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[[Image:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg|right|thumb|Nicholas of Cusa]] | [[Image:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg|right|thumb|Nicholas of Cusa]] | ||
| − | '''Nicholas of Cusa''' (born | + | '''Nicholas of Cusa''' (born 1401 in Bernkastel-Kues, [[Germany]] – August 11, 1464 in Todi) was a German [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] of the [[Catholic Church]], a [[Philosophy|philosopher]], jurist, [[Mathematics|mathematician]], and [[Astronomy|astronomer]]. He is considered to be one of the greatest geniuses and polymaths of the 15th century. He is also referred to as '''Nicolaus Cusanus''' and '''Nicholas of Kues'''. |
| − | + | Nicholas of Cusa was noted for his deeply [[mysticism|mystical]] writings about [[Christianity]], particularly the nature of the [[Trinity]]. He was instrumental in developing the concept of “panentheism,” the idea that God is present in all things and yet transcends all things. His fundamental precept, “coincidentia oppositorum” (the coincidence of opposites), meant the coincidence of the finite and the infinite and was a key concept of the Reformation and replaced the medieval belief that God was a separate entity from the material world. | |
| − | + | Nicholas of Cusa also conducted the first modern biological experiment on the growth of plants, and made important contributions to the field of [[mathematics]] by developing the concepts of the infinitesimal and of relative motion. | |
| − | Nicholas | + | == Life == |
| + | Nicholas Cusa was born '''Nikolaus Krebs''' (latinized as "Cusa") to a merchant family in Kues. His father was a wealthy boatman. Legend relates that Nicolaus, apparently useless as an heir to the boat business, was rejected by his father and fled to Count Ulrich of Mandersheid. Count Mandersheid recognized Nicolaus’s unusual intellectual ability and sponsored his studies in the Netherlands and Italy. In 1416 he matriculated in the University of Heidelberg. A year later he left for Padua and received his doctorate in [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon law]] from the University of Padua in 1423. He was admitted to the University of Cologne to study divinity in 1425. | ||
| − | + | He began a public career in the Church and made an impression at the Council of Basle in 1432. In 1437 he was sent to support Pope Eugene IV by the orthodox minority. The Pope sent him on a mission to Constantinople, where he enlisted the support of twenty-eight archbishops for the Council of Florence and the pope. In 1438 he was made a papal legate to support the cause of Eugene IV, a commission which he carried out so energetically that Aeneas Sylvius called him “Hercules of the Eugenians.” Eugene IV nominated him cardinal; Nicholas declined but was made cardinal by Pope Nicholas in 1448 or 1449, and was named Bishop of Brixen in 1450. His work as bishop was opposed by [[Sigismund, Archduke of Austria|Duke Sigismund of Austria]], who imprisoned Nicholas in 1460. [[Pope Pius II]] [[excommunication|excommunicated]] Sigismund and laid an interdict on his lands as punishment. Nicholas of Cusa was never able to return to his bishopric, however; Sigmund's capitulation in 1464 came a few days after Nicholas's death at Todi in Umbria. | |
| + | Upon his death, his body was interred in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome, but was later lost. In accordance with his wishes, his heart is within the chapel altar at the Cusanusstift in Kues, a home for the aged which Nicholas had founded and to which he bequeathed his entire estate. Today the Cusanusstift continues to serve the purpose for which it was founded, and contains a library which houses many of his manuscripts. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Thought and Works == | ||
| + | Nicholas of Cusa was noted for his deeply [[mysticism|mystical]] writings about [[Christianity]], particularly about the nature of the [[Trinity]]. Many believe he was influenced by the work of [[Thomas a Kempis]]. Most of his mystical ideas can be found in his essays, “De Docta Ignorantia]'' (Of Learned Ignorance) De Visione Dei] (Vision of God). | ||
| + | === Panentheism === | ||
| + | ==== Background: Christianity and Pantheism ==== | ||
| + | The early Christian Church Fathers adopted the theories of Neo-Platonism as a foundation for Christian theology. St. Augustine studied the works of Plotinus, who is considered the father of [[Neoplatonism]]. In The Confessions, St Augustine wrote that Christian concepts of God and the world were completely consistent with the thought of Plotinus. Augustine identified the ideas of Plotinus with those of Plato; the theory of Plotinus, however, contained pantheistic elements which could not be reconciled with Christian views of the world. Plotinus asserted emanation "ex deo" ('out of God'). | ||
