Difference between revisions of "Leadership" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Sociology]]
 
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[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
  
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'''Leadership''' is the ability to lead or someone who is the head of a group of people. There are different strategies for obtaining and executing the most effective leadership along with different styles of management. Effective leadership does not necessarily mean the leader is good and the results benefit [[society]], as evidenced by [[Nazi]] Germany under [[Adolf Hitler]]. Good societies, however, are rarely extant without effective leadership.
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Understanding leadership has been the source of much research and theorizing. [[Sociology|Sociologists]] such as [[Max Weber]] have been in the forefront of such work. It has been suggested that there are several kinds of leadership, with different qualities such as [[charisma]], [[entrepreneur|entrepreneurial]] spirit, and the ability to [[communication|communicate]] and work well together with others. Understanding how to lead also involves understanding the role and needs of the followers. Thus, a leader who can [[motivation|motivate]] their followers to a common goal, that benefits all, encourage them to work together cooperatively, and take care of their needs is one who is most likely to be successful in the long run.
  
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==Scope of leadership==
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Leadership can refer to simply governing oneself, or to government of the whole earth. In between, there are leaders who operate primarily within:
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* [[Youth]]
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* [[family|Families]]
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* [[band society|Band]]s
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* [[Tribe]]s
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* [[nation-state|Nation]]s
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* [[Empire]]s
  
House defines "leadership" organizationally and narrowly as "the ability of an individual to influence, [[motivation|motivate]], and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members".<ref>House, R. J. 2004: page 15</ref>  Organizationally, leadership directly impacts the effectiveness of costs, revenue generation, service, satisfaction, earnings, market value, share price, social capital, motivation, engagement, and sustainability.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Leadership is the ability of an individual to set an [[example]] for others and lead from the front. It is an attitude that influences the environment around us. {{Fact|date=March 2007}}
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Intertwined with such categories, and overlapping them, one finds (for example) religious leaders (potentially with their own internal hierarchies), work-place leaders ([[corporate officer|executive]]s, officers, [[senior management|senior/upper manager]]s, [[middle management|middle manager]]s, staff-managers, line-managers, [[team leader|team-leader]]s, [[supervisor]]s), and leaders of voluntary associations.
  
Compare the discussions on group leadership and ''ad hoc'' leadership above. One can also characterize leadership by the period of the authority, as in "During the 1940s Russia was under Stalinist leadership". In formal [[hierarchy|hierarchies]] the term can also serve to describe the position or relationships which allow and legitimize the exercising of what one might term "leadership behavior".   
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Some [[anthropology|anthropologists]] have envisaged a widespread (but by no means universal) pattern of progression in the organization of society in ever-larger groups, with the needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly. Thus, simple [[dispute resolution]] may become legalistic dispensation of [[justice]] before developing into proactive [[legislature|legislative]] activity. Some leadership careers parallel this sort of progression: Today's school-board chairperson may become tomorrow's city councilor, then take in (say) a [[mayor]]dom before graduating to nation-wide [[politics]]. This can be compared to the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' in [[ancient Rome]].
 
 
In some languages the term for a leader and the term for the principle of leadership have very different meanings. Furthermore, note the different connotations of a synonym of the word "leader" adopted from the German: the word ''[[Führer]]'', and its accompanying ideas on the ''[[Führerprinzip]]''.
 
 
 
In would-be controlling groups such as the military, [[political parties]], ruling [[elite|élite]]s, and other [[belief]]-based enterprises like [[religion]]s or [[business]]es, the idea of leadership can become a [[Holy Grail]] and people can come to expect [[personal growth|transformational]] change stemming from the leader; such entities may encourage their followers and believers to worship leadership, to respect it, and to strive (whether realistically or not) to become effective in it.  Ideally, one cannot buy or sell leadership in the military (or elsewhere); instead, leaders must ratify their position of command in the [[hearts and minds]] of their soldiers in order to obtain the best from them. Followers in such a situation may become uncritically [[obedience|obedient]]. Personal strategies that one can use to guard against the unrealistic expectations associated with belief in leaders include:
 
* maintaining a questioning and [[skepticism|skeptical]] attitude
 
* bolstering confidence in one's own [[decision making|decision-making]] abilities
 
* seeking independent verification through appropriate measurement and reporting infrastructures
 
 
 
== Categories and types of leadership ==
 
 
 
One can categorize the exercise of leadership as either actual or potential:
 
* actual - giving guidance or direction, as in the phrase "the emperor has provided satisfactory leadership".
 
* potential - the capacity or ability to lead, as in the phrase "she could have exercised effective leadership"; or in the concept "born to lead".
 
 
 
In both cases, as a result of the constancy of [[change]] some people detect within the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the act of [[learning]] appears fundamental to certain types of leading and leadership.  When learning and leadership coalesce, one could characterize this as "[[learnership]]".
 
