Difference between revisions of "Orientalism" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:WomenofAlgiers.JPG|thumb|right|300px|''The Women of Algiers'' by [[Eugene Delacroix]]]]
{{two other uses||the book by Edward Said|Orientalism (book)|Orientalist Architecture|Moorish Revival}}
 
[[Image:WomenofAlgiers.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Women of Algiers by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]]
 
 
 
'''Orientalism''' is the study of [[Near East|Near]] and [[Far East]]ern societies and cultures, languages, and peoples by [[Western world|Western]] scholars. It can also refer to the imitation or depiction of aspects of [[Eastern culture]]s in the West by writers, designers and artists. The former has come to acquire negative connotations in some quarters and is interpreted to refer to the study of the East by Westerners influenced by the attitudes of the era of European [[imperialism]] in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th centuries]]. When used in this sense, it implies old-fashioned and prejudiced outsider interpretations of Eastern cultures and peoples, allowing frequent misunderstanding of their cultural, ethical, and religous beliefs.
 
  
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'''Orientalism''' is the study of [[Near East|Near]] and [[Far East]]ern societies and [[culture]]s, [[language]]s, and peoples by [[Western world|Western]] scholars. It can also refer to the imitation or depiction of aspects of [[Eastern culture]]s in the West by [[Writing|writer]]s, [[design]]ers, and [[art]]ists. The former has come to acquire negative connotations in some quarters and is interpreted to refer to the study of the East by Westerners influenced by the attitudes of the era of [[Europe]]an [[imperialism]] in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. When used in this sense, it implies old-fashioned and prejudiced outsider interpretations of Eastern cultures and peoples, allowing frequent misunderstanding of their cultural, [[Ethics|ethical]], and [[religion|religious]] beliefs. However, with the rise of a global [[economics|economy]] and [[communication]]s, greater understanding and exchange are taking place between both Eastern and Western cultures, leading to the promotion of a one world family and contributing to a lasting peace in the world.
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{{toc}}
 
==Meaning of the term==
 
==Meaning of the term==
{{easternculture}}
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''Orientalism'' derives from a [[Latin]] word ''oriens'' meaning "east" (literally "rising [[sun]]"). This is the opposite of the term ''[[Occident]].'' In terms of the [[Old World]], [[Europe]] was considered to be "The West" or [[Occidental]], and the furthest known Eastern extremity was "The East" or "[[The Orient]]."  
''Orientalism'' derives from a [[Latin]] word ''oriens'' meaning "east" (literally "rising [sun]"). This is the opposite of the term ''[[Occident]]''. In terms of The [[Old World]], [[Europe]] was considered to be 'The West' or [[Occidental]], and the furthest known Eastern extremity 'The East' or '[[The Orient]]'.   
 
  
  Over time, the common understanding of 'the Orient' has continually shifted East as Western explorers traveled deeper into Asia. From at least the time of the Roman Empire until at least the Middle Ages, what is now considered 'the [[Middle East]]' was then considered 'the Orient'. In Biblical times, the [[Biblical Magi|Three Wise Men]] 'from the Orient' were probably [[Magi]] from the [[Persian Empire]] or [[Arabia]] which are east relative to [[Israel]]. Determination of the location of 'the Orient' continually shifted eastwards, until the Pacific Ocean was reached, the region which is now known as 'the [[Far East]]'.  
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Over time, the common understanding of "the Orient" has continually shifted East as Western explorers traveled deeper into [[Asia]]. From as early as the [[Roman Empire]] until at least the [[Middle Ages]], what is now considered "the [[Middle East]]" was then considered "the Orient." In [[Bible|Biblical]] times, the [[Biblical Magi|Three Wise Men]] "from the Orient" were probably [[Magi]] from the [[Persia]]n [[Empire]] or [[Arabia]] which are east relative to [[Israel]]. Westerners' location of "The Orient" continually shifted eastwards, until the [[Pacific Ocean]] was reached, the region which is now known as "the [[Far East]]."
  
However, there still remain some contexts where 'the Orient' or 'Oriental' refer to older definitions. For example, 'Oriental Spices' typically come from regions extending from the Middle East through the Indian sub-continent to Indo-China. Also, travel on the [[Orient Express]] (from [[Paris]] to [[Istanbul]]), is eastward bound (towards the sunrise), but does not reach what is currently understood to be ''the Orient.''
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However, there still remain some contexts where "the Orient" or "Oriental" refer to older definitions. For example, "Oriental [[spice]]s" typically come from regions extending from the Middle East through the [[India]]n sub-continent to Indo-China. Also, travel on the [[Orient Express]] (from [[Paris]] to [[Istanbul]]), is eastward bound (towards the sunrise), but does not reach what is currently understood to be "the Orient."
  
Furthermore, the english ''Oriental'' is usually a synonym for the peoples, cultures and goods from the parts of [[East Asia]] traditionally occupied by [[East Asian]]s and [[Southeast Asian]]s, categorised by the racial label "[[Mongoloid]]." This would exclude [[India]]ns, Arabs and other more westerly peoples. In some parts of America it is considered derogatory to use "Orientals" to refer to East Asians. For example, in Washington state it is illegal to use the word 'oriental' in legislation and government documents [http://www.leg.wa.gov/pub/billinfo/2001-02/Pdf/Bills/Senate%20Passed%20Legislature/5954.PL.pdf].
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Furthermore, the English word "Oriental" is usually a synonym for the peoples, cultures, and goods from the parts of [[East Asia]] traditionally occupied by [[East Asian]]s and [[Southeast Asian]]s, categorized by the racial label "[[Mongoloid]]." This would exclude Indians, Arabs, and other more westerly peoples. In some parts of [[United States|America]] it is considered derogatory to use "Orientals" to refer to East Asians. For example, in [[Washington]] state it is illegal to use the word "oriental" in legislation and government documents.<ref>[http://www.leg.wa.gov/pub/billinfo/2001-02/Pdf/Bills/Senate%20Passed%20Legislature/5954.PL.pdf Engrossed Senate Bill 5954] Leg.wa.gov. Retrieved September 20, 2007.</ref>
  
 
==History of Orientalism==
 
==History of Orientalism==
[[Image:Yar alone.gif|thumb|right|[[Ehsan Yarshater]], of [[Columbia University]], is one of the world's leading [[Iranistics|Persian historian]]s.]]
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It is difficult to be precise about the origin of the distinction between the "West" and the "East," which did not appear as a polarity before the ''oriens/occidens'' divided administration of the [[Roman Empire]] under [[Diocletian]]. However, sharp opposition arose between the rising [[Europe]]an [[Christendom]] and [[Muslim]] cultures to the East and in [[North Africa]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] Islamic peoples were the "alien" enemies of the Christian world. European knowledge of cultures further to the East was very sketchy, although there was a vague awareness that complex [[civilization]]s existed in [[India]] and [[China]], from which luxury goods such as woven [[silk]] [[textile]]s and [[Pottery|ceramics]] were imported. As European explorations and [[colonization]]s expanded, a distinction emerged between non-literate peoples, for example in [[Africa]] and the [[Americas]], and the literate cultures of the East.  
It is difficult to be precise about the origin of the distinction between the "West" and the "East," which did not appear as a polarity before the ''oriens/occidens'' divided administration of the Roman Empire under [[Diocletian]]. However the rise of both [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] produced a sharp opposition between European [[Christendom]] and the Muslim cultures to the East and in [[North Africa]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] Islamic peoples were the "alien" enemies of the Christian world. European knowledge of cultures further to the East was very sketchy. Nevertheless, there was a vague awareness that complex civilizations existed in [[India]] and [[China]], from which luxury goods such as woven silk textiles and [[ceramics (art)|ceramics]] were imported. As European explorations and [[colonisation]]s expanded a distinction emerged between non-literate peoples, for example in [[Africa]] and the [[Americas]], and the literate cultures of the East.  
 
