Difference between revisions of "Parapsychology" - New World Encyclopedia

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The term '''parapsychology''' refers to the scientific study of certain [[paranormal]] phenomena, referred to as "Psi" phenomena. The scientific reality of parapsychological phenomena and the validity of scientific parapsychological research is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism. The field is regarded by some critics as a [[pseudoscience]]. Parapsychologists, in turn, say that parapsychological research is [[science|scientifically]] rigorous. Despite the controversy, a number of organizations and academic programs have been created to conduct research into the existence, nature, and frequency of occurrence of such phenomena. Thus, while the explanation of such phenomena still eludes scientific understanding, the possibility that human beings may have [[sense]]s beyond the known physical senses that allow [[communication]] of information is recognized as worthy of study.
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==Scope==
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The term '''parapsychology''' refers to the scientific study of certain [[paranormal]] phenomena. Coined in [[German]] by [[psychologist]] [[Max Dessoir]] in 1889, the term was adopted into [[English]] by researcher [[J. B. Rhine]], and has largely superseded the older expression, "psychical research." In contemporary research, the term "parapsychology" refers to the study of [[Psi]], a blanket term used by parapsychologists to denote paranormal processes or causation.<ref>Parapsychological Association, [http://parapsych.org/glossary_l_r.html#p Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology.] Retrieved May 1, 2007</ref>
  
The term '''parapsychology''' refers to the scientific study of certain [[paranormal]] phenomena. Coined in [[German]] by psychologist [[Max Dessoir]] in 1889, the term was adopted into [[English]] by researcher [[J. B. Rhine]], and has largely superseded the older expression "psychical research". In contemporary research, the term 'parapsychology' refers to the study of [[Psi (parapsychology)|psi]], a blanket term used by parapsychologists to denote paranormal processes or causation.<ref>[http://parapsych.org/glossary_l_r.html#p  "Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology"] Parapsychological Association. Retrieved May 1, 2007</ref>
 
 
The scientific reality of parapsychological phenomena and the validity of scientific parapsychological research is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism. The field is regarded by some critics as a [[pseudoscience]]. Parapsychologists, in turn, say that parapsychological [[research]] is [[science|scientifically]] rigorous. Despite such controversy, a number of organizations and academic programs have been created to conduct parapsychological research.
 
 
==Scope==
 
 
The types of anomalies studied by parapsychology fall into three main categories:
 
The types of anomalies studied by parapsychology fall into three main categories:
  
* '''Mental Phenomena''': Often described as [[extrasensory perception]], this category includes unusual mental states or abilities such as [[telepathy]], [[clairvoyance]], [[precognition]], [[psychometry]], [[medium (spirituality)|mediumship]], [[clairaudience]], and [[clairsentience]], among others. These types of phenomena involve some type of information transfer occurring outside the confines of the traditional [[five senses]].
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* '''Mental :''' Often described as [[extrasensory perception]], this category includes unusual [[mental]] states or abilities, such as [[telepathy]], [[clairvoyance]], [[precognition]], [[psychometry]], [[medium (spirituality)|mediumship]], [[clairaudience]], and [[clairsentience]], among others. These types of phenomena involve some form of information transfer occurring outside the confines of the traditional five [[sense]]s.
  
* '''Physical Phenomena''': This category includes unusual physical occurrences, such as [[psychokinesis]] (often referred to as telekinesis), [[poltergeist]]s, [[materialization (parapsychology)|materializations]], and [[bio-PK]] (direct mental interactions with living systems). These types of phenomena often involve the mind influencing its physical surroundings.
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* '''Physical Phenomena:''' This category includes unusual physical occurrences, such as [[psychokinesis]] (often referred to as telekinesis), [[poltergeist]]s, [[ectoplasm|materialization]]s, and [[bio-PK]] (direct mental interactions with living systems). These types of phenomena involve the [[mind]] influencing its physical surroundings as well as physical manifestations from unknown sources.
  
* '''Survival Phenomena''': Survival phenomena deal with the survival of consciousness after physical death. Included in this category are [[ghost]]s, [[out-of-body experience]]s (OBEs) (also known as [[astral projection]]s), [[reincarnation]] and [[near-death experience]]s (NDEs).
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* '''Survival Phenomena:''' Survival phenomena deal with the survival of [[consciousness]] after physical death. Included in this category are [[ghost]]s, [[out-of-body experience]]s (OBEs) (also known as [[astral projection]]s), [[reincarnation]], and [[near-death experience]]s (NDEs).
  
While these three categories are common, individual organizations may have their own standards for determining the scope of parapsychology. Additionally, subjects may fall into different categories for different researchers. For example, some parapsychologists believe that ghosts are evidence of the survival of consciousness, but others believe them to be psychic impressions left by living people. There are also a number of paranormal topics that are considered by most to be out of the scope of parapsychology, such as [[Bigfoot]] and other [[legendary creature]]s which fall within the purview of [[cryptozoology]].
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While these three categories are common, individual organizations may have their own standards for determining the scope of parapsychology. Additionally, subjects may fall into different categories for different researchers. For example, some parapsychologists believe that ghosts are evidence of the survival of consciousness, but others believe them to be psychic impressions left by living people. There are also a number of paranormal topics that are considered by most to be out of the scope of parapsychology, such as [[Bigfoot]] and other [[legendary creature]]s, which fall within the purview of [[cryptozoology]].
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
===Early Psychical Research===
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===Early psychical research===
Parapsychology has a rich history dating back to at least the 1800s in both the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]]. While psi phenomena were certainly observed throughout most of human history, it wasn't until during the [[Spiritualist Movement]] of the mid-nineteenth century that researchers first began to take an significant interest in psychic phenomena.
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Parapsychology has a rich history dating back to at least the 1800s in both the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]]. While [[psi]] phenomena were certainly observed throughout most of human history, it was not until during the [[Spiritualist Movement]] of the mid-nineteenth century that researchers first began to take an significant interest in psychic phenomena.  
 
 
Before the Spiritualist Movement, there had been some investigation into psi phenomena by the followers of [[Franz Anton Mesmer]] (1734-1815 C.E.), who believed that forces he termed "animal magnetism" could be manipulated to heal illness. In the 1780's one of Mesmer's followers, the [[Marquis de Puységur]], discovered a state he termed "experimental [[somnambulism]]" (later termed "[[hypnosis]]") in peasants that he had attempted to "magnetize." While in this state, patients demonstrated [[telepathy|telepathic]] abilities, vision with the fingertips, and clairvoyance.<ref>Luiz Saraiva, [http://www.geae.inf.br/en/boletins/sm008.html "Bibliography of Scientific Research on the Spirit Phenomena"] (GEAE June 1998). Retrieved May 1, 2007.</ref> It should be noted that the early magnetists believed that the telepathy and clairvoyance demonstrated by the entranced subjects had a physiological cause, and were not paranormal in nature.<ref>[http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/m/mesmerism.html "Mesmerism"] The Mystic. Retrieved May 1, 2007.</ref>
 
 
 
With the Spiritualist Movement came an influx of purported psychic phenomena. [[Mediumship]] was nearly ubiquitous throughout England, parts of Europe, and the United States, and prominent members of the scientific community began to investigate the validity of such phenomena. The early psychical researchers concerned themselves with studying [[Mediumship|mediums]] and other spiritualist claims. The need for a learned, scientific society to study psychic phenomena started to become evident, and in 1882, the [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR) was founded in London. Similar societies were soon set up in most other countries in Europe as well as the American SPR in the United States. While most of the early SPR research had an anecdotal flavor, where experiments involved testing the abilities of specific mediums and other "gifted individuals" with claimed psychic abilities, there were some [[probability|probabilistic]] experiments involving card guessing and dice throwing. But it was not until the efforts of [[J. B. Rhine]] and his colleagues in the 1930's that the term 'parapsychology' began to replace the term 'psychical research'.
 
