Difference between revisions of "Necropolis" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Stećak.jpg|thumb|250px|Radimlja necropolis of ''stećak'' in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]]]
 
[[Image:Stećak.jpg|thumb|250px|Radimlja necropolis of ''stećak'' in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]]]
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A '''necropolis''' (plural: ''necropolises'' or ''necropolises'') is a large [[cemetery]] or [[burial]] place. Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial grounds near the sites of the centers of ancient [[civilization]]s. Often times, these sites incorporate other ancient burial techniques and structures, such as [[tumulus|tumuli]], [[crypt]]s, [[stele|stela]], [[beehive tomb]]s, and [[catacomb]]s. 
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A necropolis, thus, is indeed a "city of the dead," a place where the physical remains of numerous people from a society are placed in their eternal "homes." The design and [[attitude]]s of each society towards such places reveals much about their beliefs concerning [[death]] and the [[afterlife]]. Additionally, as places expected to endure as long as possible, the content and style of inscriptions, markers, and monuments also reveals much of their culture and [[creativity]].
 
[[Image:Chaukundi1.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Chaukundi]] necropolis near [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]]]
 
[[Image:Chaukundi1.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Chaukundi]] necropolis near [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]]]
A '''necropolis''' (plural: ''necropolises'' or ''necropoleis'') is a large [[cemetery]] or burial place. Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial grounds near the sites of the centers of ancient civilizations.
 
 
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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The word '''necropolis''' derives from [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]: ''nekro'' meaning dead, and ''polis'' meaning city. ''Nekropolis'' thus is literally translatable as "City of the Dead." Later it was assimilated into [[Latin language|Latin]] without any significant change before being taken up by the [[English Language]].<ref>necropolis. (n.d.). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved September 14, 2007, from [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/necropolis Dictionary.com] </ref>
  
The word comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''nekropolis'' "city of the dead".  
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The word is often used with a different connotation in [[fantasy]] [[literature]]; for instance, it might refer to a city populated by [[zombie]]s or other [[undead]] creatures.
  
 
==History and purpose==
 
==History and purpose==
The oldest necropolis in the world is probably the [[Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni]] in [[Paola, Malta|Paola]], [[Malta]] which dates back to 2500 B.C.E.
 
  
Necropolises were built for many reasons. Sometimes their origin was purely religious: the [[Valley of the Kings]] in [[Egypt]] is a prime example. Other cultures created necropolises in response to prohibitions on burials within city limits: especially noteworthy and rich of artpieces are those from the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] civilization found in southern [[Tuscany]] and northern [[Lazio]] regions of [[Italy]]. In the [[Roman Empire]], roads immediately outside towns therefore came to be lined with funerary monuments. Examples of this kind of necropolis can be found on the [[Appian Way]] just outside [[Rome]] and at the [[Alyscamps]] in [[Arles]], [[France]].
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Necropolises were built for many reasons. Sometimes their origin was purely religious, such as in the case of the [[Valley of the Kings]] in [[Egypt]] in which many Pharaohs, who were considered to be Gods incarnate, were entombed. Other cultures created necropolises in response to prohibitions on burials within city limits. In the [[Roman Empire]], roads immediately outside towns came to be lined with funerary monuments. Examples of this kind of necropolis can be found on the [[Appian Way]] just outside [[Rome]] and at the [[Alyscamps]] in [[Arles]], [[France]]. Simple cemeteries took the place of larger, more elaborate necropolises during the [[Middle Ages]], but in the nineteenth century, necropolises enjoyed a revival spurred by the [[Victorian fashion]] for large, elaborate memorials.
  
During the 19th century, necropolises enjoyed a revival spurred by the [[Victorian fashion]] for large, elaborate memorials.
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Necropolises are still created and used to this day, such as the one found in [[Colma]], [[California]]. This suburb of [[San Francisco]] has been used for decades to bury the dead of San Francisco, as well as those of other nearby towns. The citizens had felt it necessary to bury the dead outside of city limits, and perhaps out of sight as well. Colma has become more of a working-class suburb, but the dead still outnumber the living in this small town.
  
A modern-day example of a necropolis may be [[Colma, California]]. This suburb of [[San Francisco]] has been used for decades to bury the dead of San Francisco, as well as those of other nearby towns. The citizens had felt it necessary to bury the dead outside of city limits, and perhaps out of sight as well. Colma recently has become more of a working-class suburb, but the dead still outnumber the living in this small town.
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==World Necropolises==
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The following is a selection of famous necropolises from around the world.
  
The word is often used with a different connotation in [[fantasy]] literature; for instance, it might refer to a city populated by [[zombie]]s or other [[undead]] creatures.
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===Europe===
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====Austria====
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[[Image:Burgstallkogel Sulm valley.jpg|thumb|250px|The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg]]
  
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The '''Burgstallkogel''' (also known as '''Grillkogel''') is situated near the confluence of the [[Sulm (Austrian river)|Sulm]] and the Saggau river valleys in Southern [[Styria]], about 30 km south of [[Graz]] between [[Gleinstätten]] and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest [[iron age]] hill grave necropolises, originally composed of at least 2,000 [[tumulus|tumuli]], that exists in continental Europe.
  
==World Necropoleis==
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The hill on which the Burgstallkogel is prominently situated runs from east to west, straddling the southern banks of the Sulm valley, on a trade route that crossed the [[Koralpe]] mountain range from [[Carinthia]], connecting to the southern parts of the basin of [[Graz]] and onward to the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] plains. The settlement apparently controlled long-distance trade along this route, which had been in use since [[neolithic]] times, and prospered from it. The community exchanged goods far into [[Italy]] and into the [[Balkans]], and might have exploited the [[iron ore]] deposits that exist on the hill. The discovery of the necropolis provided [[archaeology|archaeologists]] with a wealth of information regarding the ancient trade route.<ref> A. Pydyn, ''Exchange and cultural interactions: a study of long-distance trade and cross-cultural contacts in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in Central and Eastern Europe.'' (Archaeopress 1999 ISBN 1841710261}</ref>
The following is a selection of famous necropoleis, grouped by continent and country, from around the world.
 
  
===[[Europe]]===
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====Bulgaria====
====[[Austria]]====
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The '''Varna Necropolis'''  is a burial site in the western industrial zone of [[Varna]] (approximately half a kilometer from [[Lake Varna]] and 4 km from the city center), [[Bulgaria]], internationally considered a key site in world prehistory.
[[Image:Burgstallkogel Sulm valley.jpg|thumb|200px|The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg]]
 
 
 
The '''Burgstallkogel''' (also known as '''Grillkogel''') is situated near the confluence of the [[Sulm (Austrian river)|Sulm]] and the Saggau river valleys in Southern [[Styria]], about 30 km south of [[Graz]] between  [[Gleinstätten]] and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest [[iron age]] hill grave [[necropolis|necropolises]], originally composed of at least 2,000 [[tumulus|tumuli]], that exists in continental Europe.
 
 
 
The hill the Burgstallkogel is prominently situated on runs from east to west, straddling the southern banks of the [[Sulm (Austrian river)|Sulm valley]], on a trade route that crossed the [[Koralpe]] mountain range from [[Carinthia]], connecting to the southern parts of the basin of [[Graz]] and onward to the Hungarian plains. The settlement apparently controlled long-distance trade along this route, which had been in use since [[neolithic]] times, and prospered from it. The community exchanged goods far into Italy and into the Balkans, and might have exploited the iron ore deposits that exist on the hill. The discovery of the necropolis provided [[archaeology|archaeologists]] with a wealth of information regarding the ancient trade route.<ref> Pydyn, A. "Exchange and cultural interactions: a study of long-distance trade and cross-cultural contacts in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in Central and Eastern Europe."( Archaeopress; 1999) ISBN 1841710261</ref>
 
 
 
====[[Bulgaria]]====
 
The '''Varna Necropolis'''  is a burial site in the western industrial zone of [[Varna]] (approximately half a kilometre from [[Lake Varna]] and 4 km from the city centre), [[Bulgaria]], internationally considered one of the key sites in world prehistory
 
 
[[Image:Or de Varna - Nécropole.jpg|thumb|left|A burial at Varna, with some of the world's oldest gold jewelry]]
 
[[Image:Or de Varna - Nécropole.jpg|thumb|left|A burial at Varna, with some of the world's oldest gold jewelry]]
  