  
In the 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers sometimes characterized aspects of Eastern cultures as superior to the Christian West. For example [[Voltaire]] promoted research into [[Zoroastrianism]] in the belief that it would support a rational [[Deism]] superior to Christianity. Others praised the relative religious tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West, or the status of scholarship in [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|Mandarin]] China. With the translation of the [[Avesta]] by [[Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron|Abraham Anquetil-Duperron]] and the discovery of the [[Indo-European languages]] by [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]] complex connections between the early history of Eastern and Western cultures emerged. However, these developments occurred in the context of rivalry between [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] for control of India, and it is sometimes claimed that knowledge was associated with attempts to understand colonised cultures in order to control them more effectively. Liberal economists such as [[James Mill]] denigrated Eastern countries on the grounds that their civilizations were static and corrupt. [[Karl Marx]] characterised the "[[Asiatic mode of production]]" as unchanging due to the narrowness of the village communities and the productive role of the state, hence he stated that the system of British colonialism unconsciously prepared future [[revolution]]s in India by destroying this mode of production.  
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In the eighteenth-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], thinkers sometimes characterized aspects of Eastern cultures as superior to the [[Christianity|Christian]] West. For example [[Voltaire]] promoted research into [[Zoroastrianism]] in the belief that it would support a [[Rationalism|rational]] [[Deism]] superior to Christianity. Others praised the relative religious tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West, or the status of scholarship in [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|Mandarin]] China. With the translation of the ''[[Avesta]]'' by [[Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil Duperron]] and the discovery of the [[Indo-European languages]] by [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], complex connections between the early history of Eastern and Western cultures emerged. However, these developments occurred in the context of rivalry between [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] for control of India, and it is sometimes claimed that knowledge was associated with attempts to understand colonized cultures in order to control them more effectively. Liberal [[economist]]s such as [[James Mill]] denigrated Eastern countries on the grounds that their civilizations were static and corrupt. [[Karl Marx]] characterized the "[[Asiatic mode of production]]" as unchanging due to the narrowness of the village communities and the productive role of the state, hence he stated that the system of British [[colonialism]] unconsciously prepared future [[revolution]]s in India by destroying this mode of production.  
  
The first serious European studies of [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]] were undertaken by scholars such as [[Eugene Burnouf]] and [[Max Müller]]. In this period serious [[Orientalist scholars of Islam|study of Islam]] also emerged. By the mid-19th century Oriental Studies was an established academic discipline. However, while scholarly study expanded, so did [[Racism|racist]] attitudes and popular stereotypes of "inscrutable" and "wily" orientals. Often scholarly ideas were intertwined with such prejudicial racial or religious assumptions. <ref>J Go"Racism" and Colonialism: Meanings of Difference and Ruling Practice in America's Pacific Empire in Qualitative Sociology. Vol. 27 No. 1 March 2004 </ref> Eastern art and literature were still seen as "exotic" and as inferior to Classical [[Graeco-Roman]] ideals. Their political and economic systems were generally thought to be [[feudal]] "oriental despotisms" and their alleged cultural inertia was considered to be resistant to progress. Many [[critical theory|critical theorists]] regard this form of Orientalism as part of a larger, ideological [[colonialism]] justified by the concept of the "[[white man's burden]]." The colonial project, then, is not imagined as a process of domination for political and economic gain, it is figured as a selfless endeavor carried out to recuperate the Orientals from their own backwardness and self-mismanagement.
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The first serious European studies of [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]] were undertaken by scholars such as [[Eugene Burnouf]] and [[Max Mueller|Max Müller]]. In this period serious [[Orientalist scholars of Islam|study of Islam]] also emerged. By the mid-nineteenth century Oriental Studies was an established academic discipline. However, while scholarly study expanded, so did [[Racism|racist]] attitudes and popular stereotypes of "inscrutable" and "wily" orientals. Often scholarly ideas were intertwined with such prejudicial racial or religious assumptions.<ref>J. Go, "'Racism' and Colonialism: Meanings of Difference and Ruling Practice in America's Pacific Empire," in ''Qualitative Sociology,'' Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2004.</ref> Eastern [[art]] and [[literature]] were still seen as "exotic" and as inferior to classical [[Graeco-Roman]] ideals. Their political and economic systems were generally thought to be [[feudal]] "oriental [[despot]]isms" and their alleged cultural inertia was considered to be resistant to progress. Many [[critical theory|critical theorists]] regard this form of Orientalism as part of a larger, ideological colonialism justified by the concept of the "[[white man's burden]]." The colonial project, then, is not imagined as a process of domination for political and economic gain; it is figured as a selfless endeavor carried out to rescue the Orientals from their own backwardness and self-mismanagement.
  
==Orientalism in the arts==
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==Orientalism and the arts==
 
===Imitations of Oriental styles===
 
===Imitations of Oriental styles===
 
[[Image:Vorontsov South View.JPG|thumb|left|275px|[[Edward Blore]]'s [[Alupka Palace]] (1828–46) was one of the earliest intimations of the Victorian taste for [[Moorish Revival]] architecture.]]
 
[[Image:Vorontsov South View.JPG|thumb|left|275px|[[Edward Blore]]'s [[Alupka Palace]] (1828–46) was one of the earliest intimations of the Victorian taste for [[Moorish Revival]] architecture.]]
  
Orientalism has also come to mean the use or reference of typical eastern motifs and styles in art, architecture, and design.
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Orientalism has also come to mean the use or reference of typical eastern motifs and styles in [[art]], [[architecture]], and [[design]].  
  
Early use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent have sometimes been called "[[Hindoo style]]." One of the earliest examples can be seen in the façade of [[Guildhall, London]] (1788–1789) and the style gained momentum in the west with the publication of the various views of India by [[William Hodges]] and [[William Daniell|the]] [[Thomas Daniell|Daniells]] from about 1795. One of the finest examples of "Hindoo" architecture is [[Sezincote House]] (c. 1805) in [[Gloucestershire]]. Other notable buildings using the Hindoo style of Orientalism are [[Casa Loma]] in [[Toronto]], [[Sanssouci]] in [[Potsdam]], and [[Wilhelma]] in [[Stuttgart]].
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Early use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent have sometimes been called "[[Hindoo style]]," one of the earliest examples being the façade of [[Guildhall, London]] (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of the various views of India by [[William Hodges]] and [[William Daniell]] and [[Thomas Daniell]] from about 1795. One of the finest examples of "Hindoo" architecture is [[Sezincote House]] (c. 1805) in [[Gloucestershire]]. Other notable buildings using the Hindoo style of Orientalism are [[Casa Loma]] in [[Toronto]], [[Sanssouci]] in [[Potsdam]], and [[Wilhelma]] in [[Stuttgart]].
 
[[Image:Chinesischer Turm.jpg|250px|thumb|Chinesischer Turm in the [[Englischer Garten (Munich)|Englischer Garten]] of [[Munich]]. Initial structure built 1789–1790]]
 
[[Image:Chinesischer Turm.jpg|250px|thumb|Chinesischer Turm in the [[Englischer Garten (Munich)|Englischer Garten]] of [[Munich]]. Initial structure built 1789–1790]]
  
''[[Chinoiserie]]'' is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially [[Rococo]] Chinoiserie, ''ca'' 1740–1770. From the [[Renaissance]] to the 18th century Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appear, in the 17th century, in the nations with active East India companies: England (the [[British East India Company]]), Denmark (the [[Danish East India Company]]), Holland (the [[Dutch East India Company]]) and France (the [[French East India Company]]). Tin-glazed pottery made at [[Delft]] and other Dutch towns adopted genuine [[blue-and-white]] [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] decoration from the early 17th century, and early ceramic wares at [[Meißen|Meissen]] and other centers of true [[porcelain]] imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and [[teaware]]s (see [[Chinese export porcelain]]).
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''[[Chinoiserie]]'' is the catch-all term for decorations involving [[China|Chinese]] themes in Western Europe, beginning in the late seventeenth century and peaking in waves, especially [[Rococo]] Chinoiserie, ''ca'' 1740–1770. From the [[Renaissance]] to the eighteenth century Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese [[Pottery|ceramics]] with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appear, in the seventeenth century, in the nations with active East India companies such as England, [[Denmark]], [[Netherlands|Holland]], and [[France]]. Tin-glazed pottery made at [[Delft]] and other Dutch towns adopted genuine [[blue-and-white]] [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] decoration from the early seventeenth century, and early ceramic wares at [[Meißen|Meissen]] and other centers of true [[porcelain]] imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, [[vase]]s, and [[teaware]]s.
 