  
===Parapsychology as Scientific Inquiry===
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Before the Spiritualist Movement, there had been some investigation into psi phenomena by the followers of [[Franz Anton Mesmer]], who believed that forces he termed "animal magnetism" could be manipulated to heal illness. In the 1780s, one of Mesmer's followers, the [[Marquis de Puységur]], discovered a state he termed "experimental [[somnambulism]]" (later termed "[[hypnosis]]") in those that he had attempted to "magnetize." While in this state, patients demonstrated [[telepathy|telepathic]] abilities, vision with the fingertips, and [[clairvoyance]].<ref>Luiz Saraiva, [http://www.geae.inf.br/en/boletins/sm008.html Bibliography of Scientific Research on the Spirit Phenomena] (GEAE June 1998). Retrieved May 1, 2007.</ref> It should be noted that the early magnetists believed that the telepathy and clairvoyance demonstrated by the entranced subjects had a physiological cause, and were not paranormal in nature.<ref>The Mystic, [http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/m/mesmerism.html Mesmerism.] Retrieved May 1, 2007.</ref>
  
Although parapsychology has its roots in earlier field research, the experiments by [[J. B. Rhine]] at Duke University are often thought of as the beginning of parapsychology as a science. Rhine is perhaps best known for his methodology of using card-guessing and dice-rolling experiments in the laboratory in an attempt to find a statistical validation of [[extra-sensory perception]].<ref>Melton, J. Gordon (ed.). 1996. "Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology" Gale Research, ISBN 0-8103-5487-X</ref> This type of experimental approach has characterized much of contemporary parapsychology. Rhine also popularized the term "[[extra-sensory perception]]" (ESP).<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#e Parapsychological Association Glossary of Parapsychological terms, Retrieved May 4, 2007</ref>
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With the Spiritualist Movement came an influx of purported psychic phenomena. [[Mediumship]] was nearly ubiquitous throughout England, parts of Europe, and the United States, and prominent members of the scientific community began to investigate the validity of such phenomena. The early psychical researchers concerned themselves with studying mediums and other spiritualist claims. The need for a learned, scientific society to study psychic phenomena started to become evident, and in 1882, the [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR) was founded in [[London]]. Similar societies were soon set up in most other countries in Europe as well as the American SPR in the United States, founded with the support of [[William James]]. While most of the early SPR research had an anecdotal flavor, where experiments involved testing the abilities of specific mediums and other "gifted individuals" with claimed psychic abilities, there were some [[probability|probabilistic]] experiments involving card guessing and dice throwing. However, it was not until the efforts of [[J. B. Rhine]] and his colleagues in the 1930s that the term "parapsychology" began to replace the term "psychical research," and concerted efforts were made to adopt [[scientific method|scientific methodology]].
  
The so called "Rhine revolution" attempted to accomplish several things. Not only did Rhine attempt to provide parapsychology with a systematic, ''progressive'' program of sound experimentation which tried to characterize the conditions and extent of psi phenomena rather than merely trying to prove their existence, but he also wanted to give the field of parapsychology academic and scientific legitimacy. Rhine helped form the first long-term university laboratory devoted to parapsychology in the Duke University Laboratory, and later founded the independent Rhine Research Center. As a result of Rhine's work, much of experimental parapsychology today is geared toward "ordinary people" as subjects rather than a few select mediums or "gifted psychics." Rhine also helped found the ''Journal of Parapsychology'' in 1937, which has remained one of the most respected journals in the field, and the [[Parapsychological Association]] in 1957, an association that was accepted into the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS) in 1969.
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===Parapsychology as scientific inquiry===
  
During the 1970's, a number of other notable parapsychological organizations were formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute for Noetic Sciences (1973), and the International Kirlian Research Association (1975). Each of these groups performed experiments on paranormal subjects to varying degrees. Parapsychological work was also conducted at the [[Stanford Research Institute]] during this time.
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Although parapsychology has its roots in earlier field research, such as the work of Sir [[Oliver Lodge]] in England, the experiments by [[J. B. Rhine]] at Duke University are often thought of as the beginning of parapsychology as a science. Rhine is perhaps best known for his methodology of using card-guessing and dice-rolling experiments in the laboratory in an attempt to find a [[statistics|statistical]] validation of [[extra-sensory perception]].<ref>J. Gordon Melton, ''Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology'' (Gale Research, 1996). ISBN 081035487X </ref> This type of experimental approach has characterized much of contemporary parapsychology. Rhine also popularized the term "extra-sensory perception" (ESP).<ref>Parapsychological Association, [http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#e Glossary of Parapsychological Terms.] Retrieved May 4, 2007.</ref>
  
With the increase in parapsychological investigation, there came an increase in organized opposition to both the findings of parapsychologists and to granting of any formal recognition of the field. Criticisms of the field were focused in the founding of the [[CSICOP|Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]] (1976), now called the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] (CSI), and its periodical, ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]''.<ref>Melton, J. Gordon (ed). 1996. 'Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology' Gale Research, ISBN 0-8103-5487-X</ref> CSI continues to review parapsychological work and raise objections where it is felt necessary.
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The so called "Rhine revolution" attempted to accomplish several things. Not only did Rhine attempt to provide parapsychology with a systematic, "progressive" program of sound experimentation, which would characterize the conditions and extent of psi phenomena rather than merely trying to prove their existence, but he also wanted to give the field of parapsychology academic and scientific legitimacy. Rhine helped form the first long-term [[university]] laboratory devoted to parapsychology in the Duke University Laboratory, and later founded the independent Rhine Research Center. As a result of Rhine's work, much of experimental parapsychology today is geared toward "ordinary people" as subjects rather than a few select mediums or "gifted psychics." Rhine also helped found the ''Journal of Parapsychology'' in 1937, which has remained one of the most respected journals in the field, and the [[Parapsychological Association]] in 1957, an association that was accepted into the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS) in 1969.  
  
==Experimental Research and Methodology==
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During the 1970s, a number of other notable parapsychological organizations were formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute for Noetic Sciences (1973), and the International Kirlian Research Association (1975). Each of these groups performed experiments on paranormal subjects to varying degrees. Parapsychological work was also conducted at the [[Stanford University|Stanford Research Institute]] during this time.
  