The site was accidentally discovered in October 1972 by excavator operator Raycho Marinov. Since then, 294 graves have been found in the necropolis, but it is estimated that they make up only 30% of the graves in the complex. The graves that have been excavated have been dated to 4600-4200 B.C.E. ([[radiocarbon dating]], 2004) and belong to the [[Eneolithic]] [[Varna culture]], which is the local variant of the KGKIV. Many of the graces contain sophisticated examples of [[metallurgy]] (gold and copper), [[pottery]] (about 600 pieces, including gold-painted ones), high-quality flint and obsidian blades, beads, and shells.<ref> (2002) Archaeological Museum Varna [[http://www.varna-bg.com/museums/archaeology/enexhibit/enhall5.htm"The Varna Eneolithic Necropolis – The Second Phase of the Eneolithic Age /year 4600 – 4200 BC/"]] Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref>
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The site was accidentally discovered in October 1972 by excavation operator Raycho Marinov. Since then, 294 graves have been found in the necropolis, but it is estimated that they make up only 30 percent of the graves in the complex. The graves that have been excavated have been dated to 4600-4200 B.C.E. ([[radiocarbon dating]], 2004) and belong to the [[Eneolithic]] [[Varna culture]]. Many of the graves contain sophisticated examples of [[metallurgy]] (gold and copper), [[pottery]] (about 600 pieces, including gold-painted ones), high-quality [[flint]] and [[obsidian]] blades, beads, and shells.<ref>Archaeological Museum Varna "The Varna Eneolithic Necropolis – The Second Phase of the Eneolithic Age /year 4600 – 4200 B.C.E./" (2002).</ref>
  
There are crouched and extended inhumations. Some graves do not contain a skeleton, but grave gifts ([[cenotaph]]s). Interestingly, the symbolic (empty) graves are the richest in gold artifacts. 3000 gold artifacts were found, with a weight of approximately 6 kilograms. Grave 43 contained more gold than has been found in the entire rest of the world for that epoch. Three symbolic graves contained masks of unburnt clay.<ref> (2007) Golden Sands [[http://www.goldensands.bg/cultural/treasure-varna.asp"THE GOLD OF VARNA PREHISTORIC NECROPOLIS:THE BEGINNING OF SOCIAL DIVISION OF SOCIETY"]] Retrieved September 14, 2007</ref>
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There are crouched and extended inhumations. Some graves do not contain a skeleton, but grave gifts ([[cenotaph]]s). Interestingly, the symbolic (empty) graves are the richest in [[gold]] artifacts. 3000 gold artifacts were found, with a weight of approximately six kilograms. Grave 43 contained more gold than has been found in the entire rest of the world for that epoch. Three symbolic graves contained masks of unburnt clay.<ref> (2007) Golden Sands [http://www.goldensands.bg/cultural/treasure-varna.asp"The Gold of Varna Prehistoric Necropolis: The Beginning of Social Division of Society] Retrieved September 14, 2007</ref>
  
====[[France]]====
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====France====
The '''Alyscamps''' is a large [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[necropolis]], which is a short distance outside the walls of the old town of [[Arles]], [[France]]. It was one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world. Roman cities traditionally forbade burials within the city limits. It was therefore common for the roads immediately outside a city to be lined with tombs and mausoleums; the [[Appian Way]] outside [[Rome]] provides a good example. The Alyscamps was Arles' main burial ground for nearly 1,500 years. It was the final segment of the [[Aurelian Way]] leading up to the city gates and was used as a burial ground for well-off citizens, whose memorials ranged from simple [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] to elaborate monuments.
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The '''Alyscamps''' is a large [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] necropolis, located a short distance outside the walls of the old town of [[Arles]], [[France]]. It was one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world. Roman cities traditionally forbade burials within the city limits. It was therefore common for the roads immediately outside a city to be lined with [[tomb]]s and [[mausoleum]]s; the [[Appian Way]] outside [[Rome]] provides a good example. The Alyscamps was Arles' main burial ground for nearly 1,500 years. It was the final segment of the [[Aurelian Way]] leading up to the city gates and was used as a burial ground for well-off citizens, whose memorials ranged from simple [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] to elaborate monuments.
[[Image:Arles-LesAlyscamps-SaintHonorat.JPG|right|280px|thumb|Medieval Church of Saint [[Honoratus]] in Les Alyscamps, Arles]]
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[[Image:Arles-LesAlyscamps-SaintHonorat.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Medieval Church of Saint [[Honoratus]] in Les Alyscamps, Arles]]
The Alyscamps continued to be used after the city was Christianised in the [[4th century]]. [[Saint Genesius]], a Roman civil servant beheaded in 303 for refusing to follow orders to persecute Christians, was buried there and rapidly became the focus of a cult. [[Saint Trophimus]], possibly the first [[bishop of Arles]], was buried there soon afterwards. It was claimed that [[Christ]] himself attended the ceremony, leaving the imprint of his knee on a sarcophagus lid.
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The Alyscamps continued to be used after the city was [[Christian]]ized in the [[fourth century]]. [[Saint Genesius]], a Roman civil servant [[beheading|beheaded]] in 303 for refusing to follow orders to persecute Christians, was buried there and rapidly became the focus of a cult. [[Saint Trophimus]], possibly the first [[bishop of Arles]], was buried there soon afterwards. It was claimed that [[Christ]] himself attended the ceremony, leaving the imprint of his knee on a sarcophagus lid.
  
The area became a highly desirable place to be buried and tombs soon multiplied. As early as the [[4th century]] there were already several thousand tombs, necessitating the stacking of sarcophagi three layers deep. Burial in the Alyscamps became so desirable that bodies were shipped there from all over Europe, with the [[Rhône River|Rhône]] boatmen making a healthy profit from the transportation of coffins to Arles.
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The area became a highly desirable place to be buried and tombs soon multiplied. As early as the fourth century there were already several thousand tombs, necessitating the stacking of sarcophagi three layers deep. Burial in the Alyscamps became so desirable that bodies were shipped there from all over Europe, with the [[Rhône River|Rhône]] boatmen making a healthy profit from the transportation of coffins to Arles.
  
The Alyscamps continued to be used well into medieval times, although the removal of Saint Trophimus' relics to the cathedral in 1152 reduced its prestige. During the [[Renaissance]] the necropolis was systematically looted, with city councillors giving sarcophagi as gifts to distinguished visitors and local people using funerary stones as building material. It was further damaged by the arrival of the railway and a canal in the [[19th century]], both of which sliced across the site. The better of the remaining sarcophagi are now on display in the [[Museum of Ancient Arles]], which has one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself.
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The Alyscamps continued to be used well into medieval times, although the removal of Saint Trophimus' relics to the cathedral in 1152 reduced its prestige. During the [[Renaissance]] the necropolis was systematically looted, with city councilors giving sarcophagi as gifts to distinguished visitors and local people using funerary stones as building material. It was further damaged by the arrival of the railway and a canal in the nineteenth century, both of which sliced across the site. The better of the remaining sarcophagi are now on display in the [[Museum of Ancient Arles]], which has one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself.
  
====[[Italy]]====
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====Italy====
The most famous attraction of [[Cerveteri]], Italy, is the ''Necropoli della Banditaccia'', which has been declared by [[UNESCO]] a [[World Heritage Site]] together with the necropoleis in [[Tarquinia]]. It covers an area of 400 ha, of which 10 ha can be visited, encompassing a total of 1,000 tombs often housed in characteristic mounds, or tumuli. It is the largest ancient necropolis in the Mediterranean area.<ref> (2007) UNESCO World Heritage Site [[http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=1158"Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia"]] Retrieved September 14, 2007</ref>
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[[Image:Banditaccia Tumulus.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|A burial mound, so-called Tumulus, part of the necropolis of Banditaccia at Cerveteri in Lazio, Italy.]]
[[Image:Nekropole (Taranto) - Via Crispi.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Necropolis - athlete tomb (Tarquinia), Italy.]]
 
The tombs date from the 9th century B.C.E. ([[Villanovan culture]]) to the late Etruscan age ([[3rd century B.C.E.]]). The most ancient ones are in the shape of a pit, in which the ashes of the dead were housed. From the Etruscan period are two types of tombs: the mounds and the so-called "dice," the latter being simple square tombs built in long rows along "roads."
 