 
Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at [[Aranjuez]] near [[Madrid]]. [[Thomas Chippendale]]'s mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ''ca'' 1753–70, but sober ''homages'' to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the ''tang'' evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie."  Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small [[pagoda]]s appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. [[Kew]] has a magnificent garden pagoda designed by Sir [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]].
 
  
After 1860, ''[[Japonism|Japonaiserie]],'' sparked by the arrival of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts in particular on many modern French artists such as Monet. The paintings of [[James McNeill Whistler]] and his "[[Peacock Room]]" are some of the finest works of the genre; other examples include the [[Gamble House]] and other buildings by California architects [[Greene and Greene]].
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After 1860, ''[[Japanese art|Japonaiserie]],'' sparked by the arrival of [[Japan]]ese [[woodblock print]]s, became an important influence in the western arts in particular on many modern French artists such as [[Claude Monet]]. The paintings of [[James McNeil Whistler]] and his "Peacock Room" are some of the finest works of the genre; other examples include the [[Gamble House]] and other buildings by California architects [[Greene and Greene]].
  
 
===Depictions of the Orient in art and literature===
 
===Depictions of the Orient in art and literature===
 
{{main|Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims|Stereotypes of Asians}}
 
{{main|Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims|Stereotypes of Asians}}
  
[[Image:IngresBainTurc.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''"Le Bain turc,"'' (Turkish Bath) by [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|J.A.D. Ingres]], 1862]]
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Depictions of Islamic "[[Moors]]" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in [[Medieval art|Medieval]], [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]], and [[Baroque period|Baroque art]]. But it was not until the nineteenth century that "Orientalism" in the arts became an established theme. In these works the [[myth]] of the Orient as exotic and decadently corrupt is most fully articulated. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures. Artists such as [[Eugene Delacroix]] and [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] painted many depictions of Islamic culture, often including lounging [[odalisque]]s, and stressing lassitude and visual spectacle. When [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]], director of the French ''Académie de peinture,'' painted a highly colored vision of a [[Turkish bath]], he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms, who might all have been of the same model. Sensual depictions of the erotic Orient were acceptable; a Western scene dressed similarly would not be. This orientalizing imagery persisted in art into the early twentieth century, as evidenced in [[Henri Matisse|Matisse]]'s orientalist nudes. In these works the "Orient" often functions as a mirror to Western culture itself, or as a way of expressing its hidden or illicit aspects. In [[Gustave Flaubert]]'s novel ''Salammbô'' ancient [[Carthage]] in North Africa is used as a [[foil (literature)|foil]] to ancient [[Rome]]. Its culture is portrayed as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring [[eroticism]]. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient [[Semitic]] cultures.
 
 
Depictions of Islamic "[[Moors]]" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. But it was not until the 19th century that "Orientalism" in the arts became an established theme. In these works the myth of the Orient as exotic and decadently corrupt is most fully articulated. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures. Artists such as [[Eugène Delacroix]] and [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] painted many depictions of Islamic culture, often including lounging [[odalisque]]s, and stressing lassitude and visual spectacle. When [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]], director of the French ''Académie de peinture'' painted a highly-colored vision of a [[turkish bath]] ''(illustration, right)'', he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms, who might all have been of the same model. If his painting had simply been retitled "In a Paris Brothel," it would have been far less acceptable. Sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient. This orientalizing imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in [[Matisse]]'s orientalist nudes. In these works the "Orient" often functions as a mirror to Western culture itself, or as a way of expressing its hidden or illicit aspects. In [[Gustave Flaubert]]'s novel ''[[Salammbô (novel)|Salammbô]]'' ancient [[Carthage]] in North Africa is used as a [[foil (literature)|foil]] to ancient [[Rome]]. Its culture is portrayed as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient [[Semitic]] cultures.
 
 
 
The use of the orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies for instance in many movies with [[Rudolph Valentino]]. Later the rich Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab terrorist became a common villain figure in Western movies.
 
 
 
===Examples of Orientalism in the arts===
 
[[Image:Cover of Le Japon Artistique no 1 may 1888.jpg|thumb|200px|Cover of the French magazine ''le Japon artistique'' (May 1888) showing one of [[Hokusai]]'s views on [[Mount Fuji]]. ]]
 
 
 
====Literature====
 
* [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] — ''[[Persian Letters]]'' ''(Lettres persanes)'' (1721)
 
* [[William Thomas Beckford]] — ''[[Vathek]]'' (1786)
 
* [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] — ''[[Kubla Khan]]'' (published 1816)
 
* [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] — ''[[Ozymandias]]'' (1818)
 
* [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] — poem ''Indian Superstition'' (1821)
 
* [[Thomas de Quincey]] — [[Malay language|Malay]] passages in ''[[Confessions of an English Opium-Eater]]'' (1822)
 
* [[Edgar Allan Poe]] — ''Tamerlane'' (1827), ''[[Al Aaraaf]]'' (1829), and ''Israfel'' (1831)
 
* [[Eça de Queirós]] — ''[[A Reliquia|The Relic]]'' ''(A Relíquia)'' (1887) and ''The Mandarin'' ''(O Mandarim)'' (1889)
 
* [[Anatole France]] ''Thaïs'' (1890)
 
* [[Richard Francis Burton]] — translation of ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (1885–1888)
 
* [[Victor Segalen]] — ''[[René Leys]]'' (1922)
 
* [[André Malraux]] — ''[[Man's Fate]]'' (1934) (''La Condition humaine'', 1933)
 
* [[Marguerite Yourcenar]]'s ''Nouvelles Orientales'' (1938)
 
* [[Marguerite Duras]] — ''[[The Lover]]'' (''L'Amant'') (1984)
 
* [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] — ''[[Westöstlicher Diwan]]'' (1819)
 
  
====Opera, ballets, musicals====
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The use of the orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the [[Motion picture (sound film)|movies]] (including many of those starring [[Rudolph Valentino]]). Later the caricature of the wealthy Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab [[terrorist]] became a common villain figure in Western movies.
* [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]] — ''[[Les Indes Galantes]]'' (1735–1736)
 
* [[Jacques Offenbach]] — ''[[Ba-ta-clan]]'' (1855)
 
* [[Georges Bizet]] — ''[[Les Pêcheurs de Perles]]'' (1863)
 
* [[Mily Balakirev|Balakirev]]'s ''Tamara'', [[Alexander Borodin|Borodin]]'s ''[[Polovetsian Dances]]'' in opera ''[[Prince Igor]]'' (1890), [[César Cui]]'s opera ''The Mandarin's Son'' (1878), [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky]]'s Dance of the Persian Slaves ''([[Khovanshchina]])'' (1881), [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|Rimsky-Korsakov]]'s ''[[Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov)|Scheheradze]]'' — [[the Mighty Handful]] aka "the Five" Russian composers
 
* [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] — ''[[The Mikado]]'' (1885)
 
* [[Pietro Mascagni]] — ''[[Iris (opera)|Iris]]'' (1899)
 
* [[Giacomo Puccini]] — ''[[Madama Butterfly]]'' (1904), ''[[Turandot]]'' (1926)
 
* [[Richard Rodgers|Rogers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II|Hammerstein]] — ''[[The King And I]]'' (1951)
 
* [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] — ''[[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]]'' (1782)
 
* [[Georg Friedrich Händel]] — ''[[Tamerlano]]'' (1724) and ''[[Serse]]'' (1738)
 
*[[Richard Strauss]] — ''Salome'', Opera in one act based on Wilde's play (1905)
 
*[[Richard Strauss]] — ''The Egyptian Helen'', Opera with libretto by Hugo von Hofmanstahl (1929)
 
*[[Gioachino Rossini]] — [[Semiramide]] (1823)
 
*[[Giuseppe Verdi]] — [[Nabucco]] (1842) and [[Aida]] (1871)
 
 
 
====Shorter musical pieces====
 
* [[Albert Ketèlbey]] — ''In a Persian Market'' (1920), ''In a Chinese Temple Garden'' (1925), and ''In the Mystic Land of Egypt'' (1931)
 