A number of experiments have been conducted to test for parapsychological phenomena, utilizing a wide range of methodologies. Experiments such as [[J. B. Rhine]]'s card guessing tests for [[ESP]] have undergone various changes in methodology and technique, but are still often used by researchers, often on computers.
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With the increase in parapsychological investigation, there came an increase in organized opposition to both the findings of parapsychologists and to granting of any formal recognition of the field. Criticisms of the field were focused in the founding of the [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]] (CSICOP) in 1976, now called the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] (CSI), and its periodical, ''Skeptical Inquirer''. CSI continues to review parapsychological work and raise objections where it is felt necessary.
  
Some of the first studies in what would be later termed ESP were conducted by [[William Barrett]] in 1881, shortly before he assisted in the founding of the Society for Psychical Research. Barrett investigated the case of the five Creery sisters, who were between the ages of ten and seventeen and could apparently use telepathy to psychically identify an object that had been selected in their absence. After sending one sister out of the room, Barrett would write the name of an object on a piece of paper, which he would then show to the remaining sisters. The first girl was then called back in, and usually correctly guessed the name of the object. Later, a second set of experiments was done involving playing cards. It was not until after the investigators had published their results that it was discovered that the girls had used a number of signals, including slight head movements and coughing, to tell their sister what to guess, thereby nullifying the results of the experiments.<ref>Price, Harry. [http://www.psychicsoul.org/articles.php?action=show&id=378&perpage=1&pagenum=1"The Story of ESP"] Psychic Soul. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
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==Experimental research and methodology==
  
In the 1920's, investigator G.N.M. Tyrrell created automated devices to randomize target selection, and others experimented with drawings or [[token objects]]. The most well-known results, however, were not until the 1930's, when Rhine began his series of experiments. To test ESP, Rhine would use decks of [[Zener cards]], consisting of five different designs. In some experiments, cards were laid face down for the subject to guess, to test clairvoyance; in others, the researcher would hold the card so could see it, to test telepathy. Because of the laws of chance, it would be expected that participants would be able to guess one out of five symbols correctly, but Rhine found that subjects often exceeded these expectations, even if it was only by a small percentage.  
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Some of the first studies in what would be later termed ESP were conducted by [[William Barrett]] in 1881, shortly before he assisted in the founding of the Society for Psychical Research. Barrett investigated the case of the five Creery sisters, who were between the ages of ten and seventeen and could apparently use [[telepathy]] to psychically identify an object that had been selected in their absence. After sending one sister out of the room, Barrett would write the name of an object on a piece of paper, which he would then show to the remaining sisters. The first girl was then called back in, and usually correctly guessed the name of the object. Later, a second set of experiments was done involving playing cards. It was not until after the investigators had published their results that it was discovered that the girls had used a number of signals, including slight head movements and coughing, to tell their sister what to guess, thereby nullifying the results of the experiments.<ref>Harry Price, [http://www.psychicsoul.org/articles.php?action=show&id=378&perpage=1&pagenum=1 The Story of ESP.] Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
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[[Image:Cartas Zener.svg|thumb|250px|right|'''Zener cards''']]
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In the 1920s, investigator G. N. M. Tyrrell created automated devices to randomize target selection, and others experimented with drawings or [[token objects]]. The most well-known results, however, were not until the 1930s, when Rhine began his series of experiments. To test ESP, Rhine would use decks of [[Zener cards]], consisting of five different designs. In some experiments, cards were laid face down for the subject to guess, to test [[clairvoyance]]; in others, the researcher would hold the card so only he could see it, to test telepathy. Because of the laws of chance, it would be expected that participants would be able to guess one out of five symbols correctly, but Rhine found that subjects often exceeded these expectations, even if it was only by a small percentage.
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[[Image:Ganzfeld.jpg|frame|left|Participant in a [[Ganzfeld|Ganzfeld Experiment]] which proponents say may show evidence of [[telepathy]].]]
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In the 1970s, parapsychologists began using [[ganzfeld tests]] to test for ESP ability. Ganzfeld tests attempt to test for telepathy by separating two individuals into isolated rooms, where one attempts to send a telepathic image to the other. The sender of the message is generally shown either a still image or a short video clip, which they then attempt to send to the receiver. The receiver sits in a comfortable reclining chair under a red light, wearing headphones that play [[white noise]] or [[pink noise]], and with their eyes covered with halves of [[ping pong balls]]. These conditions help the receiver enter what is termed the "ganzfeld state," a trance-like state similar to being in a [[sensory deprivation]] chamber. After the sender has attempted to send the image for a set amount of time (generally 20 to 40 minutes), the receiver is asked to choose the correct image out of a group of four images. Parapsychologists collected the results of approximately 700 individual ganzfeld sessions performed by about two dozen investigators, and claimed the correct image was selected 34 percent of the time.<ref>Dean Radin, [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~sai/FAQpara2.htm#9.3 Parapsychology FAQ: Part 2.] Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref> This increase above the 25 percent that would be expected from chance alone has been cited as proof of the existence of telepathy, although critics point out numerous ways in which ganzfeld experiments may be flawed.
  
In the 1970's, parapsychologists began using [[ganzfeld tests]] to test for ESP ability. Ganzfeld tests attempt to test for [[telepathy]] by separating two individuals into isolated rooms, where one attempts to send a telepathic image to the other. The sender of the message is generally shown either a still image or a short video clip, which he/she then attempts to send to the receiver. The receiver sits in a comfortable reclining chair under a red light, wearing headphones that play [[white noise]] or [[pink noise]], and has his/her eyes covered with halves of [[ping pong balls]]. These conditions help the receiver enter what is termed the "ganzfeld state", a trance-like state similar to being in a [[sensory deprivation]] chamber. After the sender has attempted to send the image for a set number of time (generally 20 to 40 minutes), the receiver is asked to choose the correct image out of a group of four images. Parapsychologists have collected the results of approximately 700 individual ganzfeld sessions performed by about two dozen investigators, and claim the correct image is selected 34% of the time.<ref>Radin, Dean. 1997. [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~sai/FAQpara2.htm#9.3 "Parapsychology FAQ: Part 2"] Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref> This increase above the 25% that would be expected from chance alone has been cited as proof of the existence of telepathy, although critics point out numerous ways in which ganzfeld experiments may be flawed.
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Researchers have found that ESP abilities are apparently heightened under [[hypnosis]]. The results of experiments have been found to be consistently higher when subjects are put into trance than when they retain normal consciousness. Since hypnosis typically involves relaxation and suggestion in an atmosphere of friendliness and trust, it is thought that perhaps one of these factors, or a combination thereof, may be responsible for heightened psi scores.<ref>Jeffrey Mishlove, [http://www.williamjames.com/Science/ESP.htm Extrasensory Perception (ESP).] Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
  