  
The mounds are circular structures built in [[tuff]], and the interiors, carved from the living rock, house a reconstruction of the house of the dead, including a corridor ''(dromos)'', a central hall and several rooms. Modern knowledge of Etruscan daily life is largely dependent on the numerous decorative details and finds from such tombs. The most famous of these mounds is the so-called ''Tomba dei Rilievi'' (Tomb of the Reliefs, 4th century B.C.E.), identified from an inscripton as belonging to one Matunas and provided with an exceptional series of frescoes, bas-reliefs and sculptures portraying a large series of contemporary life tools.<ref> (2007) UNESCO World Heritage Site [[http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=1158"Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia"]] Retrieved September 14, 2007</ref>
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The most famous attraction of [[Cerveteri]], [[Italy]], is the '''Necropoli della Banditaccia''', which has been declared by [[UNESCO]] a [[World Heritage Site]] together with the necropolises in [[Tarquinia]]. In includes a total of 1,000 tombs, many housed in characteristic mounds, or tumuli. It is the largest ancient necropolis in the [[Mediterranean]] area.<ref>UNESCO World Heritage Site [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=1158"Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia"](2007) Retrieved September 14, 2007</ref>
  
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The tombs date from the ninth century B.C.E. ([[Villanovan culture]]) to the late Etruscan age (third century B.C.E.). The most ancient ones are in the shape of a pit, in which the ashes of the dead were housed. From the Etruscan period are two types of tombs: the mounds and the so-called "dice," the latter being simple square tombs built in long rows along "roads."
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[[Image:Bandidaccia Burial-Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|A Burial Chamber in the Etruscan necropolis of Banditaccia near Cerveteri in Lazio, Italy.]]
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The mounds are circular structures built in [[tuff]], and the interiors, carved from the living rock, house a reconstruction of the house of the dead, including a corridor ''(dromos),'' a central hall, and several rooms. Modern knowledge of Etruscan daily life is largely dependent on the numerous decorative details and finds from such tombs. The most famous of these mounds is the so-called ''Tomba dei Rilievi'' (Tomb of the Reliefs, fourth century B.C.E.), identified from an inscription as belonging to one Matunas and provided with an exceptional series of frescoes, bas-reliefs and sculptures portraying a large series of contemporary life tools.<ref>UNESCO World Heritage Site [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=1158"Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia"] (2007) Retrieved September 14, 2007</ref>
  
The most recent tombs date from the 3rd century B.C.E. Some of them are marked by external [[cippus|cippi]], which are cylindrical for men, and in the shape of a small house for women. Most finds excavated at Cerveteri necropolis are currently housed in the [[National Etruscan Museum]], [[Rome]]. Others are in the Archaeological Museum at Cerveteri itself.
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The most recent tombs date from the third century B.C.E. Some of them are marked by external [[cippus|cippi]], which are cylindrical for men, and in the shape of a small house for women. Most finds excavated at Cerveteri necropolis are currently housed in the [[National Etruscan Museum]], [[Rome]]. Others are in the Archaeological Museum at Cerveteri itself.
  
 
====Russia====
 
====Russia====
[[Image:Russia-Moscow-Graves near and in Kremlin Wall.jpg|thumb|320px|Kremlin Wall Necropolis]]
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[[Image:Russia-Moscow-Graves near and in Kremlin Wall.jpg|thumb|300px|Kremlin Wall Necropolis]]
  
The '''Kremlin Wall Necropolis''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ''Некрополь у Кремлёвской стены'') is a part of the [[Kremlin Wall]], which surrounds the [[Moscow Kremlin]] and overlooks [[Red Square]]. [[Soviet]] governments buried many prominent local and international [[Communist]] figures here.  
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The '''Kremlin Wall Necropolis''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ''Некрополь у Кремлёвской стены'') is a part of the [[Kremlin Wall]] which surrounds the [[Moscow Kremlin]] and overlooks [[Red Square]]. [[Soviet]] governments buried many prominent local and international [[Communism|Communist]] figures here. The first burial in the Red Square was performed on November 10, 1917 by the order of the [[Military Revolutionary Committee]]. The Soviets buried 238 [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] and soldiers who had died during the [[October Revolution]] in two common graves.  
  
The first burial in the Red Square was performed on November 10, 1917 by the order of the [[Military Revolutionary Committee]]. The Soviets buried 238 [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] and soldiers who had died during the [[October Revolution]] in two common graves. In the autumn of 1919 they buried the secretary of the [[Moscow Committee of the Bolshevik Party]], [[Vladimir Zagorsky]], and a few other victims of a [[terrorist act]] performed by the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]] on September 25.
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In 1924, [[Lenin's Mausoleum]] became the center of the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Behind the mausoleum and at the foot of the [[Kremlin towers|Senatskaya Tower]] of the Kremlin, there are the graves of [[Yakov Sverdlov]], [[Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky|Felix Dzerzhinsky]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Georgy Zhukov]], [[Andrei Zhdanov]], [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Kliment Voroshilov]], [[Semyon Budyonny]], [[Mikhail Suslov]], [[Leonid Brezhnev]], [[Yuri Andropov]], and [[Konstantin Chernenko]], with monuments. On both sides of the Senatskaya Tower, the Soviets placed urns with the ashes of [[CPSU]] members and members of foreign [[Communist]] parties, statesmen, military and political leaders, prominent people of science and culture between 1925 and 1984. Several [[cosmonaut]]s, including [[Yuri Gagarin]] and the victims of the [[Soyuz 1]] and [[Soyuz 11]] disasters, are buried in the necropolis, as well as [[Sergei Korolev]], chief designer of the [[Soviet space program]].<ref> iPromote Media Inc. [http://www.amusingfacts.com/facts/Detail/americans-buried-kremlin-wall.html"Dying To Get Into The Kremlin"](2006) Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref>
  
In 1924, [[Lenin's Mausoleum]] became the center of the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Behind the mausoleum and at the foot of the [[Kremlin towers|Senatskaya Tower]] of the Kremlin, there are the graves of [[Yakov Sverdlov]], [[Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky|Felix Dzerzhinsky]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Georgy Zhukov]], [[Andrei Zhdanov]], [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Kliment Voroshilov]], [[Semyon Budyonny]], [[Mikhail Suslov]], [[Leonid Brezhnev]], [[Yuri Andropov]] and [[Konstantin Chernenko]], with monuments. On both sides of the Senatskaya Tower, the Soviets placed urns with the ashes of [[CPSU]] members and members of foreign [[Communist]] parties, statesmen, military and political leaders, prominent people of science and culture between 1925 and 1984. Several [[cosmonaut]]s, including [[Yuri Gagarin]] and the victims of the [[Soyuz 1]] and [[Soyuz 11]] disasters, are buried in the necropolis, as well as [[Sergei Korolev]], chief designer of the [[Soviet space program]].<ref> (2006) iPromote Media Inc. [[http://www.amusingfacts.com/facts/Detail/americans-buried-kremlin-wall.html"Dying To Get Into The Kremlin"]] Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref>
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===Middle East and Africa===
  
===[[Middle East]] and [[Africa]]===
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====Egypt====
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[[Image:Egypt.Saqqara.Panorama.01.jpg|left|thumb|275px|View of Saqqara necropolis, including [[Djoser]]'s [[Pyramid of Djoser|step pyramid]] (center). The mound to the far left is the Pyramid of Unas; the one on the right is the Pyramid of Userkaf.]]
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Located some 30 km south of modern-day [[Cairo]] and covering an area of around 7 km by 1.5 km, [[Saqqara]] or Sakkara ([[Arabic]]: سقارة) is a vast, ancient burial ground in [[Egypt]], featuring the world's oldest standing [[step pyramid]]. While [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] was the capital of [[History of Egypt|Ancient Egypt]], Saqqara served as its necropolis. Although it was eclipsed as the burial ground of royalty by [[Giza]] and later by the [[Valley of the Kings]] in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], it remained an important complex for minor burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. The step pyramid at Saqqara was designed by [[Imhotep]] for King [[Djoser]] (c. 2667-2648 B.C.E.). It is the oldest complete hewn-stone building complex known in history.<ref> Mark T. Rigby "Saqqara" (2000).</ref>
  
===[[Egypt]]===
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In addition to Djoser's pyramid, there are another 16 pyramids on the site, in various states of preservation or dilapidation. That of the fifth dynasty Pharaoh [[Unas]], located just to the south of the step pyramid and on top of Hotepsekhemwi's tomb, houses the earliest known example of the Pyramid Texts – inscriptions with instructions for the [[afterlife]] used to decorate the interior of tombs, the precursor of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] ''[[Book of the Dead]].'' Saqqara is also home to an impressive number of [[mastaba]] tombs. Because the necropolis was lost beneath the sands for much of the past two millennia – even the sizable mortuary complex surrounding Djoser's pyramid was not uncovered until 1924 – many of these have been superbly preserved, with both their structures and lavish internal decorations intact.
[[Image:Egypt.Saqqara.Panorama.01.jpg|left|thumb|275px|View of Saqqara necropolis, including [[Djoser]]'s [[Pyramid of Djoser|step pyramid]] (centre). The mound to the far left is the Pyramid of Unas; the one on the right is the Pyramid of Userkaf.]]
 
Located some 30 km south of modern-day [[Cairo]] and covering an area of around 7 km by 1.5 km, '''Saqqara''' or '''Sakkara''' ([[Arabic]]: سقارة) is a vast, ancient burial ground in [[Egypt]], featuring the world's oldest standing [[step pyramid]].  While [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] was the capital of [[History of Egypt|Ancient Egypt]], Saqqara served as its [[necropolis]]. Although it was eclipsed as the burial ground of royalty by [[Giza]] and later by the [[Valley of the Kings]] in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], it remained an important complex for minor burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. The step pyramid at Saqqara was designed by [[Imhotep]] for King [[Djoser]] (c.2667-2648 B.C.E.). It is the oldest complete hewn-stone building complex known in history.
 