====Theater====
 
* [[Oscar Wilde]]'s ''[[Salomé (play)|Salomé]]'' (1893, first performed in Paris 1896)
 
 
 
====Painting====
 
* [[Eugène Delacroix]] (1798–1863)
 
* [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1824–1904)
 
* [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]] (1780–1867)
 
 
 
====Movies====
 
* [[Lives of a Bengal Lancer]] (1935)
 
* [[Exodus (film)|Exodus]] (1960)
 
* [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]](1981)
 
* [[Iron Eagle]] (1985)
 
* [[True Lies]] (1994)
 
* [[300 (film)|300]] (2007)
 
  
 
==Edward Said and "Orientalism"==
 
==Edward Said and "Orientalism"==
  
 
{{main|Orientalism (book)}}
 
{{main|Orientalism (book)}}
[[Image:Léon Cogniet - L'Expédition d'Egypte.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Léon Cogniet]]'s 1835 depiction of [[Napoleon I of France|Bonaparte]]'s Egyptian Expedition expresses Western perception of "The Exotic Orient"]]
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[[Image:Léon Cogniet - L'Expédition d'Egypte.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Léon Cogniet]]'s 1835 depiction of [[Napoleon I of France|Bonaparte]]'s Egyptian Expedition expresses Western perception of "The Exotic Orient."]]
One of [[Edward Said]]’s central ideas is that knowledge about the East is generated not through actual facts, but through imagined constructs that imagined "Eastern" societies as being all fundamentally similar, all sharing crucial characteristics that are not possessed by "Western" societies. Thus, this ‘a priori’ knowledge set up the East as the antithesis of the West. Such knowledge is constructed through literary texts and historical records which are often limited in terms of their understanding of the actualities of life in the [[Middle East]].<ref>[http://fusion.dalmatech.com/%7Eadmin24/files/edward_said_orientalism.pdf ''Edward Said and The Production of Knowledge''], by [[Arjun Sethi|Sethi,Arjun]] (University of Maryland) April 2007, accessed May 20, 2007.</ref>
 
 
 
Before Said's work, "Oriental" was widely used to mean the opposite of "[[occident]]al" ('western'). The comparisons made between the two were generally unfavorable to the former, however, respected institutions like the [[Oriental Institute]] of Chicago, the London [[School of Oriental and African Studies]] or [[Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale]], carried the term with no explicit reproach. The word "Orient" fell into disrepute after the word "Orientalism" was coined with the publication of the groundbreaking work ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' by the American-Palestinian scholar [[Edward Said]]. Following the ideas of [[Michel Foucault]], Said emphasized the relationship between power and knowledge in scholarly and popular thinking, in particular regarding European views of the [[Islamic]] [[Arab]] world. Said argued that Orient and Occident worked as oppositional terms, so that the "Orient" was constructed as a negative inversion of Western culture.
 
  
Although Edward Said limited his discussion to academic study of Middle Eastern, African and Asian history and culture, he asserted that "Orientalism is, and does not merely represent, a significant dimension of modern political and intellectual culture." (p. 53) The idea of an "Orient" is a crucial aspect of attempts to define "[[the West]]." Thus, histories of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] may contrast the monarchical government of the Persian Empire with the democratic tradition of Athens, as a way to make a more general comparison between the Greeks and the Persians, and between "[[western world|the West]]" and "[[eastern world|the East]]," or "[[Europe]]" and "[[Asia]]," but make no mention of the other Greek city states, most of which were not ruled democratically.
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{{Main|Orientalism (book)}}
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[[Edward Said]], [[United States|American]] [[Palestine|Palestinian]] scholar, is best known for describing and critiquing "Orientalism," which he perceived as a constellation of false assumptions underlying [[Western world|Western]] attitudes toward the [[Middle East|East]]. In ''Orientalism'' (1978), Said described the "subtle and persistent [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] prejudice against Arabo-Islamic peoples and their culture."<ref>Keith Windschuttle, [http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/17/jan99/said.htm "Edward Said's "Orientalism revisited,"] [[The New Criterion]], January 17, 1999. Retrieved November 14, 2007.</ref> He argued that a long tradition of false and romanticized images of [[Asia]] and the Middle East in [[Western society|Western culture]] had served as an implicit justification for [[Europe]]'s and America's [[Colonialism|colonial]] and imperial ambitions. Just as fiercely, he denounced the practice of Arab elites who [[internalization|internalized]] the American and [[Great Britain|British]] orientalists' ideas of [[Arabic culture]].
  
Taking a comparative and historical literary review of European, mainly British and French, scholars and writers looking at, thinking about, talking about, and writing about the peoples of the Middle East, Said sought to lay bare the relations of power between the colonizer and the colonized in those texts. Said's writings have had far-reaching implications beyond area studies in [[Middle East]], to studies of imperialist Western attitudes to [[India]], [[China]] and elsewhere. It was one of the foundational texts of [[postcolonialism|postcolonial studies]]. Said later developed and modified his ideas in his book ''Culture and Imperialism'' (1993).
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Both supporters of Edward Said and his critics acknowledge the profound, transformative influence that his book ''Orientalism'' has had across the spectrum of the humanities; but whereas his critics regard his influence as limiting, his supporters praise his influence as liberating.  
 
 
Many scholars now use Said's work to attempt to overturn long-held, often taken-for-granted Western ideological biases regarding non-Westerners in scholarly thought. Some post-colonial scholars would even say that the West's idea of itself was constructed largely by saying what others were not. If "Europe" evolved out of "[[Christendom]]" as the "not-Byzantium," early modern Europe in the late 16th century (see [[Battle of Lepanto]]) certainly defined itself as the "not-Turkey." 
 
 
 
Said puts forward several definitions of 'Orientalism' in the introduction to ''Orientalism''. Some of these have been more widely quoted and influential than others:
 
*"A way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western experience." (p. 1)
 
*"a style of thought based upon an [[ontological]] and [[epistemological]] distinction made between 'the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident'." (p. 2)
 
* "A Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient." (p. 3)
 
* "...particularly valuable as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient than it is as a veridic discourse about the Orient." (p. 6)
 
* "A distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts." (p. 12)
 
 
 
In his Preface to the 2003 edition of [[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]], Said also warned against the "falsely unifying rubrics that invent collective identities," citing such terms as "America," "The West," and "Islam," which were leading to what he felt was a manufactured "clash of civilisations.
 
  
 
===Criticisms of Said===  
 
===Criticisms of Said===  
  
Critics of Said's theory, such as the historian [[Bernard Lewis]], argue that Said's account contains many factual, methodological and conceptual errors. Said ignores many genuine contributions to the study of Eastern cultures made by Westerners during the Enlightenment and [[Victorian era]]s. Said's theory does not explain why the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries, long before they had any control or hope of control in the Middle East. He has been criticised for ignoring the contributions of Italian,  Dutch, and particularly the massive contribution of German scholars. Lewis claims that the scholarship of these nations was more important to European Orientalism than the French or British, but the countries in question either had no colonial projects in the Mideast (Dutch and Germans), or no connection between their Orientalist research and their colonialism (Italians). Said's theory also does not explain why much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of imperialism. As Lewis asks, <blockquote> "What imperial purpose was served by deciphering the ancient Egyptian language, for example, and then restoring to the Egyptians knowledge of and pride in their forgotten, ancient past?" <ref>Lewis, Bernard, ''Islam and the West'', Oxford University Press, 1993, p.126</ref></blockquote>
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Critics of Said's theory, such as the historian [[Bernard Lewis]], argue that Said's account contains many factual, [[Methodology|methodological]], and conceptual errors. They claim that Said ignores many genuine contributions to the study of Eastern cultures made by Westerners during the [[Enlightenment]] and [[Victorian]] eras. Said's theory does not explain why the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, long before they had any control or hope of control in the [[Middle East]]. He has been criticized for ignoring the contributions of the [[Italy|Italians]] and the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], and also of the massive contribution of [[Germany|German]] scholars. Lewis claims that the scholarship of these nations was more important to European Orientalism than the French or British, but the countries in question either had no colonial projects in the Mid-East (Dutch and Germans), or no connection between their Orientalist research and their [[colonialism]] (Italians). Said's theory also does not explain why much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of [[imperialism]].
  
