks. During migration, billions of birds, in flocks up to a mile wide and hundreds of miles long, could take days to pass overhead. They also are known as '''wild pigeons.'''
America<ref name=SI>
 
[http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmnh/passpig.htm Smithsonian Institution];
 
it is believed that this species once constituted 25 to 40 per cent of the total bird population of the United States. It is estimated that there were 3 billion to 5 billion passenger pigeons at the time Europeans discovered America.
 
</ref>.
 
They lived in enormous flocks, and during migration, one could see flocks of them a mile (1.6 km) wide and 300 miles (500&nbsp;km) long, taking several days to pass and probably containing two billion birds<ref>
 
''[[New York Times]]''; January 16 1910 Sunday.  Quote:
 
: Three Hundred Dollars Reward; Will Be Paid for a Nesting Pair of Wild Pigeons, a Bird So Common in the United States Fifty Years Ago That Flocks in the Migratory Period Frequently Partially Obscured the Sun from View. How America Has Lost Birds of Rare Value and How Science Plans to Save Those That Are Left. Unless the State and Federal Governments come to the rescue of American game, plumed and song birds, the not distant future will witness the practical extinction of some of the most beautiful and valuable species. Already the snowy heron, that once swarmed in immense droves over the United States, is gone, a victim of the greed and cruelty of milliners whose "creations" its beautiful nuptial feathers have gone to adorn.
 
</ref><ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4128/is_200607/ai_n16537303 Ask]</ref>.  Over the [[19th century]], the species went from being one of the most abundant birds in the world to extinction<ref>
 
{{IUCN2006|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2004|id=7031|title=Ectopistes migratorius|downloaded=10 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as extinct</ref>.
 
  
Some decimation in numbers occurred as a result of loss of habitat, when the Europeans started settling further inland. However, the primary factor emerged when pigeon meat was commercialized as a cheap food for [[slave]]s and the poor in the 19th century, resulting in hunting on a massive scale. There was a slow decline in their numbers between about 1800 and 1870, followed by a catastrophic decline between 1870 and 1890[http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/pdfs/pigeons1_actsheet.pdf], at the end of which they were rare and beyond the point of recovery.  'Martha', thought to be the world's last passenger pigeon, died on [[1 September]] 1914.
+
However, during the nineteenth century, the species went from being one of the most abundant birds in the world, and the most common North American bird, to [[extinction]] (IUCN 2004). In 1900, the last wild bird was shot, and in 1914, the last captive bird died in the Cincinnati Zoo. Contributing factors included loss of habitat and food, disease, hunting, and breakdown of social facilitation as flocks declined. A primary factor emerged when pigeon meat was commercialized as a cheap food for [[slave]]s and the poor in the nineteenth century, resulting in hunting on a massive scale.  
 
+
{{toc}}
In the [[18th century]], the Passenger Pigeon in Europe was known to the [[France|French]] as "tourtre" but in [[New France]], the North American bird was called "tourte". In modern French, the bird is known as the ''pigeon migrateur''.
+
The extinction of the passenger pigeon aroused public interest in the [[conservation movement]] and resulted in new laws and practices that have prevented many other species from going extinct.
 
 
In [[Algonquian languages]], it was called ''amimi'' by the [[Lenape language|Lenape]] and ''omiimii'' by the [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]].
 
  
 
==Description==
 
==Description==
During summer, passenger pigeons lived in forest habitats throughout  [[North America]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]: from eastern and central [[Canada]] to and northeast [[USA]]. In the winters, they would migrate to southern [[USA]] and occasionally to [[Mexico]] and [[Cuba]]
+
[[Image:Ectopistes migratoriusMCN2P28CA.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chromolithography|Chromolithograph]] illustration of male passenger pigeon.]]
 
+
[[Image:Ectopistes migratoriusFCN2P29CA.jpg|right|thumb|Female passenger pigeon]]
The passenger pigeon was a very social bird.  It lived in colonies stretching over hundreds of square miles, with up to a hundred nests in a single tree.  Pigeon migration, in flocks numbering billions, was a spectacle without parallel:
+
[[Image:Passenger pigeon.jpg|thumb|Passenger pigeon.]]
 
+
[[Image:Map-Ectopistes-migratorius.png|thumb|right|Distribution map of ''Ectopistes migratorius''. In red: Breeding zone; In yellow: Wintering zone]]
{{cquote|Early explorers and settlers frequently mentioned passenger pigeons in their writings.  [[Samuel de Champlain]] in 1605 reported "countless numbers," [[Gabriel Sagard-Theodat]] wrote of "infinite multitudes," and [[Cotton Mather]] described a flight as being about a mile in width and taking several hours to pass overhead. Yet by the early 1900s no wild passenger pigeons could be found. - The [[Smithsonian]] Encyclopedia <ref name=SI/>}}
+
The passenger pigeon was a plump bird, with short legs, a small head, a short neck, and a short and slender bill with two nares that lead to the respiratory system. As with other members of Columbidae, passenger pigeon were monogamous, used pigeons milk to feed their young, and were capable of drinking by sucking up water, without the need to tilt the head backward.  
  
==Causes of extinction ==
+
During summer, passenger pigeons lived in forest habitats throughout North America east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]: From eastern and central [[Canada]] to the northeast United States. In the winters, they migrated to the southern United States and occasionally to [[Mexico]] and [[Cuba]].  
One of the significant reasons for its extinction was [[deforestation]].  The birds relied on [[acorn]] and [[beech mast]] for breeding and shifted or occupied their breeding colonies in accordance with the food trees' [[mast year]] cycle.  With the decimation of forests as the settlers moved inland, the passenger pigeon was forced to hunt for grain on the newly established farms, their large numbers causing considerable crop loss.  Consequently, many farmers took to shooting them and using their meat for food.  However, this did not seem to seriously diminish the total number of birds.
 