  
In addition to Djoser's, there are another 16 [[pyramid]]s on the site, in various states of preservation or dilapidation. That of the fifth-dynasty Pharaoh [[Unas]], located just to the south of the step pyramid and on top of Hotepsekhemwi's tomb, houses the earliest known example of the Pyramid Texts &ndash; inscriptions with instructions for the afterlife used to decorate the interior of tombs, the precursor of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] ''[[Book of the Dead]]''. Saqqara is also home to an impressive number of [[mastaba]] tombs. Because the necropolis was lost beneath the sands for much of the past two millennia &ndash; even the sizable mortuary complex surrounding Djoser's pyramid was not uncovered until [[1924]] &ndash; many of these have been superbly preserved, with both their structures and lavish internal decorations intact.
+
====[[Israel]]====
 
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[[Image:Cave of coffins.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Entrance of the Cave of Coffins, in the Bet She'arim National Park.]]
===Israel===
+
'''Beit She'arim ''' ({{lang-he|בית שערים}}) is the archaeological site of a town and a necropolis on the southern foothills of [[The Lower Galilee]]. Most of the remains date from the second to fourth centuries <small> C.E. </small> The inscriptions in the [[catacomb]]s reveal that the necropolis was of Jewish importance. It served as both a public and private [[cemetery]]; the public sections are larger and more complex, resembling catacombs, while the private areas were reserved for members of certain families. The site was mostly abandoned around seventh century and was left to natural ruin and plundering by tomb robbers.<ref> Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000) [http://www.israel.org/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/Beit%20She-arim%20-%20The%20Jewish%20necropolis%20of%20the%20Roman"Beit She-arim - The Jewish necropolis of the Roman Period"] Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref>
[[Image:Cave of coffins.jpg|190px|right|thumb|Entrance of the Cave of Coffins, in the Bet She'arim National Park.]]
 
'''Beit She'arim ''' ({{lang-he|בית שערים}}) is the archeological site of a town and a [[necropolis]] on the southern foothills of [[The Lower Galilee]]. Most of the remains date from the 2nd to 4th Century CE. The inscriptions in the catacombs reveal that the necropolis was of Jewish importance.  
 
  
 
The site was first discovered by accident in 1936 by [[Alexander Zeid]] who stayed in the area while watching over the lands of the [[Jewish National Fund]].
 
The site was first discovered by accident in 1936 by [[Alexander Zeid]] who stayed in the area while watching over the lands of the [[Jewish National Fund]].
  
===Morocco===
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====Morocco====
[[Image:Chellah ruins.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Part of the Chellah interior]]
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[[Image:Chellah ruins.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Part of the Chellah interior]]
 
 
The '''Necropolis of Chellah''', '''Chella''' or '''Sala''' ({{lang-ar|شالة}}) is a [[necropolis]] and complex of ancient and medieval ruins that lie on the outskirts of [[Rabat]], [[Morocco]]’s Ville Nouvelle, or modern section. The site of Chellah is doubtless the most ancient human settlement on the mouth of the [[Bou Regreg]] river.
 
 
 
The [[Phoenicia|Phoenicians]] and the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]], who founded several colonies in Morocco, probably inhabited the banks of the Bou Regreg.  Chellah contains the remains of a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] town known as Sala Colonia and referred to as Sala by [[Ptolemy]].  Excavations show an important port city town with uncovered remains including the [[Decumanus Maximus]], or principal way, were discovered, as well as those of a forum, a monumental fountain, a triumphal arch, and other Roman ruins. 
 
 
 
The site was abandoned in 1154 in favor of nearby [[Salé]].  The [[Almohad dynasty]] used the ghost town as a [[necropolis]].  In the mid-14th century, a [[Marinid|Merinid]] sultan, [[Abu l-Hasan]], built several monuments and the imposing main gate (dated to 1339).  These later Merinid additions included a [[mosque]], a [[zawiya]], and royal tombs, including that of Abu l-Hasan. Many of the structures in Chellah were damaged or destroyed in an 18th century [[earthquake]]. The site has been converted to a garden and is now a tourist attraction. 
 
  
====Turkey====
+
The '''Necropolis of Chellah''', '''Chella''' or '''Sala''' ({{lang-ar|شالة}}) is a necropolis and complex of ancient and medieval ruins that lie on the outskirts of [[Rabat]], [[Morocco]]’s Ville Nouvelle, or modern section. The site of Chellah is doubtless the most ancient human settlement on the mouth of the [[Bou Regreg]] river.
'''Termessos''': A Pisidian city situated high on a mountain with remnants of an agora, theatre and an odion. It has a reputation of being the most magnificent necropolis on the Mediterranean, 35 km northwest of Antalya.
 
  
'''Hierapolis''' is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. As the hot springs of [[Pamukkale]] were used as a spa since the 2nd century B.C.E., people came to soothe their ailings here. Many of them retired and died here. The large [[necropolis]] is filled with [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]].
+
The [[Phoenicia|Phoenicians]] and the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]], who founded several colonies in Morocco, probably inhabited the banks of the Bou Regreg. Chellah contains the remains of a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] town known as Sala Colonia and referred to as Sala by [[Ptolemy]]. Excavations show an important port town with uncovered remains including the [[Decumanus Maximus]], or principal way, were discovered, as well as remains of a forum, a monumental fountain, a triumphal arch, and other Roman ruins.  
  
All types of tombs from Hellenic to Christian times can be seen at the necropolis in Hierapolis. People who came for medical treatment to Hierapolis in ancient times and the native people of the city buried their dead in monumental [[tombs]] of the tumulus, [[sarcophagus]] or house types according to their traditions. The necropolis extends from the Northern to the Eastern and Southern sections of the old city. Most of the tombs have been excavated. The St. Philip Martyrium was constructed in the name of [[Philip the Apostle|St. Philip]], one of Christ’s twelve disciples, outside the Northeastern section of the city walls, and has an octagonal structure. It is said that St. Philip is buried in the center of the building.
+
The site was abandoned in 1154 in favor of nearby [[Salé]]. The [[Almohad dynasty]] used the ghost town as a necropolis. In the mid-fourteenth century, a [[Marinid|Merinid]] sultan, [[Abu l-Hasan]], built several monuments and the imposing main gate (dated to 1339). These later Merinid additions included a [[mosque]], a [[zawiya]], and royal tombs, including that of Abu l-Hasan. Many of the structures in Chellah were damaged or destroyed in an eighteenth century [[earthquake]]. The site has been converted to a garden and is now a tourist attraction.
  
 
===Asia===
 
===Asia===
  
 
====China====
 
====China====
* [[Terracotta_Army| Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor]]
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[[Image:Tumbas ming1.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Traditional Chinese architecture inside the Ming Tombs]]
* [[Ming Dynasty Tombs]]
+
The '''Ming Dynasty Tombs''' (''Míng cháo shí sān líng''; lit. ''Thirteen Tombs of the Ming Dynasty'') are located some 50 kilometers due north of [[Beijing]] at a carefully selected site. The site was chosen by the third [[Ming Dynasty]] emperor [[Yongle Emperor of China|Yongle]] (1402 - 1424), who moved the capital of China from [[Nanjing]] to the present location of Beijing. From the Yongle Emperor onwards, 13 Ming Dynasty Emperors were buried in this area. In August 2003, the site was listed as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref> UNESCO World Heritage Center (2007) [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/439"Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang"] Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref> Three tombs have been excavated: '''Chang Ling''', the largest '''Ding Ling''', whose underground palace is open to the public, and '''Zhao Ling'''.
 +
 
 +
The site of the Ming Dynasty Imperial Tombs was carefully chosen according to [[Feng Shui]] ([[geomancy]]) principles. According to these, bad spirits and evil winds descending from the north must be deflected; therefore, an arc-shaped area at the foot of the [[Jundu Mountains]] north of Beijing was selected. This 40 square kilometer area - enclosed by the mountains in a pristine, quiet valley full of dark earth, tranquil water and other necessities as per Feng Shui - would become the necropolis of the Ming Dynasty.<ref> China Internet Information Center (2007) [http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75232.htm"Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties"] Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref>
  
 
====Pakistan====
 
====Pakistan====
  
[[Image:Tomb_1_Thatta.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A tomb at Makli Hills necropolis built in 1559]]
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[[Image:Tomb_1_Thatta.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A tomb at Makli Hills necropolis built in 1559]]
One of the largest [[Necropolis|necropolises]] in the world, with a diameter of approximately 8 kilometers, '''Makli Hill''' is supposed to be the burial place of some 125,000 [[Sufi]] saints. It is located on the outskirts of [[Thatta]], the capital of lower [[Sind]] until the seventeenth century, in what is the southeastern province of present-day [[Pakistan]]. <ref> [http://www.bookrags.com/history/worldhistory/makli-hill-ema-03/ www.bookrags.com] </ref>
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One of the largest necropolises in the world, with a diameter of approximately 8 kilometers, '''Makli Hill''' is supposed to be the burial place of some 125,000 [[Sufi]] saints. It is located on the outskirts of [[Thatta]], the capital of lower [[Sind]] until the seventeenth century, in what is the southeastern province of present-day [[Pakistan]].<ref> Makli Hill from  Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, by Macmillan Reference USA, an imprint of the Gale Group.</ref>
  
 +
Legends abound about its inception, but it is generally believed that the cemetery grew around the shrine of the fourteenth century Sufi, [[Hamad Jamali]]. The tombs and gravestones spread over the cemetery are material documents marking the social and political history of Sind.
  