Lewis argued that Orientalism arose from [[humanism]], which was distinct from Imperialist ideology, and sometimes in opposition to it. Orientalist study of Islam arose from the ''rejection'' of religious dogma, and was an important spur to discovery of alternative cultures. Lewis criticised as "intellectual protectionism" the argument that only those within a culture could usefully discuss it.<ref name="EH">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing|title=Bernard Lewis|first=Martin|last=Kramer|authorlink=Martin Kramer|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|location=London|year=1999|volume=Vol. 1|pages=pp. 719–720| url=http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/BernardLewis.htm| accessdate=2006-05-23}}</ref>  
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===Supporters of Said and his influence===
 +
Said’s supporters argue that such criticisms, even if correct, do not invalidate his basic thesis, which they say still holds true for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and in particular for general representations of the Orient in Western [[mass media|media]], [[literature]], and [[film]].<ref>See Terry Eagleton, Rev. of ''For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies,'' by Robert Irwin (London: Penguin, 2003). ISBN 0-7139-9415-0</ref> His supporters point out that Said himself acknowledges limitations of his studies in that they fail to address German scholarship (''Orientalism'' 18–19) and that, in the "Afterword" to the 1995 edition of ''Orientalism,'' he, in their view, convincingly refutes his critics (329–54).
  
In his rebuttal to Lewis, Said stated that Lewis' negative rejoinder must be placed into its proper context. Since one of Said's principal arguments is that Orientalism was used (wittingly or unwittingly) as an instrument of empire, he contends that Lewis' critique of this thesis could hardly be judged in the disinterested, scholarly light that Lewis would like to present himself, but must be understood in the proper knowledge of what Said claimed was Lewis' own (often masked) neo-imperialist proclivities, as displayed by the latter's political or quasi-political appointments and pronouncements.
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==Eastern views and adaptations of the West== 
 +
[[Image:Femme Vina.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Ravi Varma's ''Woman Playing the [[Veena]]'']]
 +
Recently, the term ''[[Occidentalism]]'' has been coined to refer to negative views of the Western world sometimes found in Eastern societies today. For instance, derogatory or stereotyped portrayals of Westerners appear in many works of [[India|Indian]], [[China|Chinese]], and [[Japan|Japanese]] artists. In a similar ideological vein to Occidentalism, [[Eurocentrism]] can refer to both negative views and excessively positive views of the Western World found in discussions about "Eastern culture."
 +
Some Eastern artists adopted and adapted to Western styles. The Indian painter [[Ravi Varma]] painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western orientalist images. In the late twentieth century many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in [[Asian art]] and culture, especially in [[Japan]]. [[English language|English]] words and phrases are prominent in Japanese [[advertising]] and popular culture, and many Japanese [[anime]] are written around characters, settings, themes, and [[mythology|mythological]] figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.
  
Specifically, Lewis is aligned with prominent "[[think tanks]]" that promote "[[neoconservative]]" views on U.S. [[American intervention in the Middle East|Middle East Policy]]. Most scholars in [[Middle Eastern Studies]] departments at American and European universities take a position much closer to Said's than to Lewis', and scholars at certain privately-funded "think tanks," such as [[Martin Kramer]] at the [[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]], [[Daniel Pipes]] at the [[Middle East Forum]], who are aligned with Lewis, have alleged that this constitutes bias, and is a reason to cut federal funding from these Middle Eastern Studies departments, and subject all such academic departments to federal government oversight in order to prevent scholarly bias.<ref>[http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/03/28/intl]</ref> Pipes is the author of a website, [[Campus Watch|campuswatch.org]], which encourages students to report bias on the part of their professors.
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== Notes ==
 
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<div class="references-small">
Bryan Turner critiques Said’s work saying there were a multiplicity of forms and traditions of Orientalism. He is therefore critical of Said’s attempt to try to place them all under the framework of the orientalist tradition.<ref>Turner, B.S., 1994, ''Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism'', London, Routledge </ref>  Other critics of Said have argued that while many distortions and fantasies certainly existed, the notion of "the Orient" as a negative mirror image of the West cannot be wholly true because attitudes to distinct cultures diverged significantly.<ref>[http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/17/jan99/said.htm Edward Said’s “Orientalism revisited” by Keith Windschuttle.]</ref>  In any case it is a logical necessity that other cultures will be identified as "different," since otherwise their ''distinctive'' characteristics would be invisible, and that the most striking differences will hold up the mirror to the observing culture.
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<references />
<ref>[http://www.secularislam.org/articles/debunking.htm Edward Said and the Saidists: or Third World Intellectual Terrorism, by Ibn Warraq]</ref> John MacKenzie notes that Said’s ''Orientalism'' is critiqued for implying that western dominance is and has been unchallenged, ignoring for example the ‘[[Subaltern Studies]]’ group of scholars work of resistance and giving voice to the unvoiced.<ref>MacKenzie, J.M., 1995, ''Orientalism: history, theory and the arts'', Manchester, Manchester University Press, page 11 </ref>  Further criticism includes the observation that the criticisms levied by Said at Orientalist scholars of being essentialist can in turn be levied at him for the way in which he writes of the west as a hegemonic mass, stereotyping its characteristics.<ref>MacKenzie, J.M., 1995, ''Orientalism: history, theory and the arts'', Manchester, Manchester University Press </ref>
 
 
 
==From "Oriental Studies" to "Asian Studies"==
 
In most [[North America]]n universities, Oriental Studies has now been replaced by [[Asian Studies]] localized to specific regions, such as, [[Middle East]]ern or Near Eastern Studies, [[South Asia]]n studies, and Far East or [[East Asia]]n Studies. This reflects the fact that the Orient is not a single, monolithic region but rather a broad area encompassing multiple [[civilization]]s. The generic concept of Oriental Studies, to its opponents, has lost any use it may have once had and is perceived as obstructing changes in departmental structures to reflect actual patterns of modern scholarship.
 
 
 
Opponents offer various political explanations for the change. They point out that a growing number of professional scholars and students of East Asian Studies are [[Asian American]]s, especially [[Chinese American]]s, [[Japanese American]]s, and [[Korean American]]s. This change of labelling may be correlated in some cases to the fact that sensitivity to the term "Oriental" has been heightened in a more [[politically correct]] atmosphere, although it began earlier: Bernard Lewis' own department at [[Princeton University]] was renamed a decade ''before'' Said wrote his book, a detail that Said gets wrong.<ref>[http://etc.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/mfs/05/Companion/near_eastern_studies.html Princeton University, Near Eastern Studies department]</ref>  By some, the term "Oriental" has come to be thought offensive to non-Westerners. Area studies that incorporate not only philological pursuits but [[identity politics]] may also account for the hestitation to use the term "Oriental."
 
 
 
Supporters of "Oriental Studies" counter that the term "[[Asia#Etymology|Asian]]" is just as encompassing as "Oriental" and may well have originally had the same meaning, if it were derived from an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word for "East" (a more common derivation is from one or both of two Anatolian proper names.). Replacing one word with another is to confuse historically objectional ''opinions'' about the East with the concept of "the East" itself. The terms Oriental/Eastern and Occidental/Western are both inclusive concepts that usefully identify large-scale cultural differences. Such general concepts do not preclude or deny more specific ones.
 
 
 
==A mirror image: Eastern views of the West== 
 
In an enlightening contrast, many of the essentially dismissive and patronizing concepts associated with Western "Orientalism" as expressed above are summed up — but in reverse orientation — in the epilogue to the "Chapter on the Western Regions" according to the ''[[Book of Later Han|Hou Hanshu]].'' This is the official history of the Later (or "Eastern") [[Han Dynasty]] (25-221 C.E.). The book was compiled by Fan Ye, (died 445 C.E.), and it succinctly expresses the Han opinion of the ''Western'' [[Hu]] culture (in what is now western China): 
 
   
 
:The Western Hu are far away. 
 
:They live in an outer zone. 
 
 
 
:Their countries' products are beautiful and precious, 
 
:But their character is debauched and frivolous. 
 
   
 
:They do not follow the rites of China. 
 
:Han has the canonical books. 
 
   
 
:They do not obey the Way of the Gods.   
 