  
It is also possible that the birds may have suffered from [[Newcastle disease]], an  infectious bird disease that was introduced to North America; though the disease was identified in 1926, it has been posited as one of the factors leading to the extinction of the passenger pigeon.  
+
The passenger pigeon was a very social bird. It lived in colonies stretching over hundreds of square miles, practicing [[communal breeding]] with up to a hundred nests in a single tree. Since no accurate data were recorded, it is only possible to give estimates on the size and population of these nesting areas. Each site may have covered many thousands of acres and the birds were so congested in these areas that hundreds of nests could be counted in each tree. One large nesting in Wisconsin was reported as covering 850 square miles, and the number of birds nesting there was estimated to be around 136,000,000.
  
However, it is believed that the primary cause of passenger pigeon extinction was the commercial exploitation of pigeon meat on a massive scale<ref name=SI/>.  
+
Pigeon migration, in flocks numbering billions, was a spectacle without parallel. During migration, it was possible to see flocks of them a mile (1.6&nbsp;km) wide and 300&nbsp;miles (500&nbsp;km) long, taking several days to pass and containing up to a billion birds (NYT 1910; BBN 2006). Passenger pigeons had one of the largest groups or flocks of any animal, second only to the [[desert locust]]. They became such a threat to farmers that in 1703, the Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec actually formally excommunicated the species (Mann 2005).  
  
Even prior to colonization, native Americans occasionally used pigeons for meat. 
+
There was safety in large flocks. When a flock of this huge a size established itself in an area, the number of local animal predators (such as wolves, foxes, weasels, and hawks) was so small compared to the total number of birds that little damage would be inflicted on the flock as a whole. (Of course, when human beings would become the predators, the large flocks became a detriment, as they were readily hunted in mass.)
In the early 1800s, commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell in the city markets as food, as live targets for [[trap shooting]] and even as agricultural [[fertilizer]] and mast food. The bird painter John James Audubon described the rigorous slaughter:
 
"Few Pigeons were then to be seen, but a great number of persons, with
 
horses and wagons, guns and ammunition, had already established encampments on the borders.
 
Two farmers from the vicinity of Russelsville, distant more than a hundred miles, had driven
 
upwards of three hundred hogs to be fattened on the pigeons which were to be slaughtered. Here
 
and there, the people employed in plucking and salting what had already been procured, were
 
seen sitting in the midst of large piles of these birds. The dung lay several inches deep, covering
 
the whole extent of the roosting-place." <ref>http://www.ulala.org/P_Pigeon/Audubon_Pigeon.html "On The Passenger Pigeon", Birds of America, John James Audubon</ref> They were shipped by the [[boxcar]]-load to the Eastern cities. In [[New York City]], in 1805, a pair of pigeons sold for two cents. Slaves and servants in 18th and 19th century America often saw no other meat. By the 1850s, it was noticed that the numbers of birds seemed to be decreasing, but still the slaughter continued, accelerating to an even greater level when more railroads and telegraphs, both of which allowed the species to be tracked and hunted more easily, were set up after the [[American Civil War]]. Three million pigeons were shipped by a single market hunter in the year 1878.
 
  
==Methods of killing==
+
Some estimate that there were from 3 billion to 5 passenger pigeons in the United States at the time [[Europe]]ans arrived in North America, making up about 25 to 40 percent of the total bird population (SI 2001). Others argue that the species had not been common in the [[Pre-Columbian]] period, and may even have been a rare species, but their numbers grew when devastation of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian]] population by European diseases led to reduced competition for food (Mann 2005).
Alcohol-soaked grain intoxicated the birds and made them easier to kill. Smoky fires were set to nesting trees to drive them from their nests.
 
<ref>
 
[http://www.iowadnr.com/education/wldresbs.html Iowa Department of Natural Resources]</ref>
 
  
A particularly cruel method of killing was to blind a single bird by sewing its eyes shut using a needle and thread. This bird's feet would be attached to a circular stool at the end of a stick that could be raised five or six feet in the air, then dropped back to the ground.  As the bird attempted to land, it would flutter its wings, thus attracting attention to other birds flying overhead.  When the flock would land near this decoy bird, nets would trap the birds and the hunters would crush their heads between their thumb and forefinger.  This was the origin of the term [[informant|stool pigeon]]. <ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,752706-2,00.html]</ref>
+
There was a slow decline in their numbers between about 1800 and 1870, followed by a catastrophic decline between 1870 and 1890 (SNL). "Martha," thought to be the world's last passenger pigeon, died on September 1, 1914, in the zoo in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].
  
One of the last large nestings of passenger pigeons was at [[Petoskey, Michigan]], in 1878. Here 50,000 birds were killed each day and the hunt continued for nearly five months. When the adult birds that survived the slaughter attempted second nestings at new sites, they were located by the professional hunters and killed before they had a chance to raise any young.
+
The term "passenger pigeon" in English derives from the French word ''passager,'' meaning "to pass by."
  
Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter. A bill was passed in the Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within two miles of a nesting area, but the law was weakly enforced. By the mid 1890s, the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared. It was too late to protect them by passing laws. In 1897, a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a ten-year closed season on passenger pigeons. This was a futile gesture.
+
==Causes of extinction ==
A highly gregarious species, the flock could initiate courtship and reproduction only when they were gathered in large numbers; it was realized only too late that smaller groups of passenger pigeons could not breed successfully, and
+
[[Image:Ectopistes migratoriusAAP042CA.jpg|thumb|left|Passenger Pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, juvenile (left), male (center), female (right).]]
the surviving numbers
+
Multiple causes have been suggested for the extinction of the passenger pigeon. Historically, the primary cause was held to be the commercial exploitation of pigeon meat on a massive scale (SI 2001). However, current examination focuses on the pigeon's loss of habitat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), states the extinction "was ultimately due to the effects of widespread clearance of its mast food, with the proximate causes being Newcastle disease, extensive hunting and the breakdown of social facilitation" (IUCN 2008).
proved too few to re-establish the species<ref name=SI/>.  Attempts at breeding among the captive population also failed for the same reasons.
 