Researchers have found that ESP abilities are apparently heightened under hypnosis. The results of experiments have been found to be consistently higher when subjects are put into trance than when they retain normal consciousness. Since hypnosis typically involves relaxation and suggestion in an atmosphere of friendliness and trust, it is thought that perhaps one of these factors, or a combination thereof, may be responsible for heightened psi scores.<ref>Mishlove, Jeffrey. [http://www.williamjames.com/Science/ESP.htm "Extrasensory Perception (ESP)] William James Bookstore. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
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The absence of psi ability is also sometimes considered significant. Researchers employ the term "[[psi-missing]]" to denote situations where the subject consistently scores below what would be expected by chance. According to experimental results, believers in psi tend to score higher, whereas skeptics often score significantly below chance. This phenomenon, referred to as the "Sheep-goat effect" (where believers are "sheep" and non-believers are "goats"), has been observed by many researchers. This phenomenon lends itself to the idea that one's [[attitude]]s may affect one's reality; disbelievers may create a void of psi experiences, while believers experience the opposite.<ref>Mario Varvoglis, [http://www.parapsych.org/sheep_goat_effect.htm The Sheep-Goat Effect.] Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
 
 
The absence of psi ability is also sometimes considered significant. Researchers employ the term "[[psi-missing]]" to denote situations where the subject consistently scores below what would be expected by chance. According to experimental results, believers in psi tend to score higher, whereas skeptics often score significantly below chance. This phenomenon, referred to as the "Sheep-goat effect" (where believers are "sheep" and non-believers are "goats"), has been observed by many researchers. This phenomenon lends itself to the idea that one's attitudes may affect one's reality; disbelievers may create a void of psi experiences, while believers experience the opposite.<ref>Varvoglis, Mario. [http://www.parapsych.org/sheep_goat_effect.htm "The Sheep-Goat Effect"] Parapsychological Association. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
 
  
 
Computers are often used in testing for abilities like [[psychokinesis]], where subjects attempt to influence the output of [[random number generator]]s. Computers can help rule out a number of possible corruptions of methodology that can occur with human administration of tests. Despite controversy over parapsychological work, new experiments and a refinement of older methodologies continue in the field.
 
Computers are often used in testing for abilities like [[psychokinesis]], where subjects attempt to influence the output of [[random number generator]]s. Computers can help rule out a number of possible corruptions of methodology that can occur with human administration of tests. Despite controversy over parapsychological work, new experiments and a refinement of older methodologies continue in the field.
  
==Government Investigations into Parapsychology==
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==Criticism and debate==
 
 
Around 1970, the [[CIA]] began to get concerned about the amount of research the [[Soviet Union]] was doing in paranormal subject areas. Since the 1950's, the Soviets had set up a number of research centers to study the applications of what was referred to as "psychotronic" research, with the intent to perform mental spying, as well as long distance mind control and telepathic assassination. By 1970, the Soviets were spending approximately 60 million rubles on psychotronic research.<ref>O'Donnell, Gerald. 2007. [http://www.probablefuture.com/p52.htm "Remote Viewing Archives"] Academy of Remote Viewing through Space and Time. Retrieved May 1, 2007.</ref> Concerns about the potential success of Soviet research prompted the [[United States]] to launch a series of programs themselves. The initial program, named "SCANATE" (scan by coordinate) was first funded in 1970 to research remote viewing (the ability to clairvoyantly observe a remote location). Testing was limited to just a few promising individuals, who were taught to use their talents for "psychic warfare." Proponents claim that, particularly in the later stages of the training, the accuracy of remote viewing exceeded 65 percent.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/stargate.htm "Stargate"] FAS Intelligence Resource Program. Retrieved April 23, 2007.</ref>
 
 
 
The remote viewing program, later known as "[[STAR GATE]]," carried out hundreds of experiments. Three main techniques for acquiring information were used: Coordinate Remote Viewing, where subjects were asked what they "saw" at designated locations, Extended Remote Viewing, which used a combination of relaxation and meditation, and Written Remote Viewing, which combined [[channeling]] and [[automatic writing]]. This last method was the most controversial and often regarded as the least reliable. Remote viewers allegedly located lost [[aircraft]], reported information on enemy [[submarine]] specs, and located [[SCUD missiles]].<ref>[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/stargate.htm "Stargate"] FAS Intelligence Resource Program. Retrieved April 23, 2007.</ref>
 
 
 
In 1995, the CIA commissioned a report from two experts to evaluate the past performance of the STARGATE program. Various techniques used by the program were evaluated, such as the [[ganzfeld]] method and the "beacon and viewer" method, where the subject (viewer) consciously tried to retrieve images sent by an operative (beacon) who would travel to a location or look at a picture in ''[[National Geographic Magazine]]''. One of the commissioned experts, Jessica Utts, a [[statistics|statistician]], found that such tests proved remote viewing to be a real and measurable phenomenon. The other expert, Raymond Hyman, a [[psychologist]], asserted that STAR GATE had proved nothing, and that deviations from a chance baseline do not constitute proof. However, Hyman agreed that testing methods were sound, and that findings were promising enough to merit continued research.<ref>D. Trull, 1998. [http://web.archive.org/web/20060501072612/http:/www.parascope.com/en/articles/starGate.htm "Operation Star Gate: U.S. Intelligence and Psychic Spies"] ParaScope. Retrieved May 4, 2007.</ref>
 
  
==Criticism==
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Many professional scientists study parapsychological phenomena. It is an interdisciplinary field, attracting [[psychologists]], [[physics|physicists]], [[engineering|engineer]]s, and [[biology|biologists]], as well as those from other sciences. Despite this, parapsychology is often accused of being [[pseudoscience]]. Skeptical scholars like [[Raymond Hyman]] and [[James E. Alcock]] have pointed out several problems with viewing parapsychology as a true science.
  
Many professional scientists study parapsychology. It is an interdisciplinary field, attracting [[psychology|psychologists]], [[physics|physicists]], [[engineer]]s, and [[biology|biologists]], as well as those from other sciences. Despite this, parapsychology is often accused of being [[pseudoscience]]. Skeptical scholars like [[Ray Hyman]] and James E. Alcock have pointed out several problems with viewing parapsychology as a true science. One of the most glaring problems facing parapsychologists is the fact that few psi experiments are replicable. Parapsychologists argue that psi phenomena are indeed real, but do not lend themselves to experimental replication. Hyman also points out that, unlike every other branch of science, parapsychology has a shifting, rather than cumulative, database. Historical experiments and results are often discarded and found not to be valid. Some, like the case of the telepathic [[Creery sisters]], are proven to be fraud, others are considered to have had flawed methodology. Unlike other sciences, parapsychology relies heavily on "statistical inference" to prove its case. In other sciences, slight deviations from chance that follow no set pattern or rules and cannot be reliably replicated are usually abandoned.<ref>Hyman, Ray. September 11, 1995.[http://www.mceagle.com/remote-viewing/refs/science/air/hyman.html "Evaluation of Program on Anomalous Mental Phenomena"] Retrieved May 7, 2007</ref>  Noted skeptic James E. Alcock also questions the significance of such deviations from chance, suggesting that there is a logical fallacy in assuming that significant departures from the laws of chance are automatically evidence that something paranormal has occurred.<ref>Carroll, Robert Todd. [http://skepdic.com/psiassumption.html "Psi Assumption"] The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved May 7, 2007</ref>
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One of the most glaring problems facing parapsychologists is the fact that few psi experiments can be replicated. Parapsychologists argue that psi phenomena are indeed real, but do not lend themselves to experimental replication. Hyman also points out that, unlike every other branch of science, parapsychology has a shifting, rather than cumulative, database. Historical experiments and results are often discarded and found not to be valid. Some, like the case of the telepathic [[Creery sisters]], were proven to be [[fraud]], while others are considered to have had flawed methodology. Unlike other sciences, parapsychology relies heavily on "statistical inference" to prove its case. In other sciences, slight deviations from chance that follow no set pattern or rules and cannot be reliably replicated are usually abandoned.<ref>Ray Hyman, [http://www.mceagle.com/remote-viewing/refs/science/air/hyman.html Evaluation of Program on Anomalous Mental Phenomena.] Retrieved May 7, 2007</ref>  
  