Legends abound about its inception, but it is generally believed that the cemetery grew around the shrine of the fourteenth-century Sufi, Hamad Jamali. The tombs and gravestones spread over the cemetery are material documents marking the social and political history of Sind.
+
Imperial mausolea are divided into two major groups, those from the [[Samma]] (1352–1520) and [[Tarkhan]] (1556–1592) periods. The tomb of the Samma king, Jam Nizam al-Din (reigned 1461–1509), is an impressive square structure built of sandstone and decorated with floral and geometric medallions. Similar to this is the mausoleum of Isa Khan Tarkhan II (d. 1651), a two-story stone building with majestic cupolas and balconies. In contrast to the syncretic architecture of these two monuments, which integrate Hindu and Islamic motifs, are mausolea that clearly show the Central Asian roots of the later dynasty. An example is the tomb of Jan Beg Tarkhan (d. 1600), a typical octagonal brick structure whose dome is covered in blue and turquoise glazed tiles. Today, Makli Hill is a United Nations World Heritage Site that is visited by both [[pilgrimage|pilgrims]] and tourists.
[[Image:Makli2.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The Quranic artwork at a decorated grave in the necropolis.]]
 
 
 
Imperial mausoleums are divided into two major groups, those from the [[Samma]] (1352–1520) and [[Tarkhan]] (1556–1592) periods. The tomb of the Samma king, Jam Nizam al-Din (reigned 1461–1509), is an impressive square structure built of sandstone and decorated with floral and geometric medallions. Similar to this is the mausoleum of Isa Khan Tarkhan II (d. 1651), a two-story stone building with majestic cupolas and balconies. In contrast to the syncretic architecture of these two monuments, which integrate Hindu and Islamic motifs, are mausoleums that clearly show the Central Asian roots of the later dynasty. An example is the tomb of Jan Beg Tarkhan (d. 1600), a typical octagonal brick structure whose dome is covered in blue and turquoise glazed tiles. Today, Makli Hill is a United Nations World Heritage Site that is visited by both pilgrims and tourists.
 
 
 
[[Image:Makli3.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Tombs at the necropolis.]]
 
[[Image:Makli1.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Sketch plan of the necropolis as stated by information point. Please enlarge to read the English text]]
 
  
 
===The Americas===
 
===The Americas===
Line 124: Line 110:
 
====Cuba====
 
====Cuba====
  
[[Image:Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo 2007.jpg|thumb|right|Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo in August 2007]]
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[[Image:Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo in August 2007]]
'''Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo''' aka '''Cementerio de San Carlos''' or '''San Carlos Cemetery''' is located in [[Matanzas]], [[Cuba]]. It was inaugurated on September 2, 1872 on 13.5 hectacres. The U.S. Congressman [[Joseph Marion Hernandez]] is interred there in the [[del Junco]] family crypt.
+
'''Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo''' aka '''Cementerio de San Carlos''' or '''San Carlos Cemetery''' is located in [[Matanzas]], [[Cuba]]. It was inaugurated on September 2, 1872. The U.S. Congressman [[Joseph Marion Hernandez]] is interred there in the [[del Junco]] family crypt.
  
 
====Peru====
 
====Peru====
The '''Paracas culture''' was an important [[Andean]] society between approximately 750 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. that developed in the [[Paracas Peninsula]], located in what today is the [[Paracas District]] of the [[Pisco Province]] in the [[Ica Region]]. Most of our information about the lives of the Paracas people comes from excavations at the large seaside Paracas [[necropolis]], first investigated by the Peruvian archaeologist [[Julio Tello]] in the 1920s.
+
The large seaside Paracas necropolis is perhaps the most famous necropolis in [[South America]]. It has allowed archaeologists to derive a host of information about the Paracas People, which was an important [[Andean]] society between approximately 750 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. First investigated by the Peruvian archaeologist [[Julio Tello]] in the 1920s, the necropolis is often called '''Wari Kayan''' and consists of large subterranean burial chambers, with an average capacity of about 40 mummies. It has been theorized that each large chamber was owned by a specific family or [[clan]], who would place their dead ancestors in the burial over the course of many generations, in much the same way that family mausoleums are used today. Each [[mummy]] was bound with cord to hold it in place, and then wrapped in many layers of intricate, and finely woven textiles. These textiles are now known as some of the finest ever produced in the history of [[Pre-Columbian]] Andean societies, and are the primary works of art by which Paracas is known.<ref>Geometry Step-by-step: From the Land of the Incas (2007) [http://agutie.homestead.com/files/index.html"Textiles of the Paracas Culture"] Retrieved September 14, 2007 </ref>
 
 
The necropolis of '''Wari Kayan''' consisted of multitudes of large subterranean burial chambers, with an average capacity of about forty mummies. It is theorized that each large chamber would be owned by a specific family or clan, who would place their dead ancestors in the burial over the course of many generations. Each [[mummy]] was bound with cord to hold it in place, and then wrapped in many layers of incredibly intricate, ornate, and finely woven textiles. These textiles are now known as some of the finest ever produced in the history of [[Pre-Columbian]] Andean societies, and are the primary works of art by which Paracas is known.  
 
They had extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management.
 
  
 
====United States====
 
====United States====
'''Colma''' is a small incorporated town in [[San Mateo County, California]], at the northern end of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]]. The population was 1,191 at the 2000 census. The town was founded as a [[necropolis]] in 1924.<ref>{{cite news
 
| first = Carol | last = Pogash
 
| title = Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep
 
| url =http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/us/09cemetery.html?ex=1323320400&en=0aa1719b7d513007&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss | publisher = The New York Times
 
| date = December 3, 2006 | accessdate = 2006-12-09
 
}}</ref>
 
 
Much of the land of Colma is dedicated to [[cemetery]] usage. With 17 cemeteries for the interment of humans and one for pets, the dead population outnumber the living by thousands to one. This has led to it being called "the city of the silent," and also led to a more humorous motto among some residents: "It's good to be alive in Colma".{{ref label|NYT20061203|Pogash|b}}
 
 
Colma became the location of a large number of cemeteries when [[San Francisco]], the town's powerful neighbor to the north, passed an ordinance in 1900 outlawing the construction of any more cemeteries in the city (mainly because of increased property values making the cost of using land for cemeteries prohibitive), and then passed another ordinance in 1912 evicting all existing cemeteries from city limits. (A similar scenario prevails in [[New York City]]'s borough of [[Manhattan]], where only one active cemetery still exists &mdash; the [[Trinity Church, New York|Trinity Church]] Cemetery and Crematory, at the intersection of 155th Street and Broadway, on the northwestern edge of [[Harlem, New York|Harlem]]). The relocation of cemeteries from San Francisco to Colma is the subject of ''A Second Final Rest: The History of San Francisco's Lost Cemeteries,'' (2005) a documentary by Trina Lopez.
 
 
Colma was briefly called Lawndale, but because another city with the name [[Lawndale, California]] (in [[Los Angeles County]]) already existed, the town changed its name back to Colma in 1941.  Originally, the residents of the town were primarily employed in occupations related to the many cemeteries in the town.  Since the 1980s, Colma has become more diversified, with the variety of service and retail businesses typical of a small town in the United States.{{ref label|NYT20061203|Pogash|c}}
 
 
{{wide image|colma-california-panoramic1w.jpg|1200px|A [[Panorama|panoramic]] view of Colma, California, looking down from [[San Bruno Mountain]].}}
 
{{wide image|colma-california-panoramic1w.jpg|1200px|A [[Panorama|panoramic]] view of Colma, California, looking down from [[San Bruno Mountain]].}}
  
Colma also contains the final resting place of [[Emperor Norton]] in Woodlawn Cemetery.
+
'''Colma''' is a small town in [[San Mateo County]], [[California]], at the northern end of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], founded as a necropolis in 1924. Much of the land of Colma is dedicated to [[cemetery]] usage. Such famous people as [[newspaper]] [[tycoon]] [[William Randolph Hearst]] and [[baseball]] legend [[Joe DiMaggio]] are buried there. With 17 cemeteries for the interment of humans and one for pets, the dead population outnumbers the living by thousands to one.<ref>Carol Pogash. "Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep"
 
+
[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/us/09cemetery.html?ex=1323320400&en=0aa1719b7d513007&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss] ''The New York Times''
Newspaper [[tycoon]] [[William Randolph Hearst]] is buried at [[Cypress Lawn Memorial Park]]; as are business magnate [[William Henry Crocker]]; Charles De Young, founder of the [[San Francisco Chronicle]]; horticulturist John McLaren; and jazz musician and bandleader [[Turk Murphy]].
+
(December 3, 2006) accessdate 2006-12-09 </ref>
  
[[Wyatt Earp]] is buried at the [[Hills of Eternity]] in Colma next to his wife, [[Josephine Marcus]].{{ref label|NYT20061203|Pogash|d}}
+
Colma became the location of a large number of cemeteries when [[San Francisco]], the town's powerful neighbor to the north, passed an ordinance in 1900 outlawing the construction of any more cemeteries in the city (mainly because of increased property values making the cost of using land for cemeteries prohibitive), and then passed another ordinance in 1912 removing  all existing cemeteries from city limits.
 