  
==Last wild survivors==
+
The passenger pigeon has long been hunted. Even prior to colonization, native Americans occasionally used pigeons for meat. In the early 1800s, commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell in the city markets as food, as live targets for [[trap shooting]], and even as agricultural [[fertilizer]].  
The last fully authenticated record of a wild bird was near Sargents, [[Pike County, Ohio]], on [[24 March]], 1900<ref name=SI/>, although many unconfirmed sightings were reported in the first decade of the [[20th century]][http://www.ulala.org/P_Pigeon/Map_files/Alabama.html][http://lifeofbirds.com/2007/01/06/was-martha-the-last-pigeon-de-passage/][http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v077n04/p0399-p0420.pdf]. From 1909 to 1912, a reward was offered for a living specimen<ref>[[New York Times]]; April 4, 1910, Monday; Reward for Wild Pigeons. Ornithologists Offer $3,000 for the Discovery of Their Nests.</ref>; the fact that the reward was never claimed indicates that they were more likely than not gone in the wild by that point. However, unconfirmed sightings continued up to about 1930[http://web.ncf.ca/bz050/HomePage.pigeon.html].
 
<!-- check:
 
LOUISIANA:  Apparently the last individuals to be seen in Louisiana were a few observed in the vicinity of Prairie Mer Rouge, in Morehouse Parish, in the winter of 1902-1903.
 
  
ARKANSAS In 1883 Prof. Harven reported it very plentiful in winter at Fayetteville, and in 1889, Pleas noted the arrival at Clinton on April 9 of three flocks, numbering in all 36 birds. Mr. L. R. Morphew mentions the occurrence of a small flock of pigeons near Hot Springs about 1892- the last ones seen in that vicinity. The last stronghold of these birds seems to have been in the extreme northwest part of Arkansas. The last shipment received by one game dealer of St. Louis, came from Siloam Springs, Benton County, about 1893, and Mr. O. Widmann informs me that as late as 1902 another St. Louis dealer received 12 dozen pigeons from Rogers, in the same county.
+
Once pigeon meat became popular, commercial hunting started on a prodigious scale. The bird painter [[John James Audubon]] described the preparations for slaughter at a known pigeon-roosting site (Audobon 1946):
 +
<blockquote>Few pigeons were then to be seen, but a great number of persons, with horses and wagons, guns and ammunition, had already established encampments on the borders. Two farmers from the vicinity of Russelsville, distant more than a hundred miles, had driven upwards of three hundred hogs to be fattened on the pigeons which were to be slaughtered. Here and there, the people employed in plucking and salting what had already been procured, were seen sitting in the midst of large piles of these birds. The dung lay several inches deep, covering the whole extent of the roosting-place.</blockquote>
  
-->
+
[[Image:Birdonnest.jpg|thumb|Nesting passenger pigeon.]]
[[Image:Ectopistes_migratoriusFCN2P29CA.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Female Passenger Pigeon]]
+
Pigeons were shipped by the [[boxcar]]-load to the Eastern cities. In [[New York City]], in 1805, a pair of pigeons sold for two cents. Slaves and servants in eighteenth and nineteenth century America often saw no other meat. By the 1850s, it was noticed that the numbers of birds seemed to be decreasing, but still the slaughter continued, accelerating to an even greater level as more railroads and telegraphs were developed after the [[American Civil War]]. Three million pigeons were shipped by a single market hunter in the year 1878.
 +
[[Image:Nestandegg.jpg|thumb|left|Nest and egg of a passenger pigeon.]]
 +
[[Image:Young passenger pigeon.jpg|thumb|left|Passenger pigeon chick.]]
 +
Another significant reason for the passenger pigeon's extinction was [[deforestation]]. Possibly, the birds also may have suffered from [[Newcastle disease]], an infectious bird disease that was introduced to North America; though the disease was identified in 1926, it has been posited as one of the factors leading to the extinction of the passenger pigeon.
  
Reports of passenger pigeons being sighted kept coming in from [[Arkansas]] and [[Louisiana]], in groups of tens and twenties, until the first decade of the 20th century.  
+
Attempts to revive the species by breeding the surviving captive birds were not successful. The passenger pigeon was a colonial and gregarious bird, practicing [[communal roosting]] and [[communal breeding]] and needed large numbers for optimum breeding conditions. It was impossible to reestablish the species with just a few captive birds, and the small captive flocks weakened and died. Even when market hunting was discontinued, because it was not longer profitable, thousands of birds had remained in suitable habitat, but these still declined, apparently as a result of the need to nest in large colonies (IDNR).
 +
[[Image:Passenger pigeon young.jpg|thumb|Young passenger pigeon.]]  
 +
The passenger pigeon's technique of survival had been based on mass tactics. The birds traveled and reproduced in prodigious numbers, satiating predators before any substantial negative impact was made in the bird's population. This colonial way of life and communal breeding became very dangerous when humans became a predator on the flocks. When the passenger pigeons were massed together, especially at a huge nesting site, it was easy for humans to slaughter them in such great numbers that there were not enough birds left to successfully reproduce the species (SI 2001). As their numbers decreased along with their habitat, the birds could no longer rely on high population density for protection. Without this mechanism, many ecologists believe, the species could not survive. As the flocks dwindled in size with resulting breakdown of social facilitation, the species became beyond the point of recovery.
  