Proponents of parapsychology such as [[Jessica Utts]] and Dean Radin counter these arguments. In a response to Hyman, Proffessor Utts claims that several branches of science are based on the observation of unexplainable anomalies, including [[quantum mechanics]]. She argues that parapsychology does, in fact, build upon previous experiments, learning from them and using that knowledge to design better experiments. Additionally, the statistical nature of psi experiments is more similar to the connection of cigarette smoking to lung cancer; a result that would also be impossible to "replicate" in an individual experiment.<ref>Utts, Jessica. September 15, 1995. [http://anson.ucdavis.edu/~utts/response.html "
+
Noted skeptic James E. Alcock also questioned the significance of such deviations from chance, suggesting that there is a logical fallacy in assuming that significant departures from the laws of chance are automatically evidence that something paranormal has occurred.<ref>Robert Todd Carroll, [http://skepdic.com/psiassumption.html Psi Assumption.] Retrieved May 7, 2007</ref>
Response to Ray Hyman's Report"] Retrieved May 7, 2007.</ref>
 
  
 +
Proponents of parapsychology counter these arguments suggesting that several branches of science are based on the observation of unexplainable anomalies, including [[quantum mechanics]]. Utts has argued that parapsychology does, in fact, build upon previous experiments, learning from them and using that knowledge to design better experiments. Additionally, the statistical nature of psi experiments is more similar to the connection of [[cigarette]] smoking to [[lung]] [[cancer]]; a result that would also be impossible to "replicate" in an individual experiment.<ref>Jessica Utts, [http://anson.ucdavis.edu/~utts/response.html Response to Ray Hyman's Report.] Retrieved May 7, 2007.</ref>
  
== Notes ==
+
==Parapsychological journals and research centers==
<references/>
+
There exist numerous journals and research centers whose aim is to further developments in the field of parapsychology. Among the peer-reviewed journals dealing with parapsychology are the ''The Journal of Parapsychology,'' the ''Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research,'' the ''Journal of the Society for Psychical Research,'' the ''European Journal of Parapsychology,'' the ''International Journal of Parapsychology,'' and the ''Journal of Scientific Exploration.''
  
==Bibliography==
+
There are also numerous research centers, both [[Parapsychology#Independent research organizations|independent]] and affiliated with [[Parapsychology#University research organizations|universities]] worldwide.<ref>Koestler Parapsychology Unit, [http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/~info/ResearchCentres.php3 Research Centres.] Retrieved May 8, 2007.</ref>
* ''Parapsychology: Science or Magic?'' by James E. Alcock, Pergamon Press, 1981 ISBN 0-08-025773-9
 
* ''Parapsychology'', by Rene Sudre, Citadel Press, NY, 1960, Library of Congress Catalog 60-13928.
 
* ''Parapsychology'', by [[Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi]], Al-Kitaab Publication, 1985.
 
* ''The Conscious Universe'', by [[Dean Radin]], Harper Collins, 1997, ISBN 0-06-251502-0.
 
* ''Parapsychology: A Concise History'', by [[John Beloff]], St. Martin's Press, 1993, ISBN 0-312-09611-9.
 
* ''Parapsychology: The Controversial Science'', by [[Richard S. Broughton]], Ballantine Books, 1991, ISBN 0-345-35638-1.
 
* ''Our Sixth Sense'', by [[Charles Robert Richet]], Rider & Co., 1937, First English Edition
 
*  ''The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research'', by [[Ray Hyman]], Prometheus Books, 1989,  ISBN 0-87975-504-0.
 
* ''Readings in the Philosophical Problems of Parapsychology'', ed. [[Antony Flew]], Prometheus Books, 1987, ISBN 0-87975-385-4
 
* ''The First Psychic: The Peculiar Mystery of a Victorian Wizard'', by Peter Lamont, Little, Brown, UK, 2005 ([[Daniel Dunglas Home]] biography)
 
* ''Sixty Years of Psychical Research : Houdini and I Among the Spirits'', by Joseph Rinn, Truth Seeker, 1950
 
*''The Newer Spiritualism'', by [[Frank Podmore]], Arno Press, 1975, reprint of 1910 edition
 
*''Revelations of a Spirit Medium'' by [[Harry Price]] and Eric J. Dingwall, Arno Press, 1975, reprint of 1891 edition by Charles F. Pigeon. This rare, overlooked, forgotten book gives the "insider's knowledge" of 19th century deceptions.
 
*''Mediums of the 19th Century Volume Two, Book Four, Chapter One, Some Foreign Investigations'' by Frank Podmore, University Book, 1963, reprint of ''Modern Spiritualism'', 1902
 
*''Occult and Supernatural Phenomena'' by D. H. Rawcliffe, Dover Publications, reprint of ''Psychology of the Occult'',  Derricke Ridgway Publishing co., 1952
 
*''The Paranormal: The Evidence and its Implications for Consciousness'' by Jessica Utts and Brian Josephson'', 1996 [http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~bdj10/psi/tucson.psi]
 
*[[Milbourne Christopher]], ''ESP, Seers & Psychics : What the Occult Really Is'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1970, ISBN 0-690-26815-7
 
*Milbourne Christopher, ''Mediums, Mystics & the Occult'' by  Thomas Y. Crowell Co, 1975
 
*Milbourne Christopher, ''Search for the Soul'', Thomas Y. Crowell Publishers, 1979
 
*[[Georges Charpak]], Henri Broch, and Bart K. Holland (tr), ''Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience'', (Johns Hopkins University). 2004, ISBN 0-8018-7867-5
 
*Hoyt L. Edge, Robert L. Morris, Joseph H. Rush, John Palmer, ''Foundations of Parapsychology: Exploring the Boundaries of Human Capability'', Routledge Kegan Paul, 1986, ISBN 0710202261
 
*Paul Kurtz, ''A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology'', Prometheus Books, 1985, ISBN 0-87975-300-5
 
*Carl Edwin Lindgren. (1974, January). Exploring Secrets of the Mind. Mississippi Educational Advance, 15-16.
 