| + | The [[Christianity|Christian]] explanation of the creation was "ex nihilo" ('out of nothing') which means the God created the cosmos and all things. The problem concerned what type of material God used to create all things. If this material was an existence before creation, it became a dualism, and the monism that all things were created by one God would be disproven. The concept of "ex nihilo" ('out of nothing') held two significances: the absoluteness of God’s ability to create, namely the almighty power of God; and the absolute distinction of God from the all things. God is the Creator whose essential qualities are different from those of the whole creation. The whole creation cannot be described as God’s double, or alter ego. God must be an absolute other from the whole creation. Therefore the view that the world was God amounted to “pantheism”, which was unacceptable thinking for Christianity. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Later theories of Christianity openly exhibited this tendency towards “pantheism.” One notable Christian thinker was Scotus Eriugena, whose doctrine was regarded as heresy, because his creation theory resembled the “pantheism” of Plotinus. Thomas Aquinas confronted “pantheism” through all his career. Some scholars, however, thought that even the theory of Thomas Aquinas had an aspect of “pantheism.” From the current of thought initiated by Thomas Aquinas in the Dominican order, several “pantheistic” thinkers such as Meister Eckhart and Giordano Bruno, emerged. Nicholas of Cusa was influenced during his youth by the works of Meister Eckhart. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== The Thought of Nicholas of Cusa: Panentheism ==== | ||
| + | Panentheism resembles pantheism and the two are sometimes confused. Panentheism implies that God is not “out there,” a separate entity from the universe. In Greek “pan” means “everything;” “en” means “in;” “theo” means “God.” Panentheism means that God is “right here.” Pantheism, without the syllable “en,” identifies the cosmos, or all things, with God. Everything is God in pantheism. Pantheism asserts God is immanent, not transcendent. Panentheism asserts not only transcendence but also immanence. God is beyond all things and present everywhere. Panentheism is unfamiliar to orthodox Christianity, but it rooted in the Christian tradition. The Bible depicts a “panentheistic” God in Exodus, the Psalms, The Gospel of John, and the letters of Paul. Nicholas of Cusa inherited Anselm of Canterbury’s view of God.. Nicholas of Cusa regarded Anselm’s famous series of discussions, which started with God as “aliquid quo nihil maius cogitari potest (something than which nothing greater can be thought) as panentheism. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== The Infinite and the Finite ==== | ||
| + | During the nineteenth century Descartes was regarded as the founder of modern philosophy, especially of empiricism and rationalism. Twentieth-century scholars recognize the importance of Nicholas of Cusa, who represents the metaphysical basis of modern thought. Nicholas of Cusa, like Descartes, had a mathematical mind but he applied his methods to an ontological way of thinking. His fundamental concept was the “coincidentia oppositorum” (the coincidence of opposites), which meant the coincidence of the finite and the infinite. The world is enveloped in God, meaning that the finite is potentially in the infinite; and the infinite is in the finite. They are within each other. God is in all things as their center, and at the same time God transcends all things. Martin Luther later used similar words when he said that God is nearer to everything than anything is to itself. God is fully in every grain of sand, but the whole world cannot comprehend Him. God transcends everything finite, while being in everything. | ||
| + | |||
| + | This view of the God and the world, expounded by Nicholas of Cusa and Martin Luther, was the modern thought of Renaissance, replacing the common Medieval concept that God is in heaven. These were radical ideas for the Roman Catholic Church. Almost one hundred and fifty years later, during the Counter-Reformation, Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was declared a heretic and executed for promoting the concept of emanation. | ||
| + | |||
| + | === Science === | ||
| + | Nicholas is also considered by many to be a [[genius]] ahead of his time in the field of [[science]]. Predating [[Copernicus]] by half a century, Nicholas suggested that the earth was a nearly spherical shape that revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe: his beliefs (which proved uncannily accurate) were based almost entirely on his own personal speculations and [[numerology|numerological]] calculations. He made important contributions to the field of [[mathematics]] by developing the concepts of the infinitesimal and of relative motion. Cusanus was the first to use [[concave lens]]es to correct [[myopia]]. He conducted the first modern formal biology experiment, concluding that plants absorb nourishment from the air and proving that air has weight. | ||
| + | |||
| + | === Politics === | ||
In 1433, he proposed a method to elect [[Holy Roman Emperors]] that, while it was not adopted by the Church, was essentially the same method known today as the [[Borda count]], which is used in many academic institutions, competitions, and even some political jurisdictions, in original form and a number of variations. His proposal preceded [[Borda]]'s work by over three centuries. | In 1433, he proposed a method to elect [[Holy Roman Emperors]] that, while it was not adopted by the Church, was essentially the same method known today as the [[Borda count]], which is used in many academic institutions, competitions, and even some political jurisdictions, in original form and a number of variations. His proposal preceded [[Borda]]'s work by over three centuries. | ||
| − | |||
| − | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
Revision as of 16:14, 22 July 2006
Nicholas of Cusa (born 1401 in Bernkastel-Kues, Germany – August 11, 1464 in Todi) was a German cardinal of the Catholic Church, a philosopher, jurist, mathematician, and astronomer. He is considered to be one of the greatest geniuses and polymaths of the 15th century. He is also referred to as Nicolaus Cusanus and Nicholas of Kues.