The naturalist [[Charles Dury]], of Cincinnati, Ohio, wrote in September 1910:
+
===Coextinction===
{{cquote|One foggy day in October 1884, at 5 a.m. I looked out of my bedroom window, and as  I looked six wild pigeons flew down and perched on the dead branches of a tall poplar tree that stood about one hundred feet away. As I gazed at them in delight, feeling as though old friends had come back, they quickly darted away and disappeared in the fog, the last I ever saw of any of these birds in this vicinity.<ref>
+
An often-cited example of [[coextinction]] is that of the passenger pigeon and its [[parasite|parasitic]] [[louse|lice]] ''[[Columbicola extinctus]]'' and ''Campanulotes defectus''. However, 'C. extinctus'' was rediscovered on the [[band-tailed pigeon]], and ''C. defectus'' was found to be a likely case of mis-identification of the existing ''[[Campanulotes flavus]]'' (Clayton and Price 1999; Price et al. 2000).
{{cite journal
 
|last = Dury
 
|first = Charles
 
|title = The Passenger Pigeon
 
|journal = Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History
 
|volume = 21
 
|month = September
 
|year = 1910
 
|pages = 52-56
 
}}</ref>}}
 
  
==Martha==
+
==Methods of killing==
 
+
[[Image:E. migratorius.jpg|thumb|left|Front view of a live passenger pigeon]]  
The last passenger pigeon, named Martha, died in the [[Cincinnati Zoo]] on September 1, 1914. She was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the [[Smithsonian Institution]], where she was skinned and mounted. Presently, Martha is in the museum's archived collection, and not on display.
+
Diverse method were used for attracting and killing passenger pigeons. In some cases, alcohol-soaked grain was used to bait them, or fires were started beneath their nests (IDNR). One method of killing was to blind a single bird by sewing its eyes shut using a needle and thread. This bird's feet would be attached to a circular stool at the end of a stick that could be raised five or six feet in the air, then dropped back to the ground. As the bird attempted to land, it would flutter its wings, thus attracting the attention of other birds flying overhead. When the flock landed near this decoy bird, nets would trap the birds and the hunters would crush their heads between their thumb and forefinger. This has been claimed as the origin of the term [[informant|stool pigeon]] (Henrici 193), though this etymology is disputed (Quinion 2008).
 
 
==Popular culture==
 
[[Image:Passengerpigeon.jpg|thumb|right|1898 photograph of Passenger Pigeon]]
 
 
 
The dramatic story of the passenger pigeon has taken a strong hold on popular imagingation.  
 
 
 
*The musician [[John Herald]] wrote a song about Martha, "Martha (Last of the Passenger Pigeons)".
 
 
 
*The April 27, 1948 episode of the ''[[Fibber McGee and Molly]]'' radio program is titled "The Passenger Pigeon Trap", in which McGee claims to have seen a passenger pigeon (he insists that the bird is "[[extinct|stinct]]") and plans to trap it in order to sell it to the highest bidder. It turns out to be nothing more than a [[Rock Pigeon|rock pigeon]] (''Columba livia'') sitting on top of a bus, which in McGee's mind makes the pigeon a passenger.
 
 
 
*In "[[The Man Trap (TOS episode)|The Man Trap]]", the premiere episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'', Professor Crater likens the near-extinction of the inhabitants of planet M113 to the demise of the passenger pigeon.
 
 
 
*[[Stephen King]] makes a number of references to the passenger pigeon in the 2005 novel ''[[Cell (novel)|Cell]]''. He uses the pigeon as an allegory to the new human hive mind that develops after the pulse hits the United States.
 
 
 
*In the 1999 movie by [[Jim Jarmusch]], ''[[Ghost Dog|Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai]]'', Louie ([[John Tormey]]) identifies the bird owned by the titular character as a "[[carrier pigeon]]". He is corrected by an elderly [[mafioso]] who shouts, "Passenger pigeon! Passenger pigeon! They've been extinct since 1914!" (The bird was in fact one of the [[homing pigeon]]s Ghost Dog used to transport - "carry" - notes, which explains Louie's misidentification).
 
[[Image:Passenger Pigeons - Vanderbilt.jpg|thumb|right|Male and Female specimens at the [[Vanderbilt Museum]], [[Centerport, New York]].]]
 
*The term "stool pigeon" was first coined when passenger pigeons were captured,  had their eyelids sewn shut, and were tied to stools.  The birds sitting on the stools would be used as live decoys so pigeon hunters would have an easier shot at their quarry. Today, it is a term used for an unscrupulous person giving information about someone's misbehavior or illegal activity [http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/335600.html].
 
 
 
*''Ectopistes migratorius'' is the second chapter of the novel ''Havana Glam'' (2001) by [[Wu Ming]] 5. The reappearance of the pigeons in 1944 is the first signal of the arrival of time travelers from the 21st century [[USA]].
 
 
 
*A description of the passage of a flock of passenger pigeons, and the killing of large numbers of the birds, is given in [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s novel ''[[The Pioneers]]''.  Although this was published in 1823, [[Natty Bumppo]] expresses outrage at people's "wastey ways" and concern about the possible future extinction of the bird.
 
 
 
*The Australian poet Judith Wright wrote a poem called "Lament For Passenger Pigeons."
 