*Carl Edwin Lindgren. (1977, March). The ESP Commection. The Educational Review. Madras, India, pp. 46-48
 
*Carl Edwin Lindgren. (1990, December). The Future of Parapsychology. ''Fate'', pp. 60-64.
 
*Jeffrey Mishlove, ''Roots of Consciousness: Psychic Liberation Through History Science and Experience''. 1st edition, 1975, ISBN 0-394-73115-8, 2nd edition, Marlowe & Co., July 1997, ISBN 1-56924-747-1  There are two very different editions. [http://www.williamjames.com/Intro/CONTENTS.htm online]
 
* Radin, Dean. 2006. ''Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality''. Paraview Pocket Books. ISBN 1416516778
 
*[[D. Scott Rogo]], ''Miracles: A Parascientific Inquiry into Wondrous Phenomena,'' New York, Dial Press, 1982.
 
*John White, ed. ''Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science'', published by [[Edgar D. Mitchell]] and G. P. Putman,  1974, ISBN 0399113428
 
*[[Richard Wiseman]],  ''Deception and self-deception: Investigating Psychics''. Amherst, USA: Prometheus Press. 1997
 
*Benjamin B. Wolman, ed, ''Handbook of Parapsychology'', Van Nostrand Reinhold,  1977, ISBN 0-442-29576-6
 
*Deborah Blum, ''Ghost Hunters: [[William James]] and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life  after Death'', Penguin , 2006, ISBN 1-59420-090-4
 
*Mary Roach, ''Spook: Science Tackles the Afterlife'', Norton 2005, ISBN 0393059626
 
  
 
===Independent research organizations===
 
===Independent research organizations===
Line 114: Line 73:
 
* [http://www.rhine.org/ Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology], originally part of [[Duke University]], now an independent research center.   
 
* [http://www.rhine.org/ Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology], originally part of [[Duke University]], now an independent research center.   
 
* [http://www.parapsychology.org Parapsychology Foundation], a not-for-profit foundation which provides a worldwide forum supporting the scientific investigation of psychic phenomena.
 
* [http://www.parapsychology.org Parapsychology Foundation], a not-for-profit foundation which provides a worldwide forum supporting the scientific investigation of psychic phenomena.
* [http://www.parapsych.org/ Parapsychological Association] This organization has been a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for over 20 years.
+
* [http://www.parapsych.org/ Parapsychological Association,] This organization has been a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for over 20 years.
 
*[http://www.iacworld.org International Academy of Consciousness]
 
*[http://www.iacworld.org International Academy of Consciousness]
*[http://www.aiprinc.org Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research], a non-profit community association. Based in Sydney but with an Australia-wide membership base, it was established in 1977 and publishes the ''Australian Journal of Parapsychology''.
+
*[http://www.aiprinc.org Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research], a non-profit community association. Based in Sydney but with an Australia-wide membership base, it was established in 1977, and publishes the ''Australian Journal of Parapsychology''.
  
 
===University research organizations===
 
===University research organizations===
 
 
* [http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/ Koestler Parapsychology Unit] at the [[University of Edinburgh]].
 
* [http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/ Koestler Parapsychology Unit] at the [[University of Edinburgh]].
 
* [http://www.hope.ac.uk/research/parapsychology/ Parapsychology Research Group] at [[Liverpool Hope University]].
 
* [http://www.hope.ac.uk/research/parapsychology/ Parapsychology Research Group] at [[Liverpool Hope University]].
Line 126: Line 84:
 
* [http://www.ljmu.ac.uk/psychology/80007.htm/ Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit] of Liverpool John Moores University.
 
* [http://www.ljmu.ac.uk/psychology/80007.htm/ Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit] of Liverpool John Moores University.
 
* [http://www2.northampton.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=473,2921704&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes] at the University of Northampton.
 
* [http://www2.northampton.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=473,2921704&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes] at the University of Northampton.
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/ Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research] (PEAR) at [[Princeton University]].
+
* Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research (PEAR) at [[Princeton University]].
 
* [http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/personalitystudies/ Division of Perceptual Studies] (DOPS), a unit of the Department of Psychiatric Medicine at the University of Virginia.
 
* [http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/personalitystudies/ Division of Perceptual Studies] (DOPS), a unit of the Department of Psychiatric Medicine at the University of Virginia.
 
* [http://www.goldsmiths.ac.uk/apru/ Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit] at Goldsmiths University of London.
 
* [http://www.goldsmiths.ac.uk/apru/ Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit] at Goldsmiths University of London.
  
===Other links===
+
== Notes ==
* [http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html Parapsychology FAQ]
+
<references/>
 +
 
 +
==Bibliography==
 +
 
 +
*Alcock, James E. 1981. ''Parapsychology: Science or Magic?'' Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-025773-9
 +
*Beloff, John. 1993. ''Parapsychology: A Concise History''. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-09611-9
 +
*Blum, Deborah. 2006. ''Ghost Hunters: William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life after Death''. Penguin. ISBN 1-59420-090-4
 +
*Broughton, Richard S. 1991. ''Parapsychology: The Controversial Science''. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-35638-1
 +
*Charpak, Georges, Henri Broch, and Bart K. Holland. 2004. ''Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience''. Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 0-8018-7867-5
 +
*Edge, Hoyt L., Robert L. Morris, Joseph H. Rush, and John Palmer. 1986. ''Foundations of Parapsychology: Exploring the Boundaries of Human Capability''. Routledge Kegan Paul. ISBN 0710202261
 +
*Flew, Antony (ed). 1987. ''Readings in the Philosophical Problems of Parapsychology''. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-385-4
 +
*Hyman, Ray. 1989. ''The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research''. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-504-0
 +
*Kurtz, Paul. 1985. ''A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology''. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-300-5
 +
*Milbourne, Christopher. 1970. ''ESP, Seers & Psychics: What the Occult Really Is''. Thomas Y. Crowell Co. ISBN 0-690-26815-7
 +
*Mishlove, Jeffrey. [1975] 1997. [http://www.williamjames.com/Intro/CONTENTS.htm ''Roots of Consciousness: Psychic Liberation Through History Science and Experience'']. Marlowe & Co. ISBN 0-394-73115-8
 +
*Radin, Dean. 1997. ''The Conscious Universe''. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-251502-0
 +
*Radin, Dean. 2006. ''Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality''. Paraview Pocket Books. ISBN 1416516778
 +
*Roach, Mary. 2005. ''Spook: Science Tackles the Afterlife''. Norton 2005. ISBN 0393059626
 +
*Sudre, Rene. 1960. ''Parapsychology''. New York: Citadel Press.
 +
*White, John, ed. 1974. ''Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science''. Edgar D. Mitchell and G. P. Putman. ISBN 0399113428
 +
*Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. 1977. ''Handbook of Parapsychology''. Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0-442-29576-6
 +
 
 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved November 18, 2022.
 +
 
* [http://skepdic.com/parapsy.html Entry on parapsychology in the Skeptic's Dictionary]
 
* [http://skepdic.com/parapsy.html Entry on parapsychology in the Skeptic's Dictionary]
* The online [http://www.lexscien.org/ Library of Exploratory Science] contains the complete text of many of the major peer reviewed journals in parapsychology and psychical research.
 