Nicholas of Cusa was noted for his deeply mystical writings about Christianity, particularly the nature of the Trinity. He was instrumental in developing the concept of “panentheism,” the idea that God is present in all things and yet transcends all things. His fundamental precept, “coincidentia oppositorum” (the coincidence of opposites), meant the coincidence of the finite and the infinite and was a key concept of the Reformation and replaced the medieval belief that God was a separate entity from the material world.
Nicholas of Cusa also conducted the first modern biological experiment on the growth of plants, and made important contributions to the field of mathematics by developing the concepts of the infinitesimal and of relative motion.
Life
Nicholas Cusa was born Nikolaus Krebs (latinized as "Cusa") to a merchant family in Kues. His father was a wealthy boatman. Legend relates that Nicolaus, apparently useless as an heir to the boat business, was rejected by his father and fled to Count Ulrich of Mandersheid. Count Mandersheid recognized Nicolaus’s unusual intellectual ability and sponsored his studies in the Netherlands and Italy. In 1416 he matriculated in the University of Heidelberg. A year later he left for Padua and received his doctorate in Canon law from the University of Padua in 1423. He was admitted to the University of Cologne to study divinity in 1425.
He began a public career in the Church and made an impression at the Council of Basle in 1432. In 1437 he was sent to support Pope Eugene IV by the orthodox minority. The Pope sent him on a mission to Constantinople, where he enlisted the support of twenty-eight archbishops for the Council of Florence and the pope. In 1438 he was made a papal legate to support the cause of Eugene IV, a commission which he carried out so energetically that Aeneas Sylvius called him “Hercules of the Eugenians.” Eugene IV nominated him cardinal; Nicholas declined but was made cardinal by Pope Nicholas in 1448 or 1449, and was named Bishop of Brixen in 1450. His work as bishop was opposed by Duke Sigismund of Austria, who imprisoned Nicholas in 1460. Pope Pius II excommunicated Sigismund and laid an interdict on his lands as punishment. Nicholas of Cusa was never able to return to his bishopric, however; Sigmund's capitulation in 1464 came a few days after Nicholas's death at Todi in Umbria.
Upon his death, his body was interred in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome, but was later lost. In accordance with his wishes, his heart is within the chapel altar at the Cusanusstift in Kues, a home for the aged which Nicholas had founded and to which he bequeathed his entire estate. Today the Cusanusstift continues to serve the purpose for which it was founded, and contains a library which houses many of his manuscripts.
Thought and Works
Nicholas of Cusa was noted for his deeply mystical writings about Christianity, particularly about the nature of the Trinity. Many believe he was influenced by the work of Thomas a Kempis. Most of his mystical ideas can be found in his essays, “De Docta Ignorantia] (Of Learned Ignorance) De Visione Dei] (Vision of God).
Panentheism
Background: Christianity and Pantheism
The early Christian Church Fathers adopted the theories of Neo-Platonism as a foundation for Christian theology. St. Augustine studied the works of Plotinus, who is considered the father of Neoplatonism. In The Confessions, St Augustine wrote that Christian concepts of God and the world were completely consistent with the thought of Plotinus. Augustine identified the ideas of Plotinus with those of Plato; the theory of Plotinus, however, contained pantheistic elements which could not be reconciled with Christian views of the world. Plotinus asserted emanation "ex deo" ('out of God'). The Christian explanation of the creation was "ex nihilo" ('out of nothing') which means the God created the cosmos and all things. The problem concerned what type of material God used to create all things. If this material was an existence before creation, it became a dualism, and the monism that all things were created by one God would be disproven. The concept of "ex nihilo" ('out of nothing') held two significances: the absoluteness of God’s ability to create, namely the almighty power of God; and the absolute distinction of God from the all things. God is the Creator whose essential qualities are different from those of the whole creation. The whole creation cannot be described as God’s double, or alter ego. God must be an absolute other from the whole creation. Therefore the view that the world was God amounted to “pantheism”, which was unacceptable thinking for Christianity.