  
*The Indie-Rock band [[PAIN(t)bynumbers]] wrote a song called "Martha, Sweet Martha" in memory of the last passenger pigeon.
+
One of the last large nestings of passenger pigeons was at [[Petoskey, Michigan]], in 1878. Here about 50,000 birds were killed each day and the hunt continued for nearly five months. When the adult birds that survived the slaughter attempted second nestings at new sites, they were located by the professional hunters and killed before they had a chance to raise any young. In 1896, the final flock of 250,000 were killed by [[United States|American]] [[sportsperson|sportsmen]] knowing that it was the last [[flock (birds)|flock]] of that size.
 +
[[Image:ROM-BirdGallery-PassengerPigeon.png|thumb|Stuffed passenger pigeon, Bird Gallery, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.]]
 +
Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter. A bill was passed in the Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within two miles of a nesting area, but the law was weakly enforced. By the mid 1890s, the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared. It was too late to protect them by passing laws. In 1897, a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a ten-year closed season on passenger pigeons. This was a futile gesture. A highly gregarious species, the flock could initiate courtship and reproduction only when they were gathered in large numbers; it was realized only too late that smaller groups of passenger pigeons could not breed successfully, and the surviving numbers proved too few to re-establish the species (SI 2001).  
  
==Place names==
+
==Last survivors==
 +
===Last wild survivors===
 +
[[Image:Ectopistes migratorius.jpg|thumb|left|Live passenger pigeon]]
 +
In 1910, the naturalist Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, wrote (Dury 1910):
 +
<blockquote>One foggy day in October 1884, at 5 a.m. I looked out of my bedroom window, and as  I looked six wild pigeons flew down and perched on the dead branches of a tall poplar tree that stood about one hundred feet away. As I gazed at them in delight, feeling as though old friends had come back, they quickly darted away and disappeared in the fog, the last I ever saw of any of these birds in this vicinity.</blockquote>
  
Across North America, place names refer to the former abundance of the passenger pigeon. Examples include:
+
The last fully authenticated record of a wild bird was near Sargents, [[Pike County, Ohio]], on March 22, 1900 (SI 2001). (The date of March 24 was given in the report by Henniger, but there are many discrepancies with the actual circumstances, meaning he was writing from hearsay. A curator's note that apparently derives from an old specimen label has March 22. However, there were many unconfirmed sightings reported in the first decade of the twentieth century (Howell 1924; McKinley 1960). From 1909 to 1912, a reward was offered for a living specimen (NYT 1910); no specimens were found. However, unconfirmed sightings continued up to about 1930 (SNL 1930).  
* Crockford Pigeon Mountain, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
 
* [[Mimico]], a neighborhood of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The name means "The Place of the Passenger Pigeons" in the language of the [[Mississauga Indian]]s.
 
* [[Pigeon Forge, Tennessee]]
 
* Pigeon Lakes: [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]]
 
* [[Pigeon River]]s in: [[Pigeon River (Minnesota-Ontario)|Minnesota-Ontario]], [[Pigeon River (Tennessee - North Carolina)|North Carolina/Tennessee]], [[Michigan]] (four), and [[Wisconsin]]
 
* Pigeon Roost, [[Indiana]]
 
* Pigeontown, Pennsylvania, now known as [[Blue Bell, Pennsylvania|Blue Bell]]
 
* [[White Pigeon, Michigan]].
 
  
==Coextinction==
+
===Last captive survivor: Martha===
[[Image:PassengerPigeon,FieldMuseum.jpg|thumb|right|Passenger Pigeon specimens can be seen in the [[Field Museum]], [[Chicago]].]]
+
[[Image:Martha last passenger pigeon 1914.jpg|thumb|Martha, the last passenger pigeon.]]  
An often-cited example of [[coextinction]] is that of the passenger pigeon and its [[parasite|parasitic]] [[louse|lice]] ''[[Columbicola extinctus]]'' and ''Campanulotes defectus''. Recently<ref name="Clayton1999">Clayton, D. H., and R. D. Price. 1999. Taxonomy of New World Columbicola (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the Columbiformes (Aves), with descriptions of five new species. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 92:675–685.</ref><ref name="Price2000">Price, R.D., D. H. Clayton, R. J. Adams, J. (2000) Pigeon lice down under: Taxonomy of Australian Campanulotes (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae), with a description of C. durdeni n.sp. Parasitol. 86(5), p 948-950. American Society of Parasitologists. [http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PubsHTML/ClaytonPDF/47.pdf Online pdf]</ref>, ''C. extinctus'' was rediscovered on the [[Band-tailed Pigeon]], and ''C. defectus'' was found to be a likely case of misidentification of the existing ''[[Campanulotes flavus]]''.
+
In 1857, a bill was brought forth to the Ohio State Legislature seeking protection for the passenger pigeon. A Select Committee of the Senate filed a report stating "The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here today and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary destruction can lessen them, or be missed from the myriads that are yearly produced" (Hornaday 1913).  
  
==See also==
+
Fifty-seven years later, on September 1, 1914, Martha, the last known passenger pigeon, died in the [[Cincinnati Zoo]], [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]. Her body was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the [[Smithsonian Institution]], where it was skinned and mounted. Currently, Martha (named after [[Martha Washington]]) is in the museum's archived collection, and not on display (SI 2001).
*[[Extinct birds]]
 
