Difference between revisions of "Leaning Tower of Pisa" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Leaning Tower of Pisa.jpg|250px|right|thumb|The Tower of Pisa.]]
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The '''Leaning  Tower of Pisa'''  or simply '''The Tower of Pisa''' ('''''La Torre di Pisa''''') is the [[campanile]], or freestanding bell tower, of the [[cathedral]] of the [[Italy|Italian]] city of [[Pisa]]. It is situated behind the Cathedral and it is the third structure in Pisa's [[Campo dei Miracoli]] (''field of Miracles'').
 
  
Although intended to stand vertically, the tower began leaning to the southeast soon after the onset of construction in [[1173]] due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift.
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[[Image:Leaning Tower of Pisa.jpg|250px|right|thumb|'''The Tower of Pisa''']]
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The '''Leaning Tower of Pisa''' or simply '''The Tower of Pisa''' ('''''La Torre di Pisa''''') is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the [[cathedral]] of the [[Italy|Italian]] city of [[Pisa]]. It is situated behind the cathedral and it is the third structure in Pisa's [[Campo dei Miracoli]] (“field of miracles”).
  
The height of the tower is 55.86 m (183.27 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 m (186.02 ft) on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 m (13.42 ft) and at the top 2.48 m (8.14 ft). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 [[tonne]]s. The tower has 294 steps.
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The leaning tower of Pisa is a cultural icon that perhaps symbolizes the human ability to sometimes almost defy nature. It amazes many observers that the tower has not given in to the law of gravity, although it is in danger of collapse. The leaning tower of Pisa leans by accident, not by design—yet it was constructed in such a way that it has resisted the pull of gravity. There is an unusual beauty and elegance to the tower, too, so much so that even were it not a leaning tower, it would attract attention as a cultural artifact. The tower began leaning to the southeast soon after the onset of construction in 1173 due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift.
 +
 
 +
The Tower of Pisa was a work of [[art]], performed in three stages over a period of about two hundred years. Construction of the first floor of the white [[marble]] campanile began on August 9, 1173, a period of military success and prosperity. This first floor is surrounded by pillars with classical capitals, leaning against blind arches. Today, it is still unscarred despite enduring centuries of weather and age.
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{{toc}}
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The height of the tower is 55.86 meters (183.27 feet) from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 meters (186.02 feet) on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 meters (13.42 feet) and at the top 2.48 meters (8.14 feet). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tons. The tower has 294 steps.
  
 
==Construction==
 
==Construction==
The construction of the Tower of Pisa was performed in three stages over a period of about 200 years. Construction of the first floor of the white marble [[campanile]] began on [[August 9]], [[1173]], a period of [[military]] success and [[wealth|prosperity]]. This first floor is surrounded by [[column|pillar]]s with classical [[Capital (architecture)|capital]]s, leaning against blind [[arch]]es. Today, it is still unscarred from centuries of [[weathering|weather]] and [[aging|age]].
+
There is controversy about the identity of the [[architecture|architect]] of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and [[Bonanno Pisano]], a well-known twelfth-century resident [[artist]] of Pisa, famous for his [[bronze]] casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, [[Sicily]], only to come back and die in his home town. His [[sarcophagus]] was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820.
 
There is [[controversy]] about the identity of the [[architect]] of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and [[Bonanno Pisano]], a well-known [[1100s|12th-Century ]] resident [[artist]] of Pisa, famous for his [[bronze]] casting, particularly in the [[Campo dei Miracoli|Pisa Duomo]]. Bonanno Pisano left Pisa in [[1185]] for [[Monreale]], [[Sicily]], only to come back and die in his home town. His [[sarcophagus]] was discovered at the foot of the tower in [[1820]].
 
  
The tower first acquired a lean after the third floor was built in [[1178]], due to a mere three-meter foundation set in weak, unstable [[subsoil]]. This means the design was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a [[century]], because the [[Pisan]]s were almost continually engaged in [[battle]]s with [[Genoa]], [[Lucca]] and [[Florence]]. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In [[1198]], clocks were temporarily installed on the unfinished construction.  
+
The tower first acquired a lean after the third floor was built in 1178, due to a mere three-meter foundation set in weak, unstable subsoil. This means the design was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Pisans were almost continually engaged in battles with [[Genoa]], [[Lucca]] and [[Florence]]. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the unfinished construction.  
  