 
[[Joe DiMaggio]], the famous [[baseball]] player once married to actress [[Marilyn Monroe]], is buried at [[Holy Cross Cemetery, Colma|Holy Cross Cemetery]];{{ref label|NYT20061203|Pogash|e}} as are coffee heiress and [[Charles Manson|Manson]] murder victim [[Abigail Folger]]; San Francisco Mayor [[Joseph Alioto]]; 32nd governor of California [[Pat Brown]]; Bank of America founder [[Amadeo Giannini|A.P. Giannini]]; and Senator [[James D. Phelan]].
 
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
 
 
<div class="references">
 
<div class="references">
 
<references />
 
<references />
 
</div>
 
</div>
  
 
+
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
+
*Bahn, Paul G. ''100 Great Archaeological Discoveries.'' New York: Barnes & Noble. No. 34, 1995. ISBN 9780760700709
 
+
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree. ''Ancient Europe: an Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World, 8000 B.C.E. – A.D. 1000.'' New York: Scribners, 2004, 341.
* Bahn, Paul G. ed. ''100 Great Archaeological Discoveries'' (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1995) (No. 34).  
+
*Chapman, John. "Social inequality on Bulgarian tells and the Varna problem."  ''The social archaeology of houses, 49—98.'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990.
* Bogucki, Peter, Pam J. Crabtree eds. ''Ancient Europe: an Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World, 8000 B.C.E. – A.D. 1000'' (New York: Scribners, 2004) (p. 341).
+
*Chapman, John. "The creation of social arenas in Varna.''Sacred and profane.'' Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 32, (1991), 152-171.
* Chapman, John. 1990. ''Social inequality on Bulgarian tells and the Varna problem'', in R. Samson (ed.) The social archaeology of houses, 49—98, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.  
+
*Hayden, Brian. "An Archaeological Evaluation of the Gimbutas Paradigm." ''The Virtual Pomegranate,'' Issue 6. (1998).
* Chapman, John. 1991. ''The creation of social arenas in Varna.'' in P. Garwood (ed.), Sacred and profane. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 32: 152-171.
+
*Higham, T., Gaydarska, B. & V. Slavchev. "The first AMS dates for the Varna cemetery." ''Antiquity'' (2004).
* Hayden, Brian, 1998. ''An Archaeological Evaluation of the Gimbutas Paradigm''. In ''The Virtual Pomegranate'', issue 6, 1998.  
+
*Ivanov, Ivan, and M. Avramova. ''Varna Necropolis.'' Sofia, 2000.
* Higham, T., Gaydarska, B. & Slavchev, V. ''The first AMS dates for the Varna cemetery''. ''Antiquity'' 2004.  
+
*Marazov, Ivan. "The Blacksmith as 'King' in the Necropolis of Varna." ''From the Realm.'' (1997).
* Ivanov, Ivan, M. Avramova. ''Varna Necropolis'' (Sofia, 2000).
+
*Marler, Joan. A Response to Brian Hayden's article "An Archaeological Evaluation of the Gimbutas Paradigm." ''The Virtual Pomegranate'' Issue 10, (1999).
* Marazov, Ivan. 1997 ''The Blacksmith as 'King' in the Necropolis of Varna.'' In: ''From the Realm'', J. Marler, ed.
+
*Renfrew, C. "Varna, and the social context of early metallurgy."  ''Antiquity'' 52 (1978), 197-203.
* Marler, Joan, 1999. ''A Response to Brian Hayden's article "An Archaeological Evaluation of the Gimbutas Paradigm.'' In ''The Virtual Pomegranate'', issue 10, 1999.  
+
*Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. ''Archaeology: theories, methods, and practice.'' New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996. ISBN 9780500284414
* Renfrew C 1978 Varna, and the social context of early metallurgy. Antiquity 52: 197-203.
+
*Slavchev, V. "Fragmentation research and the Varna Eneolithic Cemetery Spondylus rings.''Proceedings of the Varna Round Table'' (2004).
* Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. 1996. Archaeology: theories, methods, and practice. New York: Thames and Hudson.
+
*Todorova, Khenrieta. ''The eneolithic period in Bulgaria in the fifth millennium B.C.E.'' Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. BAR supplementary series 49, (1978).
* Slavchev, V. ''Fragmentation research and the Varna Eneolithic Cemetery Spondylus rings''. ''Proceedings of the Varna Round Table'', 2004.
 
* Todorova, Khenrieta. ''The eneolithic period in Bulgaria in the fifth millennium B.C.E.'' Oxford : British Archaeological Reports , 1978. BAR supplementary series 49.
 
 
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://jewishmag.com/97mag/betshearim/betshearim.htm Bet Shearim] Retrieved September 8, 2007.
+
All links retrieved November 11, 2022.
* [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1200 Listing on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites website]
+
*[http://jewishmag.com/97mag/betshearim/betshearim.htm Bet Shearim]  
* [http://www.sentieridelbarocco.it/tour/SIRACUSA/tour_siracusa.htm images of Pantalica]
+
*[http://www.goldensands.bg/cultural/treasure-varna.asp Varna Necropolis Cultural Tourism]  
*[http://www.globalheritagefund.org/sites/EMEA/africa/africa.html Global Heritage Fund Profile]
 
 
 
[http://www.ignca.nic.in/asp/showbig.asp?projid=rar10 Illustration of Sind Tiles]
 
 
 
 
 
[http://www.ayaz.com/photography/albumthumbview.asp?albumid=69&c=8&cn=pakistan Ayaz Asif's photo collection of the Makli Hills and the Shah Jahan Mosque.]
 
 
 
 
 
[http://archnet.org/library/images/thumbnails.tcl?location_id=10027 Archnet.org Digital Library (Photographs)]
 
 
 
 
 
[http://geocities.com/ziadnumis3/makli Two Monuments on Makli Hill]
 
 
 
 
 
*[http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/living_legacies/paracas.php Paracas Textiles at the Brooklyn Museum]
 
*[http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/1peru/sect1.htm Gallery of Paracas objects]
 
 
 
 
 
* [http://www.varna-bg.com/museums/archaeology/enexhibit/enhall5.htm Varna Archaelogical Museum] contains many of the Varna Necropolis artifacts.
 
* [http://www.amvarna.com/eindex.php?lang=2&lid=2&slid=&slid=1 Varna Archaelogical Museum] - more photos.
 
* [http://www.goldensands.bg/cultural/treasure-varna.asp Varna Necropolis Cultural Tourism] page on the [http://www.goldensands.bg/index.htm Golden Sands Resort] web site.
 
* [http://www.hadjimishev.com/Bulgaria%20-%20A%20Land%20of%20Ancient%20Civilizations/images/varna_chalcolithic_necropolis.jpg Another photo by Ivo Hadjimishev]
 
 
 
* [http://www.up.univ-mrs.fr/tresoc/libre/integral/libr0122.pdf ''Lis Aliscamp'' &mdash; A short history (in Langue d'Oc, with translation into French)]
 
 
 
  
 
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Latest revision as of 04:27, 11 March 2023


Radimlja necropolis of stećak in Bosnia and Herzegovina

A necropolis (plural: necropolises or necropolises) is a large cemetery or burial place. Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial grounds near the sites of the centers of ancient civilizations. Often times, these sites incorporate other ancient burial techniques and structures, such as tumuli, crypts, stela, beehive tombs, and catacombs.

A necropolis, thus, is indeed a "city of the dead," a place where the physical remains of numerous people from a society are placed in their eternal "homes." The design and attitudes of each society towards such places reveals much about their beliefs concerning death and the afterlife. Additionally, as places expected to endure as long as possible, the content and style of inscriptions, markers, and monuments also reveals much of their culture and creativity.