*[[List of extinct animals]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
<references/>
+
* Audubon, J. J. 1946. [http://www.ulala.org/P_Pigeon/Audubon_Pigeon.html On the passenger pigeon.] In J. J. Audubon, ''Birds of America''. New York: Macmillan.
 +
* BNet Business Network (BBN). 2006. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4128/is_200607/ai_n16537303 Gone forever.] ''BNet Business Network''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* Clayton, D. H., and R. D. Price. 1999. Taxonomy of New World Columbicola (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the Columbiformes (Aves), with descriptions of five new species. ''Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am.'' 92: 675–685.
 +
* Dury, C. 1910. The passenger pigeon. ''Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History'' 21: 52–56.
 +
* Eckert, A. W. 1965. ''The Silent Sky: The Incredible Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon''. Lincoln, NE: IUniverse.com. ISBN 0595089631.
 +
* Henrichi, M. 1930. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,752706-2,00.html Stool pigeon.] ''Time.com''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* Hornaday, W. T. 1913: ''Our Vanishing Wild Life. Its Extermination and Preservation''. New York, C. Scribner's Sons.
 +
* Howell, A. H. 1924. [http://www.ulala.org/P_Pigeon/Map_files/Alabama.html Birds of Alabama.] ''Ulala''. Retrieved October 27. 2008.
 +
* Iowa Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). n.d. [http://www.iowadnr.com/education/wldresbs.html Iowa’s wildlife resource base.] ''Iowa Department of Natural Resources''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). 2008. [http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/143545 ''Ectopistes migratorius''.] ''2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* Mann, C. C. 2005. ''1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 140004006X.
 +
* McKinley, D. 1960. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v077n04/p0399-p0420.pdf A history of the passenger pigeon In Missouri.] ''Auk'' 77: 399-420.
 +
* ''New York Times'' (NYT). Three hundred dollars reward; Will be paid for a nesting pair of wild pigeons, a bird so common in the United States fifty years ago that flocks in the migratory period frequently partially obscured the sun from view. How America has lost birds of rare value and how science plans to save those that are left. ''New York Times'' January 16, 1910.
 +
* Price, R. D., D. H. Clayton, and R. J. Adams. 2000. Pigeon lice down under: Taxonomy of Australian Campanulotes (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae), with a description of ''C. durdeni n.sp.''. ''Parasitol.'' 86(5): 948-950.
 +
* Quinion, M. n.d. [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-sto2.htm Stool pigeon.] ''World Wide Words''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* Science Netlinks (SNL). n.d. [http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/pdfs/pigeons1_actsheet.pdf Passenger pigeon timeline.] ''Science Netlinks''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* ''Science News Letters''. 1930. Passenger pigeon. ''Science News Letters'' 17: 136.
 +
* Schorger, A. W. 1955. ''The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction''. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 1930665962.
 +
* Smithsonian Institute (SI), Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History. 2001. [http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/passpig.htm The passenger pigeon.] ''Encyclopedia Smithsonian''. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
 +
* Weidensaul, S. 1994. ''Mountains of the Heart: A Natural History of the Appalachians''. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing. ISBN 1555911439.
  
===Other References===
 
<!-- American Scholar73:57; AmAntiqu68:552; Condor39:12; Condor84:242; Condor108:721; Parmalee 1968: "Cave and Archaeological Deposits..." (PP bones at Modoc Rock Shelter, Illinois); ZoolJLinnSoc128:149 —>
 
* Weidensaul, Scott (1994). ''Mountains of the Heart: A Natural History of the Appalachians''. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing. ISBN 1-55591-143-9.
 
*Eckert, Allan W. (1965). ''The Silent Sky: The Incredible Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon''.  Lincoln NE: IUniverse.com. ISBN 0-595-08963-1.
 
*[[New York Times]]; August 18, 1901, Wednesday; The Hon. Charles T. Dunning of Goshen, ex-Chief Clerk of the New York State Senate, has a fine collection of mounted specimens of birds, and among them is one of a bird that is today extinct, so far as any one has been able to discover, although less than fifteen years ago it was abundant on this continent and to the people of this State was as familiar as sparrows now are.
 
* Schorger, A.W. 1955. The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. Reprinted in paperback, 2004, by Blackburn Press. ISBN 1-930665-96-2. 424 pp.
 
  
==External links==
 
{{Commons|Ectopistes migratorius}}
 
* [http://www.songbird.org/birds/extinct/passpigeon.htm Songbird Foundation: Passenger Pigeon]
 
* [http://extinct.petermaas.nl/ The Extinction Website]
 
* [http://www.passengerpigeon.org/ Passenger Pigeon Society]
 
  
 +
[[Category:Life sciences]]
 +
[[Category:Animals]]
 +
[[Category:Birds]]
  
{{credit|133518949}}
+
{{credit|Passenger_Pigeon|247751190}}

Latest revision as of 18:56, 23 March 2023

Passenger Pigeon
1898 photograph of a live Passenger Pigeon
1898 photograph of a live Passenger Pigeon
Conservation status
Status iucn3.1 EX.svg
Extinct  (1914)

(IUCN)

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Ectopistes
Swainson, 1827
Species: E. migratorius
Binomial name
Ectopistes migratorius
(Linnaeus, 1766)

Passenger pigeon is the common name for an extinct migratory bird, Ectopistes migratorius, of the Columbidae family, that was a very common bird in North America as recently as the mid-nineteenth century. These short-billed, small-headed, social pigeons, about one foot long and with a long-pointed tail, lived in enormous flocks. During migration, billions of birds, in flocks up to a mile wide and hundreds of miles long, could take days to pass overhead. They also are known as wild pigeons.

However, during the nineteenth century, the species went from being one of the most abundant birds in the world, and the most common North American bird, to extinction (IUCN 2004). In 1900, the last wild bird was shot, and in 1914, the last captive bird died in the Cincinnati Zoo. Contributing factors included loss of habitat and food, disease, hunting, and breakdown of social facilitation as flocks declined. A primary factor emerged when pigeon meat was commercialized as a cheap food for slaves and the poor in the nineteenth century, resulting in hunting on a massive scale.

The extinction of the passenger pigeon aroused public interest in the conservation movement and resulted in new laws and practices that have prevented many other species from going extinct.

Description

Chromolithograph illustration of male passenger pigeon.
Female passenger pigeon
Passenger pigeon.
Distribution map of Ectopistes migratorius. In red: Breeding zone; In yellow: Wintering zone

The passenger pigeon was a plump bird, with short legs, a small head, a short neck, and a short and slender bill with two nares that lead to the respiratory system. As with other members of Columbidae, passenger pigeon were monogamous, used pigeons milk to feed their young, and were capable of drinking by sucking up water, without the need to tilt the head backward.