  
 
{{Credits|Parapsychology|115864861|History_of_parapsychology|112710988|}}
 
{{Credits|Parapsychology|115864861|History_of_parapsychology|112710988|}}

Latest revision as of 11:26, 11 March 2023


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The term parapsychology refers to the scientific study of certain paranormal phenomena, referred to as "Psi" phenomena. The scientific reality of parapsychological phenomena and the validity of scientific parapsychological research is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism. The field is regarded by some critics as a pseudoscience. Parapsychologists, in turn, say that parapsychological research is scientifically rigorous. Despite the controversy, a number of organizations and academic programs have been created to conduct research into the existence, nature, and frequency of occurrence of such phenomena. Thus, while the explanation of such phenomena still eludes scientific understanding, the possibility that human beings may have senses beyond the known physical senses that allow communication of information is recognized as worthy of study.

Scope

The term parapsychology refers to the scientific study of certain paranormal phenomena. Coined in German by psychologist Max Dessoir in 1889, the term was adopted into English by researcher J. B. Rhine, and has largely superseded the older expression, "psychical research." In contemporary research, the term "parapsychology" refers to the study of Psi, a blanket term used by parapsychologists to denote paranormal processes or causation.[1]

The types of anomalies studied by parapsychology fall into three main categories:

  • Physical Phenomena: This category includes unusual physical occurrences, such as psychokinesis (often referred to as telekinesis), poltergeists, materializations, and bio-PK (direct mental interactions with living systems). These types of phenomena involve the mind influencing its physical surroundings as well as physical manifestations from unknown sources.
  • Survival Phenomena: Survival phenomena deal with the survival of consciousness after physical death. Included in this category are ghosts, out-of-body experiences (OBEs) (also known as astral projections), reincarnation, and near-death experiences (NDEs).

While these three categories are common, individual organizations may have their own standards for determining the scope of parapsychology. Additionally, subjects may fall into different categories for different researchers. For example, some parapsychologists believe that ghosts are evidence of the survival of consciousness, but others believe them to be psychic impressions left by living people. There are also a number of paranormal topics that are considered by most to be out of the scope of parapsychology, such as Bigfoot and other legendary creatures, which fall within the purview of cryptozoology.

History

Early psychical research

Parapsychology has a rich history dating back to at least the 1800s in both the United Kingdom and the United States. While psi phenomena were certainly observed throughout most of human history, it was not until during the Spiritualist Movement of the mid-nineteenth century that researchers first began to take an significant interest in psychic phenomena.

Before the Spiritualist Movement, there had been some investigation into psi phenomena by the followers of Franz Anton Mesmer, who believed that forces he termed "animal magnetism" could be manipulated to heal illness. In the 1780s, one of Mesmer's followers, the Marquis de Puységur, discovered a state he termed "experimental somnambulism" (later termed "hypnosis") in those that he had attempted to "magnetize." While in this state, patients demonstrated telepathic abilities, vision with the fingertips, and clairvoyance.[2] It should be noted that the early magnetists believed that the telepathy and clairvoyance demonstrated by the entranced subjects had a physiological cause, and were not paranormal in nature.[3]

With the Spiritualist Movement came an influx of purported psychic phenomena. Mediumship was nearly ubiquitous throughout England, parts of Europe, and the United States, and prominent members of the scientific community began to investigate the validity of such phenomena. The early psychical researchers concerned themselves with studying mediums and other spiritualist claims. The need for a learned, scientific society to study psychic phenomena started to become evident, and in 1882, the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was founded in London. Similar societies were soon set up in most other countries in Europe as well as the American SPR in the United States, founded with the support of William James. While most of the early SPR research had an anecdotal flavor, where experiments involved testing the abilities of specific mediums and other "gifted individuals" with claimed psychic abilities, there were some probabilistic experiments involving card guessing and dice throwing. However, it was not until the efforts of J. B. Rhine and his colleagues in the 1930s that the term "parapsychology" began to replace the term "psychical research," and concerted efforts were made to adopt scientific methodology.

Parapsychology as scientific inquiry

Although parapsychology has its roots in earlier field research, such as the work of Sir Oliver Lodge in England, the experiments by J. B. Rhine at Duke University are often thought of as the beginning of parapsychology as a science. Rhine is perhaps best known for his methodology of using card-guessing and dice-rolling experiments in the laboratory in an attempt to find a statistical validation of extra-sensory perception.[4] This type of experimental approach has characterized much of contemporary parapsychology. Rhine also popularized the term "extra-sensory perception" (ESP).[5]

The so called "Rhine revolution" attempted to accomplish several things. Not only did Rhine attempt to provide parapsychology with a systematic, "progressive" program of sound experimentation, which would characterize the conditions and extent of psi phenomena rather than merely trying to prove their existence, but he also wanted to give the field of parapsychology academic and scientific legitimacy. Rhine helped form the first long-term university laboratory devoted to parapsychology in the Duke University Laboratory, and later founded the independent Rhine Research Center. As a result of Rhine's work, much of experimental parapsychology today is geared toward "ordinary people" as subjects rather than a few select mediums or "gifted psychics." Rhine also helped found the Journal of Parapsychology in 1937, which has remained one of the most respected journals in the field, and the Parapsychological Association in 1957, an association that was accepted into the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 1969.

During the 1970s, a number of other notable parapsychological organizations were formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute for Noetic Sciences (1973), and the International Kirlian Research Association (1975). Each of these groups performed experiments on paranormal subjects to varying degrees. Parapsychological work was also conducted at the Stanford Research Institute during this time.

With the increase in parapsychological investigation, there came an increase in organized opposition to both the findings of parapsychologists and to granting of any formal recognition of the field. Criticisms of the field were focused in the founding of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) in 1976, now called the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), and its periodical, Skeptical Inquirer. CSI continues to review parapsychological work and raise objections where it is felt necessary.

Experimental research and methodology

Some of the first studies in what would be later termed ESP were conducted by William Barrett in 1881, shortly before he assisted in the founding of the Society for Psychical Research. Barrett investigated the case of the five Creery sisters, who were between the ages of ten and seventeen and could apparently use telepathy to psychically identify an object that had been selected in their absence. After sending one sister out of the room, Barrett would write the name of an object on a piece of paper, which he would then show to the remaining sisters. The first girl was then called back in, and usually correctly guessed the name of the object. Later, a second set of experiments was done involving playing cards. It was not until after the investigators had published their results that it was discovered that the girls had used a number of signals, including slight head movements and coughing, to tell their sister what to guess, thereby nullifying the results of the experiments.[6]

Zener cards

In the 1920s, investigator G. N. M. Tyrrell created automated devices to randomize target selection, and others experimented with drawings or token objects. The most well-known results, however, were not until the 1930s, when Rhine began his series of experiments. To test ESP, Rhine would use decks of Zener cards, consisting of five different designs. In some experiments, cards were laid face down for the subject to guess, to test clairvoyance; in others, the researcher would hold the card so only he could see it, to test telepathy. Because of the laws of chance, it would be expected that participants would be able to guess one out of five symbols correctly, but Rhine found that subjects often exceeded these expectations, even if it was only by a small percentage.