In [[1272]], construction resumed under [[Giovanni di Simone]], architect of the [[Campo dei Miracoli#Camposanto|Camposanto]]. Another four floors were built at an angle to compensate for the tilt. Construction was halted again in [[1284]], when the Pisans were defeated by the [[Genoan]]s in the [[Battle of Meloria (1284)|Battle of Meloria]].
+
In 1272, construction resumed under [[Giovanni di Simone]], architect of the Camposanto. Another four floors were built at an angle to compensate for the tilt. Construction was halted again in 1284, when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the [[Battle of Meloria]].
  
The bell-chamber was not finally added until [[1372]]. It was built by [[Tommaso di Andrea Pisano]], who succeeded in harmonizing the [[gothic architecture|Gothic]] elements of the bell-chamber with the [[Romanesque]] style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in [[1655]].
+
The bell-chamber was not finally added until 1372. It was built by [[Tommaso di Andrea Pisano]], who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the [[Romanesque]] style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
  
[[Galileo Galilei]] is said to have dropped two [[cannon|cannon balls]] of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their descending [[speed]] was independent of their [[mass]]. This story, though reported by Galileo's own student, is widely considered to be a [[legend]].
+
[[Galileo Galilei]] is said to have dropped two cannon balls of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their descending [[speed]] was independent of their [[mass]]. This story, though reported by Galileo's own student, is widely considered to be a legend.
 +
 
 +
In 1838, an architect named [[Alessandro Della Gherardesca]] excavated a walkway around the tower to make the base visible once again. This caused a flooding of the base and an increase in the inclination.
  
In [[1838]], an architect named [[Alessandro Della Gherardesca]] excavated a walkway around the tower to make the base visible once again. This caused a flooding of the base and an increase in the inclination.
+
[[Benito Mussolini]] ordered that the tower be returned to a vertical position, so [[concrete]] was poured into its foundation. However, the result was that the tower actually sank further into the [[soil]].
  
[[Benito Mussolini]] ordered that the tower be returned to a vertical position, so [[concrete]] was poured into its [[foundation (architecture)|foundation]]. However, the result was that the tower actually sank further into the [[soil]].
+
During [[World War II]], the [[Allied Powers (World War II)|Allies]] discovered that the [[Nazism|Nazis]] were using it as an observation post. A humble [[U.S. Army]] sergeant was briefly entrusted with the fate of the tower. His decision not to call in an [[artillery]] strike saved the edifice.
  
During [[World War II]], the [[Allies]] discovered that the [[Nazis]] were using it as an observation post. A humble [[U.S. Army]] [[sergeant]] was briefly entrusted with the fate of the tower. His decision not to call in an [[artillery]] strike saved the edifice.<ref>Shrady, Nicholas. (2003). ''Tilt: a skewed history of the Tower of Pisa''. New York: Simon & Schuster.</ref>
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On February 27, 1964, the [[government]] of [[Italy]] requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was however considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the vital role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.
  
On [[February 27]], [[1964]], the [[government]] of [[Italy]] requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was however considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the vital role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.<ref>{{
+
A multinational task force of [[engineering|engineers]], [[mathematician]]s and [[historian]]s was assigned and met on the [[Azores]] islands to discuss stabilization methods. After over two decades of work on the subject, the tower was closed to the public in January 1990. While the tower was closed, the bells were removed to relieve some weight and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001. It was found that lean was increasing due to the stonework expanding and contracting each day due to the heat of sunlight. This was working in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilize the tower, including the addition of 800 metric tons of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base. The final solution to preventing collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38 cubic meters of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower has been declared stable for at least another three hundred years.
cite news
 
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE5DE153EF932A35752C1A961948260
 
|publisher=The New York Times
 
|title=Securing the Lean In Tower of Pisa
 
|date=November 1, 1987
 
}}</ref> A multinational [[task force]] of [[engineering|engineers]], [[mathematician]]s and [[historian]]s was assigned and met on the [[Azores]] islands to discuss stabilization methods. After over two decades of work on the subject, the tower was closed to the public in [[January 1990]]. While the tower was closed, the bells were removed to relieve some weight and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on [[December 15]], [[2001]]. It was found that lean was increasing due to the stonework expanding and contracting each day due to the heat of sunlight. This was working in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilize the tower, including the addition of 800 metric tons of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.{{cite needed}} The final solution to preventing collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38&nbsp;[[cubic metre|m<sup>3</sup>]] of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower has been declared stable for at least another 300 years.
 