   
 
:How pitiful! 
 
 
 
:How obstinate! 
 
 
 
Derogatory or stereotyped portrayals of Westerners appear in many works of Indian, Chinese and Japanese artists. 
 
 
 
[[Image:Femme Vina.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Ravi Varma's  ''Woman Playing the [[Veena]]'']]In contrast, some Eastern artists adopted and adapted Western styles. The Indian painter [[Ravi Varma]] painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western orientalist images. In the late [[20th century]] many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in [[Japan]]. [[English language|English]] words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese [[anime]] are written around characters, settings, themes, and [[mythology|mythological]] figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.
 
 
 
Recently, the term ''[[Occidentalism]]'' has been coined to refer to negative views of the Western world sometimes found in Eastern societies today. In a similar ideological vein to Occidentalism, [[Eurocentrism]] can refer to both negative views and excessively positive views of the Western World found in discussions about 'Eastern culture'.
 
 
 
==See also==  
 
<div style="-moz-column-count: 3; column-count:3; ">
 
*[[Arabist]]
 
*[[Area studies]]
 
*[[Assyriology]]
 
*[[Black_orientalism|Black Orientalism]]
 
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
 
*[[Circassian beauties]]
 
*[[Colonialism]]
 
*[[Dhimmi]]
 
*[[Edward Said]]
 
*[[Egyptology]]
 
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]
 
*[[Exoticism]]
 
*[[Folklore]]
 
*[[Hydraulic empire]]
 
*[[Imperialism]]
 
*[[Indology]] (study of India)
 
*[[Islamism]]
 
*[[Iranistics]]
 
*[[Japonism]]
 
*[[Robert Irwin]]
 
*[[List of Islamic studies scholars]]
 
**at section 5. "Orientalists/Non-Muslims" appears an annotated list of over 150 western & eastern non-Muslim scholars, often with titles of their writings on Islam.
 
*[[Middle Eastern studies]]
 
*[[Modernism]]
 
*[[Occidentalism]]
 
*[[Orientalism (book)]]
 
*[[Ottoman Empire]]
 
*[[Oriental Institute]]
 
*[[Philology]]
 
*[[Silk Road]]
 
*[[Sinology]] (study of China)
 
*[[School of Oriental and African Studies|SOAS]]
 
*[[Sotadic zone]]
 
*[[Pan Arabism]]
 
*[[Messianism]]
 
*[[Romanticism]]
 
*[[Joseph Needham]]
 
*[[Karl A. Wittfogel]]
 
*Sir [[John Woodroffe]]
 
*[[Sufism]]
 
 
</div>
 
</div>
  
{{commonscat|Orientalist paintings}}
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==References==
 +
* Davies, Kristian. 2005. ''The Orientalists: Western Artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia and India.'' New York: Laynfaroh. ISBN 0-9759783-0-6
 +
* Crawley, William. 1996. "Sir William Jones: A Vision of Orientalism," ''Asian Affairs,'' Vol. 27, Issue 2 (Jun.), pp. 163–176.
 +
* Halliday, Fred. 1993. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics," ''British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies,'' Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 145–163.
 +
* Irwin, Robert. 2006. ''For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies.'' London: Penguin/Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9415-0. As ''Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents.'' New York: Overlook Press, 2006. ISBN 1-58567-835-X
 +
* Jersild, Austin. 2002. ''Orientalism and Empire: North Caucasus Mountain Peoples and the Georgian Frontier, 1845–1917.'' Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2328-6. Paperback (2003) ISBN 0-7735-2329-4
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
+
All links retrieved November 17, 2022.
*[http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/ "Home Page"]. ''Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
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*[http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html Oriental Institute] of the University of Chicago.  
*[http://www.soas.ac.uk "Home Page"]. ''SOAS: The School of Oriental and African Studies''.Retrieved September 1, 2007.
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*[http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/orientalism.html Orientalism, Misinformation and Islam]. Islamic-awareness.org.  
*[http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/ "Main Page"]. ''University of Oxford''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
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*[http://www.artcyclopedia.com/subjects/Orientalism.html Orientalists]. Artcyclopedia.com.  
*[http://www.indiran.co.uk/ "Home Page"]. ''The Ancient Indian & Iran Trust''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
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*[http://www.ipocan.it/ Istituto per l'Oriente Carlo Alfonso Nallino, Roma], from 1921, the most ancient institution of Modern and Contemporary Middle Eastern studies in Italy.
*Beckel, Simon. Citizentrack. 2007; [http://citizentrack.blogspot.com/2007/05/orientalism-as-tool-of-colonialism.html "Orientalism as a tool of Colonialism"]. ''Second Track Citizens Thought''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
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*[http://www.orient.uw.edu.pl/ Institute of Oriental Studies] at the University of Warsaw.
*[http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/index.html "Home Page"]. ''Institute for Indology and Tamil Studies''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
+
*[http://www.all-art.org/history386.html Orientalism]. All-art.org.  
*[http://nias.ku.dk/ "Home Page"]. ''Nordic Institute of Asian Studies''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
 
*[http://www.hf.uio.no/east "Dept. of East European and Oriental Studies"]. ''The University of Oslo''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
 
*[http://orient4.orient.su.se/index-e.html "Dept. of Oriental Languages"]. ''Stockholm University''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
 
*[http://www.unil.ch/orient "Department of Oriental Languages and Cultures"]. ''Universite de Lausanne''. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
 
*[http://www.inalco.fr/pub/ Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, Paris]
 
*[http://www.sigu7.jussieu.fr/LCAO/index.html Langues et Civilisations de l'Asie Orientale] at Universite Paris 7-Denis Diderot
 
*[http://citizentrack.blogspot.com/2007/04/edward-said-andthe-production-of.html Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge]
 
*[http://www.orient.uw.edu.pl/ Institute of Oriental Studies] at the [[University of Warsaw]]
 
*[http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html Oriental Institute] of the [[University of Chicago]]
 
*[http://www.bu.edu/acor/ American Center for Oriental Research]
 
*[http://www.umich.edu/~aos/ American Oriental Society]
 
*[http://www.asiatica.org/ Asiatica Association] Milano, Italy
 
* [http://www.orientalism.org www.orientalism.org], resource site.
 
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-48 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] China in Western Thought and Culture
 
*[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html#sec22 John E. Hill, translation in his e-edition of ''Hou Hanshu'']
 
*[http://ambassadors.net/archives/issue14/selected_studies4.htm "Whenever, Wherever!" The Discourse of Orientalist Transnationalism in the Construction of Shakira] by [[Adel Iskandar]]
 
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/SaidSplash.htm Edward Said's Splash] The impact of Edward Said's book on Middle Eastern studies, by [[Martin Kramer]].
 
* [http://campcatatonia.org/article/1555/frontier-orientalism Frontier Orientalism] — an article by Austrian anthropologist [[Andre Gingrich]]
 
*[http://www.ipocan.it/ Istituto per l'Oriente Carlo Alfonso Nallino, Roma], from 1921, the most ancient institution of Modern and Contemporary Middle Eastern studies in Italy
 
*[http://www.all-art.org/history386.html Orientalism in the "History of Art"]
 
*[http://www.orientalists.be S.B.É.O.-B.G.O.S., Belgian Society of Oriental Studies]
 
*[http://www.darnleyfineart.com Darnley Fine Art]
 
  
==Further reading==
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[[Category:Art]]
* Biddick, Kathleen. "Coming Out of Exile: Dante on the Orient(alism) Express," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol.&nbsp;105, No.&nbsp;4. (Oct., 2000), pp.&nbsp;1234–1249.
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[[Category:Art, music, literature, sports and leisure]]
* Davies, Kristian. ''The Orientalists: Western artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia & India''. New York: Laynfaroh, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-9759783-0-6).
 
* Crawley, William. "Sir William Jones: A vision of Orientalism," ''Asian Affairs'', Vol.&nbsp;27, Issue&nbsp;2. (Jun. 1996), pp.&nbsp;163–176.
 
* Fleming, K.E. "Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol.&nbsp;105, No.&nbsp;4. (Oct., 2000), pp.&nbsp;1218–1233.
 
* Halliday, Fred. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics," ''British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies'', Vol.&nbsp;20, No.&nbsp;2. (1993), pp.&nbsp;145–163.
 