During summer, passenger pigeons lived in forest habitats throughout North America east of the Rocky Mountains: From eastern and central Canada to the northeast United States. In the winters, they migrated to the southern United States and occasionally to Mexico and Cuba.

The passenger pigeon was a very social bird. It lived in colonies stretching over hundreds of square miles, practicing communal breeding with up to a hundred nests in a single tree. Since no accurate data were recorded, it is only possible to give estimates on the size and population of these nesting areas. Each site may have covered many thousands of acres and the birds were so congested in these areas that hundreds of nests could be counted in each tree. One large nesting in Wisconsin was reported as covering 850 square miles, and the number of birds nesting there was estimated to be around 136,000,000.

Pigeon migration, in flocks numbering billions, was a spectacle without parallel. During migration, it was possible to see flocks of them a mile (1.6 km) wide and 300 miles (500 km) long, taking several days to pass and containing up to a billion birds (NYT 1910; BBN 2006). Passenger pigeons had one of the largest groups or flocks of any animal, second only to the desert locust. They became such a threat to farmers that in 1703, the Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec actually formally excommunicated the species (Mann 2005).

There was safety in large flocks. When a flock of this huge a size established itself in an area, the number of local animal predators (such as wolves, foxes, weasels, and hawks) was so small compared to the total number of birds that little damage would be inflicted on the flock as a whole. (Of course, when human beings would become the predators, the large flocks became a detriment, as they were readily hunted in mass.)

Some estimate that there were from 3 billion to 5 passenger pigeons in the United States at the time Europeans arrived in North America, making up about 25 to 40 percent of the total bird population (SI 2001). Others argue that the species had not been common in the Pre-Columbian period, and may even have been a rare species, but their numbers grew when devastation of the American Indian population by European diseases led to reduced competition for food (Mann 2005).

There was a slow decline in their numbers between about 1800 and 1870, followed by a catastrophic decline between 1870 and 1890 (SNL). "Martha," thought to be the world's last passenger pigeon, died on September 1, 1914, in the zoo in Cincinnati, Ohio.

The term "passenger pigeon" in English derives from the French word passager, meaning "to pass by."

Causes of extinction

Passenger Pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, juvenile (left), male (center), female (right).

Multiple causes have been suggested for the extinction of the passenger pigeon. Historically, the primary cause was held to be the commercial exploitation of pigeon meat on a massive scale (SI 2001). However, current examination focuses on the pigeon's loss of habitat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), states the extinction "was ultimately due to the effects of widespread clearance of its mast food, with the proximate causes being Newcastle disease, extensive hunting and the breakdown of social facilitation" (IUCN 2008).

The passenger pigeon has long been hunted. Even prior to colonization, native Americans occasionally used pigeons for meat. In the early 1800s, commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell in the city markets as food, as live targets for trap shooting, and even as agricultural fertilizer.

Once pigeon meat became popular, commercial hunting started on a prodigious scale. The bird painter John James Audubon described the preparations for slaughter at a known pigeon-roosting site (Audobon 1946):

Few pigeons were then to be seen, but a great number of persons, with horses and wagons, guns and ammunition, had already established encampments on the borders. Two farmers from the vicinity of Russelsville, distant more than a hundred miles, had driven upwards of three hundred hogs to be fattened on the pigeons which were to be slaughtered. Here and there, the people employed in plucking and salting what had already been procured, were seen sitting in the midst of large piles of these birds. The dung lay several inches deep, covering the whole extent of the roosting-place.

Nesting passenger pigeon.

Pigeons were shipped by the boxcar-load to the Eastern cities. In New York City, in 1805, a pair of pigeons sold for two cents. Slaves and servants in eighteenth and nineteenth century America often saw no other meat. By the 1850s, it was noticed that the numbers of birds seemed to be decreasing, but still the slaughter continued, accelerating to an even greater level as more railroads and telegraphs were developed after the American Civil War. Three million pigeons were shipped by a single market hunter in the year 1878.

Nest and egg of a passenger pigeon.
Passenger pigeon chick.

Another significant reason for the passenger pigeon's extinction was deforestation. Possibly, the birds also may have suffered from Newcastle disease, an infectious bird disease that was introduced to North America; though the disease was identified in 1926, it has been posited as one of the factors leading to the extinction of the passenger pigeon.

Attempts to revive the species by breeding the surviving captive birds were not successful. The passenger pigeon was a colonial and gregarious bird, practicing communal roosting and communal breeding and needed large numbers for optimum breeding conditions. It was impossible to reestablish the species with just a few captive birds, and the small captive flocks weakened and died. Even when market hunting was discontinued, because it was not longer profitable, thousands of birds had remained in suitable habitat, but these still declined, apparently as a result of the need to nest in large colonies (IDNR).

Young passenger pigeon.

The passenger pigeon's technique of survival had been based on mass tactics. The birds traveled and reproduced in prodigious numbers, satiating predators before any substantial negative impact was made in the bird's population. This colonial way of life and communal breeding became very dangerous when humans became a predator on the flocks. When the passenger pigeons were massed together, especially at a huge nesting site, it was easy for humans to slaughter them in such great numbers that there were not enough birds left to successfully reproduce the species (SI 2001). As their numbers decreased along with their habitat, the birds could no longer rely on high population density for protection. Without this mechanism, many ecologists believe, the species could not survive. As the flocks dwindled in size with resulting breakdown of social facilitation, the species became beyond the point of recovery.