  
In 1987, the tower was declared as part of the [[Campo dei Miracoli]] [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] along with neighboring [[cathedral]], [[baptistery]] and cemetery.
+
In 1987, the tower was declared as part of the Campo dei Miracoli [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] along with neighboring cathedral, baptistery and cemetery.
  
 
==Technical Information==
 
==Technical Information==
 
[[Image:Lightmatter pisa.jpg|200px|thumb|right|View looking up]]
 
[[Image:Lightmatter pisa.jpg|200px|thumb|right|View looking up]]
*[[Geographic coordinates]]: {{coor d|43.7231|N|10.3964|E|}}
+
*Elevation of Piazza dei Miracoli: about 2 meters (6 feet, DMS)  
*Elevation of Piazza dei Miracoli: about 2 [[metre]]s (6 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]], DMS)  
+
*Height: 55.863 meters (183 feet, 3 inches), 8 stories
*Height: 55.863 metres (183 ft 3 in), 8 stories
+
*Outer diameter of base: 15.484 meters
*Outer diameter of base: 15.484 m
+
*Inner diameter of base: 7.368 meters
*Inner diameter of base: 7.368 m
 
 
*Angle of Slant: 13 degrees
 
*Angle of Slant: 13 degrees
*Weight: 14,700 [[tonne]]s
+
*Weight: 14,700 tons
*Thickness of walls at the base: 8 ft (2.4 m)
+
*Thickness of walls at the base: 8 feet (2.4 meters)
 
*Total number of bells: 7, tuned to [[musical scale]], clockwise  
 
*Total number of bells: 7, tuned to [[musical scale]], clockwise  
**1st bell: L'assunta, cast in [[1654]] by [[Giovanni Pietro Orlandi]], weight 3,620 kg (7,981 lb)
+
**1st bell: L'assunta, cast in 1654 by [[Giovanni Pietro Orlandi]], weighs 3,620 kilograms (7,981 pounds)
**2nd bell: il Crocifisso, cast in [[1572]] by [[Vincenzo Possenti]], weight 2,462 kg (5,428 lb)
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**2nd bell: il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by [[Vincenzo Possenti]], weights 2,462 kilograms (5,428 pounds)
**3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in [[1719]]-[[1721]] by [[Giovanni Andrea Moreni]], weight 1,448 kg (3,192 lb)
+
**3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719-1721 by [[Giovanni Andrea Moreni]], weighs 1,448 kilograms (3,192 pounds)
**4th bell: La Terza (1st small one), cast in [[1473]], weight 300 kg (661 lb)
+
**4th bell: La Terza (first small one), cast in 1473, weighs 300 kilograms (661 pounds)
**5th bell: La Pasquereccia, cast in [[1262]] by [[Lotteringo]], weight 1,014 kg (2,235 lb)
+
**5th bell: La Pasquereccia, cast in 1262 by [[Lotteringo]], weighs 1,014 kilograms (2,235 pounds)
**6th bell: il Vespruccio (2nd small one), cast in the [[1300s|14th century]] and again in [[1501]] by [[Nicola di Jacopo]], weight 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)
+
**6th bell: il Vespruccio (second small one), cast in the fourteenth century and again in 1501 by [[Nicola di Jacopo]], weighs 1,000 kilograms (2,205 pounds)
**7th bell: Del Pozzetto, cast in [[1606]], weight 652 kg (1,437 lb)
+
**7th bell: Del Pozzetto, cast in 1606, weighs 652 kilograms (1,437 pounds)
 
*Steps to bell tower: 294
 
*Steps to bell tower: 294
 
==In Popular Culture==
 
 
*The movie ''[[Superman III]]'' features an evil [[Superman]] doing several "bad deeds" around the world - one of which is straightening the Leaning Tower of Pisa, played to comedic effect. The famous final scene of the film features Superman pushing the tower back to its normal inclination.
 