* Irwin, Robert. ''For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies''. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7139-9415-0). As ''Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents''. New York: Overlook Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-58567-835-X).
 
** [http://www.spectator.co.uk/books_pfv.php?id=3226 Reviewed] by Philip Hensher in [http://www.spectator.co.uk/ ''The Spectator''], January&nbsp;28, 2006.
 
** [http://arts.telegraph.co.uk/core/Content/displayPrintable.jhtml;jsessionid=0RCNC1ARM0BWJQFIQMFSFGGAVCBQ0IV0?xml=/arts/2006/02/05/boirw05.xml&site=6 Reviewed] by Allan Massie in the [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ ''Telegraph''], February&nbsp;4, 2006.
 
** [http://www.newstatesman.com/Bookshop/200602130032 Reviewed] by Terry Eagleton in the [http://www.newstatesman.com/ ''New Statesman''], February&nbsp;13, 2006.
 
** [http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/reviews/article347902.ece Reviewed] by Bill Saunders in [http://www.independent.co.uk/ ''The Independent''], February&nbsp;26, 2006.
 
** [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/02/26/boirw19.xml Reviewed] by Noel Malcolm in [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ ''The Telegraph''], February&nbsp;26, 2006.
 
** [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n11/jasa01_.html Reviewed] by Maya Jasanoff in the [http://www.lrb.co.uk/ ''London Review of Books''], June&nbsp;8, 2006.
 
** [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/01/books/01grim.html?ex=1163394000&en=b2e925d36504c43c&ei=5070 Reviewed] by William Grimes in the [http://www.nytimes.com/ ''New York Times''], November&nbsp;1, 2006.
 
** [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/09/AR2006110901770.html Reviewed] by Michael Dirda in [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ ''The Washington Post''], November&nbsp;12, 2006.
 
** [http://bostonreview.net/BR32.1/rosen.html Reviewed] by Lawrence Rosen in the [http://bostonreview.net/ ''Boston Review''], January/February 2007.
 
* Jersild, Austin. ''Orientalism and Empire: North Caucasus Mountain Peoples and the Georgian Frontier, 1845–1917''. Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press, 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7735-2328-6); 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-7735-2329-4).
 
* Kabbani, Rana. ''Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient''. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (paperback, ISBN 0-04-440911-7).
 
* Kennedy, Dane. "'Captain Burton's Oriental Muck Heap': The Book of the Thousand Nights and the Uses of Orientalism," ''The Journal of British Studies'', Vol.&nbsp;39, No.&nbsp;3. (Jul., 2000), pp.&nbsp;317–339.
 
* Klein, Christina. ''Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-22469-8; paperback, ISBN 0-520-23230-5).
 
* Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?," ''[[Slavic Review]]'', Vol.&nbsp;59, No.&nbsp;1. (Spring, 2000), pp.&nbsp;74–100.
 
* Kontje, Todd. ''German Orientalisms''. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5).
 
* Little, Douglas. ''American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8078-2737-1); 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-8078-5539-1); London: I.B. Tauris, 2002 (new ed., hardcover, ISBN 1-86064-889-4).
 
* Lowe, Lisa. ''Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0801425790; paperback, ISBN 978-0801481956).
 
* Macfie, Alexander Lyon. ''Orientalism''. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582-42386-4).
 
* MacKenzie, John. ''Orientalism: History, theory and the arts''. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7190-1861-7; paperback, ISBN 0-7190-4578-9).
 
* Murti, Kamakshi P. ''India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-30857-8).
 
* ''Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930'' by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (hardcover, ISBN 0-691-05003-1; paperback, ISBN 0-691-05004-X).
 
* ''Orientalism and the Jews'', edited by Ivan Davidson Kalmar and Derek Penslar. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 1-58465-411-2).
 
* ''The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: The Allure of North Africa and the Near East'', edited by Mary Anne Stevens. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1984 (paperback, ISBN 0-297-78435-8).
 
* Paul, James. "Orientalism Revisited: An Interview with Edward&nbsp;W. Said," ''MERIP Middle East Report'', No.&nbsp;150. (Jan.–Feb., 1988), pp.&nbsp;32–36.
 
* Peltre, Christine. ''Orientalism in Art''. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7892-0459-2).
 
* Prakash, Gyan. "Orientalism Now," ''History and Theory'', Vol.&nbsp;34, No.&nbsp;3. (Oct., 1995), pp.&nbsp;199–212.
 
* Richardson, Michael. "Enough Said: Reflections on Orientalism," ''Anthropology Today'', Vol.&nbsp;6, No.&nbsp;4. (Aug., 1990), pp.&nbsp;16–19.
 
* Rotter, Andrew&nbsp;J. "Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol.&nbsp;105, No.&nbsp;4. (Oct., 2000), pp.&nbsp;1205–1217.
 
* Sahni, Kalpana. ''Crucifying the Orient: Russian Orientalism and the Colonization of Caucasus and Central Asia''. Bangkok; Oslo: White Orchid Press, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 974-8299-50-3).
 
* Said, Edward W. ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]''. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 (ISBN 0-394-42814-5); New York: Vintage, 1979 (ISBN 0-394-74067-X).
 
* Schneider, Jane. ''Italy's "Southern Question": Orientalism in One Country''. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 1-85973-992-X; paperback, ISBN 1-85973-997-0).
 
* ''Visions of the East: Orientalism in film'' by Matthew Bernstein (Editor), Gaylyn Studlar (Editor). Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8135-2294-3; paperback, ISBN 0-8135-2295-1).
 
  
== Notes & References ==
 
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Latest revision as of 01:22, 18 November 2022

The Women of Algiers by Eugene Delacroix

Orientalism is the study of Near and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, and peoples by Western scholars. It can also refer to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers, and artists. The former has come to acquire negative connotations in some quarters and is interpreted to refer to the study of the East by Westerners influenced by the attitudes of the era of European imperialism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. When used in this sense, it implies old-fashioned and prejudiced outsider interpretations of Eastern cultures and peoples, allowing frequent misunderstanding of their cultural, ethical, and religious beliefs. However, with the rise of a global economy and communications, greater understanding and exchange are taking place between both Eastern and Western cultures, leading to the promotion of a one world family and contributing to a lasting peace in the world.

Meaning of the term

Orientalism derives from a Latin word oriens meaning "east" (literally "rising sun"). This is the opposite of the term Occident. In terms of the Old World, Europe was considered to be "The West" or Occidental, and the furthest known Eastern extremity was "The East" or "The Orient."

Over time, the common understanding of "the Orient" has continually shifted East as Western explorers traveled deeper into Asia. From as early as the Roman Empire until at least the Middle Ages, what is now considered "the Middle East" was then considered "the Orient." In Biblical times, the Three Wise Men "from the Orient" were probably Magi from the Persian Empire or Arabia which are east relative to Israel. Westerners' location of "The Orient" continually shifted eastwards, until the Pacific Ocean was reached, the region which is now known as "the Far East."

However, there still remain some contexts where "the Orient" or "Oriental" refer to older definitions. For example, "Oriental spices" typically come from regions extending from the Middle East through the Indian sub-continent to Indo-China. Also, travel on the Orient Express (from Paris to Istanbul), is eastward bound (towards the sunrise), but does not reach what is currently understood to be "the Orient."

Furthermore, the English word "Oriental" is usually a synonym for the peoples, cultures, and goods from the parts of East Asia traditionally occupied by East Asians and Southeast Asians, categorized by the racial label "Mongoloid." This would exclude Indians, Arabs, and other more westerly peoples. In some parts of America it is considered derogatory to use "Orientals" to refer to East Asians. For example, in Washington state it is illegal to use the word "oriental" in legislation and government documents.[1]

History of Orientalism

It is difficult to be precise about the origin of the distinction between the "West" and the "East," which did not appear as a polarity before the oriens/occidens divided administration of the Roman Empire under Diocletian. However, sharp opposition arose between the rising European Christendom and Muslim cultures to the East and in North Africa. During the Middle Ages Islamic peoples were the "alien" enemies of the Christian world. European knowledge of cultures further to the East was very sketchy, although there was a vague awareness that complex civilizations existed in India and China, from which luxury goods such as woven silk textiles and ceramics were imported. As European explorations and colonizations expanded, a distinction emerged between non-literate peoples, for example in Africa and the Americas, and the literate cultures of the East.