Chaukundi necropolis near Karachi, Pakistan

Etymology

The word necropolis derives from Ancient Greek: nekro meaning dead, and polis meaning city. Nekropolis thus is literally translatable as "City of the Dead." Later it was assimilated into Latin without any significant change before being taken up by the English Language.[1]

The word is often used with a different connotation in fantasy literature; for instance, it might refer to a city populated by zombies or other undead creatures.

History and purpose

Necropolises were built for many reasons. Sometimes their origin was purely religious, such as in the case of the Valley of the Kings in Egypt in which many Pharaohs, who were considered to be Gods incarnate, were entombed. Other cultures created necropolises in response to prohibitions on burials within city limits. In the Roman Empire, roads immediately outside towns came to be lined with funerary monuments. Examples of this kind of necropolis can be found on the Appian Way just outside Rome and at the Alyscamps in Arles, France. Simple cemeteries took the place of larger, more elaborate necropolises during the Middle Ages, but in the nineteenth century, necropolises enjoyed a revival spurred by the Victorian fashion for large, elaborate memorials.

Necropolises are still created and used to this day, such as the one found in Colma, California. This suburb of San Francisco has been used for decades to bury the dead of San Francisco, as well as those of other nearby towns. The citizens had felt it necessary to bury the dead outside of city limits, and perhaps out of sight as well. Colma has become more of a working-class suburb, but the dead still outnumber the living in this small town.

World Necropolises

The following is a selection of famous necropolises from around the world.

Europe

Austria

The Burgstallkogel from the West, as seen from the Georgenberg

The Burgstallkogel (also known as Grillkogel) is situated near the confluence of the Sulm and the Saggau river valleys in Southern Styria, about 30 km south of Graz between Gleinstätten and Kleinklein. The hill hosted a significant settlement of trans-regional importance from 800 B.C.E. to about 600 B.C.E. Surrounding the hill is one of the largest iron age hill grave necropolises, originally composed of at least 2,000 tumuli, that exists in continental Europe.

The hill on which the Burgstallkogel is prominently situated runs from east to west, straddling the southern banks of the Sulm valley, on a trade route that crossed the Koralpe mountain range from Carinthia, connecting to the southern parts of the basin of Graz and onward to the Hungarian plains. The settlement apparently controlled long-distance trade along this route, which had been in use since neolithic times, and prospered from it. The community exchanged goods far into Italy and into the Balkans, and might have exploited the iron ore deposits that exist on the hill. The discovery of the necropolis provided archaeologists with a wealth of information regarding the ancient trade route.[2]

Bulgaria

The Varna Necropolis is a burial site in the western industrial zone of Varna (approximately half a kilometer from Lake Varna and 4 km from the city center), Bulgaria, internationally considered a key site in world prehistory.

A burial at Varna, with some of the world's oldest gold jewelry

The site was accidentally discovered in October 1972 by excavation operator Raycho Marinov. Since then, 294 graves have been found in the necropolis, but it is estimated that they make up only 30 percent of the graves in the complex. The graves that have been excavated have been dated to 4600-4200 B.C.E. (radiocarbon dating, 2004) and belong to the Eneolithic Varna culture. Many of the graves contain sophisticated examples of metallurgy (gold and copper), pottery (about 600 pieces, including gold-painted ones), high-quality flint and obsidian blades, beads, and shells.[3]

There are crouched and extended inhumations. Some graves do not contain a skeleton, but grave gifts (cenotaphs). Interestingly, the symbolic (empty) graves are the richest in gold artifacts. 3000 gold artifacts were found, with a weight of approximately six kilograms. Grave 43 contained more gold than has been found in the entire rest of the world for that epoch. Three symbolic graves contained masks of unburnt clay.[4]

France

The Alyscamps is a large Roman necropolis, located a short distance outside the walls of the old town of Arles, France. It was one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world. Roman cities traditionally forbade burials within the city limits. It was therefore common for the roads immediately outside a city to be lined with tombs and mausoleums; the Appian Way outside Rome provides a good example. The Alyscamps was Arles' main burial ground for nearly 1,500 years. It was the final segment of the Aurelian Way leading up to the city gates and was used as a burial ground for well-off citizens, whose memorials ranged from simple sarcophagi to elaborate monuments.

Medieval Church of Saint Honoratus in Les Alyscamps, Arles

The Alyscamps continued to be used after the city was Christianized in the fourth century. Saint Genesius, a Roman civil servant beheaded in 303 for refusing to follow orders to persecute Christians, was buried there and rapidly became the focus of a cult. Saint Trophimus, possibly the first bishop of Arles, was buried there soon afterwards. It was claimed that Christ himself attended the ceremony, leaving the imprint of his knee on a sarcophagus lid.

The area became a highly desirable place to be buried and tombs soon multiplied. As early as the fourth century there were already several thousand tombs, necessitating the stacking of sarcophagi three layers deep. Burial in the Alyscamps became so desirable that bodies were shipped there from all over Europe, with the Rhône boatmen making a healthy profit from the transportation of coffins to Arles.

The Alyscamps continued to be used well into medieval times, although the removal of Saint Trophimus' relics to the cathedral in 1152 reduced its prestige. During the Renaissance the necropolis was systematically looted, with city councilors giving sarcophagi as gifts to distinguished visitors and local people using funerary stones as building material. It was further damaged by the arrival of the railway and a canal in the nineteenth century, both of which sliced across the site. The better of the remaining sarcophagi are now on display in the Museum of Ancient Arles, which has one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself.

Italy

A burial mound, so-called Tumulus, part of the necropolis of Banditaccia at Cerveteri in Lazio, Italy.

The most famous attraction of Cerveteri, Italy, is the Necropoli della Banditaccia, which has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site together with the necropolises in Tarquinia. In includes a total of 1,000 tombs, many housed in characteristic mounds, or tumuli. It is the largest ancient necropolis in the Mediterranean area.[5]

The tombs date from the ninth century B.C.E. (Villanovan culture) to the late Etruscan age (third century B.C.E.). The most ancient ones are in the shape of a pit, in which the ashes of the dead were housed. From the Etruscan period are two types of tombs: the mounds and the so-called "dice," the latter being simple square tombs built in long rows along "roads."

A Burial Chamber in the Etruscan necropolis of Banditaccia near Cerveteri in Lazio, Italy.

The mounds are circular structures built in tuff, and the interiors, carved from the living rock, house a reconstruction of the house of the dead, including a corridor (dromos), a central hall, and several rooms. Modern knowledge of Etruscan daily life is largely dependent on the numerous decorative details and finds from such tombs. The most famous of these mounds is the so-called Tomba dei Rilievi (Tomb of the Reliefs, fourth century B.C.E.), identified from an inscription as belonging to one Matunas and provided with an exceptional series of frescoes, bas-reliefs and sculptures portraying a large series of contemporary life tools.[6]

The most recent tombs date from the third century B.C.E. Some of them are marked by external cippi, which are cylindrical for men, and in the shape of a small house for women. Most finds excavated at Cerveteri necropolis are currently housed in the National Etruscan Museum, Rome. Others are in the Archaeological Museum at Cerveteri itself.

Russia

Kremlin Wall Necropolis

The Kremlin Wall Necropolis (Russian: Некрополь у Кремлёвской стены) is a part of the Kremlin Wall which surrounds the Moscow Kremlin and overlooks Red Square. Soviet governments buried many prominent local and international Communist figures here. The first burial in the Red Square was performed on November 10, 1917 by the order of the Military Revolutionary Committee. The Soviets buried 238 Red Guards and soldiers who had died during the October Revolution in two common graves.

In 1924, Lenin's Mausoleum became the center of the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Behind the mausoleum and at the foot of the Senatskaya Tower of the Kremlin, there are the graves of Yakov Sverdlov, Felix Dzerzhinsky, Mikhail Frunze, Mikhail Kalinin, Georgy Zhukov, Andrei Zhdanov, Joseph Stalin, Kliment Voroshilov, Semyon Budyonny, Mikhail Suslov, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko, with monuments. On both sides of the Senatskaya Tower, the Soviets placed urns with the ashes of CPSU members and members of foreign Communist parties, statesmen, military and political leaders, prominent people of science and culture between 1925 and 1984. Several cosmonauts, including Yuri Gagarin and the victims of the Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 11 disasters, are buried in the necropolis, as well as Sergei Korolev, chief designer of the Soviet space program.[7]

Middle East and Africa

Egypt

View of Saqqara necropolis, including Djoser's step pyramid (center). The mound to the far left is the Pyramid of Unas; the one on the right is the Pyramid of Userkaf.