*In the ''[[Histeria!]]'' episode "The Wheel of History", [[Froggo]] is shown attempting to push the tower into its leaning position, unsuccessfully. He soon manages to accomplish the task with the help of [[Archimedes]] (played by [[Chit Chatterson]]) and his lever.
 
*In the Cartoon series [[Futurama]] the leaning tower is knocked straight by Fry and Bender and then knocked back again on a joy ride in the Planet Express Ship.
 
*In the movie ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'', the Leaning Tower (of Pizza) is mentioned in connection with their scheme to tilt a building in order to gain access to it.
 
 
==Notes==
 
 
<div class="references-small">
 
<references />
 
</div>
 
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
* Bicknell, Julian, and Steve Chapman. ''Great Buildings Model Kit: The Parthenon, the Taj Mahal, the Leaning Tower of Pisa, Monticello''. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1995. ISBN 9780517883501
 +
* Nasht, Simon, Marco Visalberghi and Hal Linden. ''Fall of the Leaning Tower''. South Burlington, VT: WGBH Boston (video), 1999. ISBN 9781578072088
 +
* Shrady, Nicholas. ''Tilt: a skewed history of the Tower of Pisa''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. ISBN 9780743229265
 +
* Williams, Kim. “Nexus: architecture and mathematics.” Collana ''Gli studi'' 2 Fucecchio (Firenze): Edizioni dell'Erba, 1996. ISBN 9788886888042
  
*{{cite book
+
==External links==
  | last = Shrady
+
All links retrieved October 25, 2022.
  | first = Nicholas
+
*[http://www.towerofpisa.info/ Leaning Tower of Pisa]
  | authorlink = Nicholas Shrady
+
*[http://www.italyguides.it/us/pisa/leaning_tower.htm The Leaning Tower of Pisa] ''Italy Guides''
  | coauthors =
 
  | title =  Tilt: a skewed history of the Tower of Pisa
 
  | publisher = Simon & Schuster
 
  | date = [[2003]]
 
  | location = New York
 
  | url =
 
  | doi =
 
  | id = ISBN 0743229266}}
 
  
 +
{{credit|90661740}}
  
== See also ==
+
[[Category:History]]
 
+
[[Category:Geography]]
* [[Leaning tower]], for a general description of the phenomenon.
 
* [[Round tower]], for other types of round towers.
 
* [[Leaning Tower of Niles]], a replica of the Tower of Pisa
 
* [[Torre delle Milizie]], a tilting medieval tower in [[Rome]]
 
* [[Machang]] - another leaning tower
 
 
 
==External links==
 
{{Commons|Torre di Pisa}}
 
*[http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=43723000&x=10396376&z=18&l=0&m=h Satellite view of Leaning Tower of Pisa]
 
*[http://www.holidaylocal.com/index.asp?latlong=43.7231,10.3964 Holiday Local Map Guide]
 
*[http://www.italyguides.it/us/pisa/leaning_tower.htm The Leaning Tower of Pisa] Virtual reality movies
 
*[http://torre.duomo.pisa.it/ The Official Site] In both English and Italian
 
*[http://www.endex.com/gf/buildings/ltpisa/ltpnews/nazione4.htm How the process of inclination was stopped]
 
 
 
[[Category:History and biography]]
 
[[Category:Nations and places]]
 
 
[[Category:Landmarks]]
 
[[Category:Landmarks]]
 
{{credit|90661740}}
 

Latest revision as of 18:48, 25 October 2022


The Tower of Pisa

The Leaning Tower of Pisa or simply The Tower of Pisa (La Torre di Pisa) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa. It is situated behind the cathedral and it is the third structure in Pisa's Campo dei Miracoli (“field of miracles”).

The leaning tower of Pisa is a cultural icon that perhaps symbolizes the human ability to sometimes almost defy nature. It amazes many observers that the tower has not given in to the law of gravity, although it is in danger of collapse. The leaning tower of Pisa leans by accident, not by design—yet it was constructed in such a way that it has resisted the pull of gravity. There is an unusual beauty and elegance to the tower, too, so much so that even were it not a leaning tower, it would attract attention as a cultural artifact. The tower began leaning to the southeast soon after the onset of construction in 1173 due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift.