Later theories of Christianity openly exhibited this tendency towards “pantheism.” One notable Christian thinker was Scotus Eriugena, whose doctrine was regarded as heresy, because his creation theory resembled the “pantheism” of Plotinus. Thomas Aquinas confronted “pantheism” through all his career. Some scholars, however, thought that even the theory of Thomas Aquinas had an aspect of “pantheism.” From the current of thought initiated by Thomas Aquinas in the Dominican order, several “pantheistic” thinkers such as Meister Eckhart and Giordano Bruno, emerged. Nicholas of Cusa was influenced during his youth by the works of Meister Eckhart.
The Thought of Nicholas of Cusa: Panentheism
Panentheism resembles pantheism and the two are sometimes confused. Panentheism implies that God is not “out there,” a separate entity from the universe. In Greek “pan” means “everything;” “en” means “in;” “theo” means “God.” Panentheism means that God is “right here.” Pantheism, without the syllable “en,” identifies the cosmos, or all things, with God. Everything is God in pantheism. Pantheism asserts God is immanent, not transcendent. Panentheism asserts not only transcendence but also immanence. God is beyond all things and present everywhere. Panentheism is unfamiliar to orthodox Christianity, but it rooted in the Christian tradition. The Bible depicts a “panentheistic” God in Exodus, the Psalms, The Gospel of John, and the letters of Paul. Nicholas of Cusa inherited Anselm of Canterbury’s view of God.. Nicholas of Cusa regarded Anselm’s famous series of discussions, which started with God as “aliquid quo nihil maius cogitari potest (something than which nothing greater can be thought) as panentheism.
The Infinite and the Finite
During the nineteenth century Descartes was regarded as the founder of modern philosophy, especially of empiricism and rationalism. Twentieth-century scholars recognize the importance of Nicholas of Cusa, who represents the metaphysical basis of modern thought. Nicholas of Cusa, like Descartes, had a mathematical mind but he applied his methods to an ontological way of thinking. His fundamental concept was the “coincidentia oppositorum” (the coincidence of opposites), which meant the coincidence of the finite and the infinite. The world is enveloped in God, meaning that the finite is potentially in the infinite; and the infinite is in the finite. They are within each other. God is in all things as their center, and at the same time God transcends all things. Martin Luther later used similar words when he said that God is nearer to everything than anything is to itself. God is fully in every grain of sand, but the whole world cannot comprehend Him. God transcends everything finite, while being in everything.
This view of the God and the world, expounded by Nicholas of Cusa and Martin Luther, was the modern thought of Renaissance, replacing the common Medieval concept that God is in heaven. These were radical ideas for the Roman Catholic Church. Almost one hundred and fifty years later, during the Counter-Reformation, Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was declared a heretic and executed for promoting the concept of emanation.
Science
Nicholas is also considered by many to be a genius ahead of his time in the field of science. Predating Copernicus by half a century, Nicholas suggested that the earth was a nearly spherical shape that revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe: his beliefs (which proved uncannily accurate) were based almost entirely on his own personal speculations and numerological calculations. He made important contributions to the field of mathematics by developing the concepts of the infinitesimal and of relative motion. Cusanus was the first to use concave lenses to correct myopia. He conducted the first modern formal biology experiment, concluding that plants absorb nourishment from the air and proving that air has weight.
Politics
In 1433, he proposed a method to elect Holy Roman Emperors that, while it was not adopted by the Church, was essentially the same method known today as the Borda count, which is used in many academic institutions, competitions, and even some political jurisdictions, in original form and a number of variations. His proposal preceded Borda's work by over three centuries.
External links
- Translations of numerous philosophical and theological treatises
- Bernkastel-Kues tribute to Nikolaus von Kues
- A biography of Nicholas of Cusa
- MacTutor biography, focusing on mathematical achievements
- Catholic Encyclopedia article on Nicholas of Cusa
- Website of the Cusanusstift (in German)
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