Located some 30 km south of modern-day Cairo and covering an area of around 7 km by 1.5 km, Saqqara or Sakkara (Arabic: سقارة) is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, featuring the world's oldest standing step pyramid. While Memphis was the capital of Ancient Egypt, Saqqara served as its necropolis. Although it was eclipsed as the burial ground of royalty by Giza and later by the Valley of the Kings in Thebes, it remained an important complex for minor burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic and Roman times. The step pyramid at Saqqara was designed by Imhotep for King Djoser (c. 2667-2648 B.C.E.). It is the oldest complete hewn-stone building complex known in history.[8]

In addition to Djoser's pyramid, there are another 16 pyramids on the site, in various states of preservation or dilapidation. That of the fifth dynasty Pharaoh Unas, located just to the south of the step pyramid and on top of Hotepsekhemwi's tomb, houses the earliest known example of the Pyramid Texts – inscriptions with instructions for the afterlife used to decorate the interior of tombs, the precursor of the New Kingdom Book of the Dead. Saqqara is also home to an impressive number of mastaba tombs. Because the necropolis was lost beneath the sands for much of the past two millennia – even the sizable mortuary complex surrounding Djoser's pyramid was not uncovered until 1924 – many of these have been superbly preserved, with both their structures and lavish internal decorations intact.

Israel

Entrance of the Cave of Coffins, in the Bet She'arim National Park.

Beit She'arim (Hebrew: בית שערים) is the archaeological site of a town and a necropolis on the southern foothills of The Lower Galilee. Most of the remains date from the second to fourth centuries C.E. The inscriptions in the catacombs reveal that the necropolis was of Jewish importance. It served as both a public and private cemetery; the public sections are larger and more complex, resembling catacombs, while the private areas were reserved for members of certain families. The site was mostly abandoned around seventh century and was left to natural ruin and plundering by tomb robbers.[9]

The site was first discovered by accident in 1936 by Alexander Zeid who stayed in the area while watching over the lands of the Jewish National Fund.

Morocco

Part of the Chellah interior

The Necropolis of Chellah, Chella or Sala (Arabic: شالة) is a necropolis and complex of ancient and medieval ruins that lie on the outskirts of Rabat, Morocco’s Ville Nouvelle, or modern section. The site of Chellah is doubtless the most ancient human settlement on the mouth of the Bou Regreg river.

The Phoenicians and the Carthaginians, who founded several colonies in Morocco, probably inhabited the banks of the Bou Regreg. Chellah contains the remains of a Roman town known as Sala Colonia and referred to as Sala by Ptolemy. Excavations show an important port town with uncovered remains including the Decumanus Maximus, or principal way, were discovered, as well as remains of a forum, a monumental fountain, a triumphal arch, and other Roman ruins.

The site was abandoned in 1154 in favor of nearby Salé. The Almohad dynasty used the ghost town as a necropolis. In the mid-fourteenth century, a Merinid sultan, Abu l-Hasan, built several monuments and the imposing main gate (dated to 1339). These later Merinid additions included a mosque, a zawiya, and royal tombs, including that of Abu l-Hasan. Many of the structures in Chellah were damaged or destroyed in an eighteenth century earthquake. The site has been converted to a garden and is now a tourist attraction.

Asia

China

Traditional Chinese architecture inside the Ming Tombs

The Ming Dynasty Tombs (Míng cháo shí sān líng; lit. Thirteen Tombs of the Ming Dynasty) are located some 50 kilometers due north of Beijing at a carefully selected site. The site was chosen by the third Ming Dynasty emperor Yongle (1402 - 1424), who moved the capital of China from Nanjing to the present location of Beijing. From the Yongle Emperor onwards, 13 Ming Dynasty Emperors were buried in this area. In August 2003, the site was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[10] Three tombs have been excavated: Chang Ling, the largest Ding Ling, whose underground palace is open to the public, and Zhao Ling.

The site of the Ming Dynasty Imperial Tombs was carefully chosen according to Feng Shui (geomancy) principles. According to these, bad spirits and evil winds descending from the north must be deflected; therefore, an arc-shaped area at the foot of the Jundu Mountains north of Beijing was selected. This 40 square kilometer area - enclosed by the mountains in a pristine, quiet valley full of dark earth, tranquil water and other necessities as per Feng Shui - would become the necropolis of the Ming Dynasty.[11]

Pakistan

A tomb at Makli Hills necropolis built in 1559

One of the largest necropolises in the world, with a diameter of approximately 8 kilometers, Makli Hill is supposed to be the burial place of some 125,000 Sufi saints. It is located on the outskirts of Thatta, the capital of lower Sind until the seventeenth century, in what is the southeastern province of present-day Pakistan.[12]

Legends abound about its inception, but it is generally believed that the cemetery grew around the shrine of the fourteenth century Sufi, Hamad Jamali. The tombs and gravestones spread over the cemetery are material documents marking the social and political history of Sind.

Imperial mausolea are divided into two major groups, those from the Samma (1352–1520) and Tarkhan (1556–1592) periods. The tomb of the Samma king, Jam Nizam al-Din (reigned 1461–1509), is an impressive square structure built of sandstone and decorated with floral and geometric medallions. Similar to this is the mausoleum of Isa Khan Tarkhan II (d. 1651), a two-story stone building with majestic cupolas and balconies. In contrast to the syncretic architecture of these two monuments, which integrate Hindu and Islamic motifs, are mausolea that clearly show the Central Asian roots of the later dynasty. An example is the tomb of Jan Beg Tarkhan (d. 1600), a typical octagonal brick structure whose dome is covered in blue and turquoise glazed tiles. Today, Makli Hill is a United Nations World Heritage Site that is visited by both pilgrims and tourists.

The Americas

Cuba

Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo in August 2007

Necropolis de San Carlos Borromeo aka Cementerio de San Carlos or San Carlos Cemetery is located in Matanzas, Cuba. It was inaugurated on September 2, 1872. The U.S. Congressman Joseph Marion Hernandez is interred there in the del Junco family crypt.

Peru

The large seaside Paracas necropolis is perhaps the most famous necropolis in South America. It has allowed archaeologists to derive a host of information about the Paracas People, which was an important Andean society between approximately 750 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. First investigated by the Peruvian archaeologist Julio Tello in the 1920s, the necropolis is often called Wari Kayan and consists of large subterranean burial chambers, with an average capacity of about 40 mummies. It has been theorized that each large chamber was owned by a specific family or clan, who would place their dead ancestors in the burial over the course of many generations, in much the same way that family mausoleums are used today. Each mummy was bound with cord to hold it in place, and then wrapped in many layers of intricate, and finely woven textiles. These textiles are now known as some of the finest ever produced in the history of Pre-Columbian Andean societies, and are the primary works of art by which Paracas is known.[13]

United States

A panoramic view of Colma, California, looking down from San Bruno Mountain.
A panoramic view of Colma, California, looking down from San Bruno Mountain.

Colma is a small town in San Mateo County, California, at the northern end of the San Francisco Peninsula in the San Francisco Bay Area, founded as a necropolis in 1924. Much of the land of Colma is dedicated to cemetery usage. Such famous people as newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst and baseball legend Joe DiMaggio are buried there. With 17 cemeteries for the interment of humans and one for pets, the dead population outnumbers the living by thousands to one.[14]

Colma became the location of a large number of cemeteries when San Francisco, the town's powerful neighbor to the north, passed an ordinance in 1900 outlawing the construction of any more cemeteries in the city (mainly because of increased property values making the cost of using land for cemeteries prohibitive), and then passed another ordinance in 1912 removing all existing cemeteries from city limits.

Notes

  1. necropolis. (n.d.). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved September 14, 2007, from Dictionary.com
  2. A. Pydyn, Exchange and cultural interactions: a study of long-distance trade and cross-cultural contacts in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in Central and Eastern Europe. (Archaeopress 1999 ISBN 1841710261}
  3. Archaeological Museum Varna "The Varna Eneolithic Necropolis – The Second Phase of the Eneolithic Age /year 4600 – 4200 B.C.E./" (2002).
  4. (2007) Golden Sands "The Gold of Varna Prehistoric Necropolis: The Beginning of Social Division of Society Retrieved September 14, 2007
  5. UNESCO World Heritage Site "Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia"(2007) Retrieved September 14, 2007
  6. UNESCO World Heritage Site "Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia" (2007) Retrieved September 14, 2007
  7. iPromote Media Inc. "Dying To Get Into The Kremlin"(2006) Retrieved September 14, 2007
  8. Mark T. Rigby "Saqqara" (2000).
  9. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000) "Beit She-arim - The Jewish necropolis of the Roman Period" Retrieved September 14, 2007
  10. UNESCO World Heritage Center (2007) "Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang" Retrieved September 14, 2007
  11. China Internet Information Center (2007) "Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties" Retrieved September 14, 2007
  12. Makli Hill from Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, by Macmillan Reference USA, an imprint of the Gale Group.
  13. Geometry Step-by-step: From the Land of the Incas (2007) "Textiles of the Paracas Culture" Retrieved September 14, 2007
  14. Carol Pogash. "Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep" [1] The New York Times (December 3, 2006) accessdate 2006-12-09

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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External links

All links retrieved November 11, 2022.

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