The Tower of Pisa was a work of art, performed in three stages over a period of about two hundred years. Construction of the first floor of the white marble campanile began on August 9, 1173, a period of military success and prosperity. This first floor is surrounded by pillars with classical capitals, leaning against blind arches. Today, it is still unscarred despite enduring centuries of weather and age.

The height of the tower is 55.86 meters (183.27 feet) from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 meters (186.02 feet) on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 meters (13.42 feet) and at the top 2.48 meters (8.14 feet). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tons. The tower has 294 steps.

Construction

There is controversy about the identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano, a well-known twelfth-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. His sarcophagus was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820.

The tower first acquired a lean after the third floor was built in 1178, due to a mere three-meter foundation set in weak, unstable subsoil. This means the design was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Pisans were almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the unfinished construction.

In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. Another four floors were built at an angle to compensate for the tilt. Construction was halted again in 1284, when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.

The bell-chamber was not finally added until 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.

History

Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannon balls of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their descending speed was independent of their mass. This story, though reported by Galileo's own student, is widely considered to be a legend.

In 1838, an architect named Alessandro Della Gherardesca excavated a walkway around the tower to make the base visible once again. This caused a flooding of the base and an increase in the inclination.

Benito Mussolini ordered that the tower be returned to a vertical position, so concrete was poured into its foundation. However, the result was that the tower actually sank further into the soil.

During World War II, the Allies discovered that the Nazis were using it as an observation post. A humble U.S. Army sergeant was briefly entrusted with the fate of the tower. His decision not to call in an artillery strike saved the edifice.

On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was however considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the vital role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.

A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians and historians was assigned and met on the Azores islands to discuss stabilization methods. After over two decades of work on the subject, the tower was closed to the public in January 1990. While the tower was closed, the bells were removed to relieve some weight and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001. It was found that lean was increasing due to the stonework expanding and contracting each day due to the heat of sunlight. This was working in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilize the tower, including the addition of 800 metric tons of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base. The final solution to preventing collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38 cubic meters of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower has been declared stable for at least another three hundred years.

In 1987, the tower was declared as part of the Campo dei Miracoli UNESCO World Heritage Site along with neighboring cathedral, baptistery and cemetery.

Technical Information

View looking up
  • Elevation of Piazza dei Miracoli: about 2 meters (6 feet, DMS)
  • Height: 55.863 meters (183 feet, 3 inches), 8 stories
  • Outer diameter of base: 15.484 meters
  • Inner diameter of base: 7.368 meters
  • Angle of Slant: 13 degrees
  • Weight: 14,700 tons
  • Thickness of walls at the base: 8 feet (2.4 meters)
  • Total number of bells: 7, tuned to musical scale, clockwise
    • 1st bell: L'assunta, cast in 1654 by Giovanni Pietro Orlandi, weighs 3,620 kilograms (7,981 pounds)
    • 2nd bell: il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by Vincenzo Possenti, weights 2,462 kilograms (5,428 pounds)
    • 3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719-1721 by Giovanni Andrea Moreni, weighs 1,448 kilograms (3,192 pounds)
    • 4th bell: La Terza (first small one), cast in 1473, weighs 300 kilograms (661 pounds)
    • 5th bell: La Pasquereccia, cast in 1262 by Lotteringo, weighs 1,014 kilograms (2,235 pounds)
    • 6th bell: il Vespruccio (second small one), cast in the fourteenth century and again in 1501 by Nicola di Jacopo, weighs 1,000 kilograms (2,205 pounds)
    • 7th bell: Del Pozzetto, cast in 1606, weighs 652 kilograms (1,437 pounds)
  • Steps to bell tower: 294

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bicknell, Julian, and Steve Chapman. Great Buildings Model Kit: The Parthenon, the Taj Mahal, the Leaning Tower of Pisa, Monticello. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1995. ISBN 9780517883501
  • Nasht, Simon, Marco Visalberghi and Hal Linden. Fall of the Leaning Tower. South Burlington, VT: WGBH Boston (video), 1999. ISBN 9781578072088
  • Shrady, Nicholas. Tilt: a skewed history of the Tower of Pisa. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. ISBN 9780743229265
  • Williams, Kim. “Nexus: architecture and mathematics.” Collana Gli studi 2 Fucecchio (Firenze): Edizioni dell'Erba, 1996. ISBN 9788886888042

External links

All links retrieved October 25, 2022.

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