Participant in a Ganzfeld Experiment which proponents say may show evidence of telepathy.

In the 1970s, parapsychologists began using ganzfeld tests to test for ESP ability. Ganzfeld tests attempt to test for telepathy by separating two individuals into isolated rooms, where one attempts to send a telepathic image to the other. The sender of the message is generally shown either a still image or a short video clip, which they then attempt to send to the receiver. The receiver sits in a comfortable reclining chair under a red light, wearing headphones that play white noise or pink noise, and with their eyes covered with halves of ping pong balls. These conditions help the receiver enter what is termed the "ganzfeld state," a trance-like state similar to being in a sensory deprivation chamber. After the sender has attempted to send the image for a set amount of time (generally 20 to 40 minutes), the receiver is asked to choose the correct image out of a group of four images. Parapsychologists collected the results of approximately 700 individual ganzfeld sessions performed by about two dozen investigators, and claimed the correct image was selected 34 percent of the time.[7] This increase above the 25 percent that would be expected from chance alone has been cited as proof of the existence of telepathy, although critics point out numerous ways in which ganzfeld experiments may be flawed.

Researchers have found that ESP abilities are apparently heightened under hypnosis. The results of experiments have been found to be consistently higher when subjects are put into trance than when they retain normal consciousness. Since hypnosis typically involves relaxation and suggestion in an atmosphere of friendliness and trust, it is thought that perhaps one of these factors, or a combination thereof, may be responsible for heightened psi scores.[8]

The absence of psi ability is also sometimes considered significant. Researchers employ the term "psi-missing" to denote situations where the subject consistently scores below what would be expected by chance. According to experimental results, believers in psi tend to score higher, whereas skeptics often score significantly below chance. This phenomenon, referred to as the "Sheep-goat effect" (where believers are "sheep" and non-believers are "goats"), has been observed by many researchers. This phenomenon lends itself to the idea that one's attitudes may affect one's reality; disbelievers may create a void of psi experiences, while believers experience the opposite.[9]

Computers are often used in testing for abilities like psychokinesis, where subjects attempt to influence the output of random number generators. Computers can help rule out a number of possible corruptions of methodology that can occur with human administration of tests. Despite controversy over parapsychological work, new experiments and a refinement of older methodologies continue in the field.

Criticism and debate

Many professional scientists study parapsychological phenomena. It is an interdisciplinary field, attracting psychologists, physicists, engineers, and biologists, as well as those from other sciences. Despite this, parapsychology is often accused of being pseudoscience. Skeptical scholars like Raymond Hyman and James E. Alcock have pointed out several problems with viewing parapsychology as a true science.

One of the most glaring problems facing parapsychologists is the fact that few psi experiments can be replicated. Parapsychologists argue that psi phenomena are indeed real, but do not lend themselves to experimental replication. Hyman also points out that, unlike every other branch of science, parapsychology has a shifting, rather than cumulative, database. Historical experiments and results are often discarded and found not to be valid. Some, like the case of the telepathic Creery sisters, were proven to be fraud, while others are considered to have had flawed methodology. Unlike other sciences, parapsychology relies heavily on "statistical inference" to prove its case. In other sciences, slight deviations from chance that follow no set pattern or rules and cannot be reliably replicated are usually abandoned.[10]

Noted skeptic James E. Alcock also questioned the significance of such deviations from chance, suggesting that there is a logical fallacy in assuming that significant departures from the laws of chance are automatically evidence that something paranormal has occurred.[11]

Proponents of parapsychology counter these arguments suggesting that several branches of science are based on the observation of unexplainable anomalies, including quantum mechanics. Utts has argued that parapsychology does, in fact, build upon previous experiments, learning from them and using that knowledge to design better experiments. Additionally, the statistical nature of psi experiments is more similar to the connection of cigarette smoking to lung cancer; a result that would also be impossible to "replicate" in an individual experiment.[12]

Parapsychological journals and research centers

There exist numerous journals and research centers whose aim is to further developments in the field of parapsychology. Among the peer-reviewed journals dealing with parapsychology are the The Journal of Parapsychology, the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, the Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, the European Journal of Parapsychology, the International Journal of Parapsychology, and the Journal of Scientific Exploration.

There are also numerous research centers, both independent and affiliated with universities worldwide.[13]

Independent research organizations

University research organizations

Notes

  1. Parapsychological Association, Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology. Retrieved May 1, 2007
  2. Luiz Saraiva, Bibliography of Scientific Research on the Spirit Phenomena (GEAE June 1998). Retrieved May 1, 2007.
  3. The Mystic, Mesmerism. Retrieved May 1, 2007.
  4. J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology (Gale Research, 1996). ISBN 081035487X
  5. Parapsychological Association, Glossary of Parapsychological Terms. Retrieved May 4, 2007.
  6. Harry Price, The Story of ESP. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
  7. Dean Radin, Parapsychology FAQ: Part 2. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
  8. Jeffrey Mishlove, Extrasensory Perception (ESP). Retrieved April 26, 2007.
  9. Mario Varvoglis, The Sheep-Goat Effect. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
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  12. Jessica Utts, Response to Ray Hyman's Report. Retrieved May 7, 2007.
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Bibliography

  • Alcock, James E. 1981. Parapsychology: Science or Magic? Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-025773-9
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  • Blum, Deborah. 2006. Ghost Hunters: William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life after Death. Penguin. ISBN 1-59420-090-4
  • Broughton, Richard S. 1991. Parapsychology: The Controversial Science. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-35638-1
  • Charpak, Georges, Henri Broch, and Bart K. Holland. 2004. Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience. Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 0-8018-7867-5
  • Edge, Hoyt L., Robert L. Morris, Joseph H. Rush, and John Palmer. 1986. Foundations of Parapsychology: Exploring the Boundaries of Human Capability. Routledge Kegan Paul. ISBN 0710202261
  • Flew, Antony (ed). 1987. Readings in the Philosophical Problems of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-385-4
  • Hyman, Ray. 1989. The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-504-0
  • Kurtz, Paul. 1985. A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-300-5
  • Milbourne, Christopher. 1970. ESP, Seers & Psychics: What the Occult Really Is. Thomas Y. Crowell Co. ISBN 0-690-26815-7
  • Mishlove, Jeffrey. [1975] 1997. Roots of Consciousness: Psychic Liberation Through History Science and Experience. Marlowe & Co. ISBN 0-394-73115-8
  • Radin, Dean. 1997. The Conscious Universe. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-251502-0
  • Radin, Dean. 2006. Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality. Paraview Pocket Books. ISBN 1416516778
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  • Sudre, Rene. 1960. Parapsychology. New York: Citadel Press.
  • White, John, ed. 1974. Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science. Edgar D. Mitchell and G. P. Putman. ISBN 0399113428
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External links

All links retrieved November 18, 2022.

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