In the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, thinkers sometimes characterized aspects of Eastern cultures as superior to the Christian West. For example Voltaire promoted research into Zoroastrianism in the belief that it would support a rational Deism superior to Christianity. Others praised the relative religious tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West, or the status of scholarship in Mandarin China. With the translation of the Avesta by Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil Duperron and the discovery of the Indo-European languages by William Jones, complex connections between the early history of Eastern and Western cultures emerged. However, these developments occurred in the context of rivalry between France and Britain for control of India, and it is sometimes claimed that knowledge was associated with attempts to understand colonized cultures in order to control them more effectively. Liberal economists such as James Mill denigrated Eastern countries on the grounds that their civilizations were static and corrupt. Karl Marx characterized the "Asiatic mode of production" as unchanging due to the narrowness of the village communities and the productive role of the state, hence he stated that the system of British colonialism unconsciously prepared future revolutions in India by destroying this mode of production.

The first serious European studies of Buddhism and Hinduism were undertaken by scholars such as Eugene Burnouf and Max Müller. In this period serious study of Islam also emerged. By the mid-nineteenth century Oriental Studies was an established academic discipline. However, while scholarly study expanded, so did racist attitudes and popular stereotypes of "inscrutable" and "wily" orientals. Often scholarly ideas were intertwined with such prejudicial racial or religious assumptions.[2] Eastern art and literature were still seen as "exotic" and as inferior to classical Graeco-Roman ideals. Their political and economic systems were generally thought to be feudal "oriental despotisms" and their alleged cultural inertia was considered to be resistant to progress. Many critical theorists regard this form of Orientalism as part of a larger, ideological colonialism justified by the concept of the "white man's burden." The colonial project, then, is not imagined as a process of domination for political and economic gain; it is figured as a selfless endeavor carried out to rescue the Orientals from their own backwardness and self-mismanagement.

Orientalism and the arts

Imitations of Oriental styles

Edward Blore's Alupka Palace (1828–46) was one of the earliest intimations of the Victorian taste for Moorish Revival architecture.

Orientalism has also come to mean the use or reference of typical eastern motifs and styles in art, architecture, and design.

Early use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent have sometimes been called "Hindoo style," one of the earliest examples being the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of the various views of India by William Hodges and William Daniell and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. One of the finest examples of "Hindoo" architecture is Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire. Other notable buildings using the Hindoo style of Orientalism are Casa Loma in Toronto, Sanssouci in Potsdam, and Wilhelma in Stuttgart.

Chinesischer Turm in the Englischer Garten of Munich. Initial structure built 1789–1790

Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for decorations involving Chinese themes in Western Europe, beginning in the late seventeenth century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the eighteenth century Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appear, in the seventeenth century, in the nations with active East India companies such as England, Denmark, Holland, and France. Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early seventeenth century, and early ceramic wares at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases, and teawares.

After 1860, Japonaiserie, sparked by the arrival of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts in particular on many modern French artists such as Claude Monet. The paintings of James McNeil Whistler and his "Peacock Room" are some of the finest works of the genre; other examples include the Gamble House and other buildings by California architects Greene and Greene.

Depictions of the Orient in art and literature

Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. But it was not until the nineteenth century that "Orientalism" in the arts became an established theme. In these works the myth of the Orient as exotic and decadently corrupt is most fully articulated. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures. Artists such as Eugene Delacroix and Jean-Léon Gérôme painted many depictions of Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques, and stressing lassitude and visual spectacle. When Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly colored vision of a Turkish bath, he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms, who might all have been of the same model. Sensual depictions of the erotic Orient were acceptable; a Western scene dressed similarly would not be. This orientalizing imagery persisted in art into the early twentieth century, as evidenced in Matisse's orientalist nudes. In these works the "Orient" often functions as a mirror to Western culture itself, or as a way of expressing its hidden or illicit aspects. In Gustave Flaubert's novel Salammbô ancient Carthage in North Africa is used as a foil to ancient Rome. Its culture is portrayed as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.

The use of the orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies (including many of those starring Rudolph Valentino). Later the caricature of the wealthy Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab terrorist became a common villain figure in Western movies.

Edward Said and "Orientalism"

Léon Cogniet's 1835 depiction of Bonaparte's Egyptian Expedition expresses Western perception of "The Exotic Orient."


Edward Said, American Palestinian scholar, is best known for describing and critiquing "Orientalism," which he perceived as a constellation of false assumptions underlying Western attitudes toward the East. In Orientalism (1978), Said described the "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo-Islamic peoples and their culture."[3] He argued that a long tradition of false and romanticized images of Asia and the Middle East in Western culture had served as an implicit justification for Europe's and America's colonial and imperial ambitions. Just as fiercely, he denounced the practice of Arab elites who internalized the American and British orientalists' ideas of Arabic culture.

Both supporters of Edward Said and his critics acknowledge the profound, transformative influence that his book Orientalism has had across the spectrum of the humanities; but whereas his critics regard his influence as limiting, his supporters praise his influence as liberating.

Criticisms of Said

Critics of Said's theory, such as the historian Bernard Lewis, argue that Said's account contains many factual, methodological, and conceptual errors. They claim that Said ignores many genuine contributions to the study of Eastern cultures made by Westerners during the Enlightenment and Victorian eras. Said's theory does not explain why the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, long before they had any control or hope of control in the Middle East. He has been criticized for ignoring the contributions of the Italians and the Dutch, and also of the massive contribution of German scholars. Lewis claims that the scholarship of these nations was more important to European Orientalism than the French or British, but the countries in question either had no colonial projects in the Mid-East (Dutch and Germans), or no connection between their Orientalist research and their colonialism (Italians). Said's theory also does not explain why much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of imperialism.

Supporters of Said and his influence

Said’s supporters argue that such criticisms, even if correct, do not invalidate his basic thesis, which they say still holds true for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and in particular for general representations of the Orient in Western media, literature, and film.[4] His supporters point out that Said himself acknowledges limitations of his studies in that they fail to address German scholarship (Orientalism 18–19) and that, in the "Afterword" to the 1995 edition of Orientalism, he, in their view, convincingly refutes his critics (329–54).

Eastern views and adaptations of the West

Ravi Varma's Woman Playing the Veena

Recently, the term Occidentalism has been coined to refer to negative views of the Western world sometimes found in Eastern societies today. For instance, derogatory or stereotyped portrayals of Westerners appear in many works of Indian, Chinese, and Japanese artists. In a similar ideological vein to Occidentalism, Eurocentrism can refer to both negative views and excessively positive views of the Western World found in discussions about "Eastern culture." Some Eastern artists adopted and adapted to Western styles. The Indian painter Ravi Varma painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western orientalist images. In the late twentieth century many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime are written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.

Notes

  1. Engrossed Senate Bill 5954 Leg.wa.gov. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
  2. J. Go, "'Racism' and Colonialism: Meanings of Difference and Ruling Practice in America's Pacific Empire," in Qualitative Sociology, Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2004.
  3. Keith Windschuttle, "Edward Said's "Orientalism revisited," The New Criterion, January 17, 1999. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
  4. See Terry Eagleton, Rev. of For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, by Robert Irwin (London: Penguin, 2003). ISBN 0-7139-9415-0

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Davies, Kristian. 2005. The Orientalists: Western Artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia and India. New York: Laynfaroh. ISBN 0-9759783-0-6
  • Crawley, William. 1996. "Sir William Jones: A Vision of Orientalism," Asian Affairs, Vol. 27, Issue 2 (Jun.), pp. 163–176.
  • Halliday, Fred. 1993. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 145–163.
  • Irwin, Robert. 2006. For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9415-0. As Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents. New York: Overlook Press, 2006. ISBN 1-58567-835-X
  • Jersild, Austin. 2002. Orientalism and Empire: North Caucasus Mountain Peoples and the Georgian Frontier, 1845–1917. Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2328-6. Paperback (2003) ISBN 0-7735-2329-4

External links

All links retrieved November 17, 2022.

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