Coextinction

An often-cited example of coextinction is that of the passenger pigeon and its parasitic lice Columbicola extinctus and Campanulotes defectus. However, 'C. extinctus was rediscovered on the band-tailed pigeon, and C. defectus was found to be a likely case of mis-identification of the existing Campanulotes flavus (Clayton and Price 1999; Price et al. 2000).

Methods of killing

Front view of a live passenger pigeon

Diverse method were used for attracting and killing passenger pigeons. In some cases, alcohol-soaked grain was used to bait them, or fires were started beneath their nests (IDNR). One method of killing was to blind a single bird by sewing its eyes shut using a needle and thread. This bird's feet would be attached to a circular stool at the end of a stick that could be raised five or six feet in the air, then dropped back to the ground. As the bird attempted to land, it would flutter its wings, thus attracting the attention of other birds flying overhead. When the flock landed near this decoy bird, nets would trap the birds and the hunters would crush their heads between their thumb and forefinger. This has been claimed as the origin of the term stool pigeon (Henrici 193), though this etymology is disputed (Quinion 2008).

One of the last large nestings of passenger pigeons was at Petoskey, Michigan, in 1878. Here about 50,000 birds were killed each day and the hunt continued for nearly five months. When the adult birds that survived the slaughter attempted second nestings at new sites, they were located by the professional hunters and killed before they had a chance to raise any young. In 1896, the final flock of 250,000 were killed by American sportsmen knowing that it was the last flock of that size.

Stuffed passenger pigeon, Bird Gallery, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.

Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter. A bill was passed in the Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within two miles of a nesting area, but the law was weakly enforced. By the mid 1890s, the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared. It was too late to protect them by passing laws. In 1897, a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a ten-year closed season on passenger pigeons. This was a futile gesture. A highly gregarious species, the flock could initiate courtship and reproduction only when they were gathered in large numbers; it was realized only too late that smaller groups of passenger pigeons could not breed successfully, and the surviving numbers proved too few to re-establish the species (SI 2001).

Last survivors

Last wild survivors

Live passenger pigeon

In 1910, the naturalist Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, wrote (Dury 1910):

One foggy day in October 1884, at 5 a.m. I looked out of my bedroom window, and as I looked six wild pigeons flew down and perched on the dead branches of a tall poplar tree that stood about one hundred feet away. As I gazed at them in delight, feeling as though old friends had come back, they quickly darted away and disappeared in the fog, the last I ever saw of any of these birds in this vicinity.

The last fully authenticated record of a wild bird was near Sargents, Pike County, Ohio, on March 22, 1900 (SI 2001). (The date of March 24 was given in the report by Henniger, but there are many discrepancies with the actual circumstances, meaning he was writing from hearsay. A curator's note that apparently derives from an old specimen label has March 22. However, there were many unconfirmed sightings reported in the first decade of the twentieth century (Howell 1924; McKinley 1960). From 1909 to 1912, a reward was offered for a living specimen (NYT 1910); no specimens were found. However, unconfirmed sightings continued up to about 1930 (SNL 1930).

Last captive survivor: Martha

Martha, the last passenger pigeon.

In 1857, a bill was brought forth to the Ohio State Legislature seeking protection for the passenger pigeon. A Select Committee of the Senate filed a report stating "The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here today and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary destruction can lessen them, or be missed from the myriads that are yearly produced" (Hornaday 1913).

Fifty-seven years later, on September 1, 1914, Martha, the last known passenger pigeon, died in the Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio. Her body was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the Smithsonian Institution, where it was skinned and mounted. Currently, Martha (named after Martha Washington) is in the museum's archived collection, and not on display (SI 2001).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Audubon, J. J. 1946. On the passenger pigeon. In J. J. Audubon, Birds of America. New York: Macmillan.
  • BNet Business Network (BBN). 2006. Gone forever. BNet Business Network. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • Clayton, D. H., and R. D. Price. 1999. Taxonomy of New World Columbicola (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the Columbiformes (Aves), with descriptions of five new species. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 92: 675–685.
  • Dury, C. 1910. The passenger pigeon. Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History 21: 52–56.
  • Eckert, A. W. 1965. The Silent Sky: The Incredible Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon. Lincoln, NE: IUniverse.com. ISBN 0595089631.
  • Henrichi, M. 1930. Stool pigeon. Time.com. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • Hornaday, W. T. 1913: Our Vanishing Wild Life. Its Extermination and Preservation. New York, C. Scribner's Sons.
  • Howell, A. H. 1924. Birds of Alabama. Ulala. Retrieved October 27. 2008.
  • Iowa Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). n.d. Iowa’s wildlife resource base. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). 2008. Ectopistes migratorius. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • Mann, C. C. 2005. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 140004006X.
  • McKinley, D. 1960. A history of the passenger pigeon In Missouri. Auk 77: 399-420.
  • New York Times (NYT). Three hundred dollars reward; Will be paid for a nesting pair of wild pigeons, a bird so common in the United States fifty years ago that flocks in the migratory period frequently partially obscured the sun from view. How America has lost birds of rare value and how science plans to save those that are left. New York Times January 16, 1910.
  • Price, R. D., D. H. Clayton, and R. J. Adams. 2000. Pigeon lice down under: Taxonomy of Australian Campanulotes (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae), with a description of C. durdeni n.sp.. Parasitol. 86(5): 948-950.
  • Quinion, M. n.d. Stool pigeon. World Wide Words. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • Science Netlinks (SNL). n.d. Passenger pigeon timeline. Science Netlinks. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • Science News Letters. 1930. Passenger pigeon. Science News Letters 17: 136.
  • Schorger, A. W. 1955. The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 1930665962.
  • Smithsonian Institute (SI), Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History. 2001. The passenger pigeon. Encyclopedia Smithsonian. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
  • Weidensaul, S. 1994. Mountains of the Heart: A Natural History of the Appalachians. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing. ISBN 1555911439.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.