 
 
Leadership can have a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership) or an informal one (as in most friendships). Speaking of "leadership" (the abstract term) rather than of "leading" (the action) usually implies that the entities doing the leading have some "leadership skills" or competencies. Several types of entities may provide or exhibit leadership, actual or potential, including:
 
* a [http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/times_grant0702.html person] in a position or office of [[authority]], such as a [[President]] or a [[chairperson]]
 
* a person in a position or office associated with expertise, skill, or experience, such as a [[team]] leader, a ship's [[captain]], a [[Chief Engineer|chief engineer]], a [[chief]], or a [[parent]]
 
* a group or person in the [[vanguard]] of some [[trend]] or movement, as in fashion trend-setters
 
* a group of respected people, (called a "reference group" by sociologists) such as business commentators or union spokespersons <sup>[http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/04/01/milton_030401]</sup>
 
* a product that influences other product offerings in a competitive marketplace
 
 
 
Leadership can come from an individual, a collective group of leaders, or even from the disincarnated — if not mystical — characteristics of a celebrity [[figurehead (political)|figurehead]] (compare [[hero]]). Yet other usages have a "leadership" which does little active leading, but to which followers show great (often traditional) [[respect]] (compare the courtesy title ''[[reverend]]''). Followers often endow the leader with status or prestige. Aside from the [[prestige (sociology)|prestige]]-role sometimes granted to [[inspiration]]al leaders, a more mundane usage of the word "leadership" can designate current front-runners that exercise influence over competitors, for example, a [[corporation]] or a [[product (business)|product]] can hold a position of "[[market]] leadership" without any implication of permanence or of merited respect. (See also [[price leadership]].) Note that the ability to influence others does form an integral part of the "leadership" of some but not all front-runners. A front-runner in a sprint may "lead" the race, but does not have a position of "leadership" if he does not have the potential to influence others in some way. Thus one can make an important distinction between "being in the lead" and the process of leadership. Leadership implies a relationship of [[power (sociology)|power]] — the power to [[guide]] ot
 
Authors have differentiated in number of type of leaderships but broadly there exists three types of leaderships- authoritarian (which would include feudal and dictatorial type), democratic or participative leader and Laissez Faire or Free Rein.
 
 
 
== The Psychology of Leadership ==
 
 
 
Analyzing the inspirational leader (one who can instill [[passion]] and direction into a group of individuals) requires an understanding of how the [[group psychology|psychology of a group]] can affect the members of the group.
 
 
 
Different approaches to [[group dynamics]] (for example:  [http://carmazzi.net Arthur F Carmazzi's] [http://directivecommunication.com/index1.html ''Directive Communication Methodology'']; and [http://www.wharton.upenn.edu/faculty/barsade.html Sigal Barsade's] theory of [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4035/is_4_47/ai_107762239 ''The Ripple Effect''], see leadership as a product of awareness and command of the reactions and influences of a group on the emotions of the individual.
 
 
 
According to [http://carmazzi.net/afc_motivational_keynote_speaker_trainer_asia.html Arthur F Carmazzi], leadership does not involve changing the mindset of the group,  but the cultivation of an environment that brings out the best (inspires) the individuals in that group… Each individual has various environments that bring out different facets from their own [[identity]], and emotionally charged perceptions drive each facet within each environment. To lead, Carmazzi says, one must build a [[platform]] through education and awareness where individuals fill each others needs. Leaders accomplish this by knowing why people may react favorably to a situation in environment A, but get frustrated or disillusioned in environment B.
 
 
 
When leaders change their actions in accordance with their awareness of what those actions really mean, they affect the emotional and perceptive affects on a group. By taking control of the “standard” reactions to the actions of the group, a leader can in effect change the psychology of the group and change the culture of an organization.'''''' ==
 
== Leadership associated with positions of authority ==
 
 
 
In ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History'', [[Thomas Carlyle]] demonstrated the concept of leadership associated with a position of [[authority]] (''[[auctoritas]]'' in Latin). In praising [[Oliver Cromwell|Oliver Cromwell's]] use of [[power (sociology)|power]] to bring King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] to trial and eventual [[English Civil War|beheading]], he wrote the following: "Let us remark, meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a King is, in all movements of men. It is strikingly shown, in this very War, what becomes of men when they cannot find a Chief Man, and their enemies can." <sup>[http://ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext97/heros10.txt]</sup>
 
 
 
From this viewpoint, leadership emerges when an [[entity]] as "leader" contrives to receive deference from other entities who become "followers". And as the passage from Carlyle demonstrates, the process of getting deference can become competitive in that the emerging "leader" draws "followers" from the factions of the prior or alternative "leaders".
 
 
 
In [[representative democracies]] the [[people]] retain [[sovereignty]] ([[popular sovereignty]]) but delegate day-to-day [[administration (government)|administration]] and leadership to elected officials. In the [[United States]], for example, the [[Constitution]] provides an example of recycling authority. In the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] of 1787, the American [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founder]]s rejected the idea of a [[monarch]]. But they still proposed leadership by people in positions of authority, with the authority split into [[separation of powers|three powers]]: in this case the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. Under the American theory, the authority of the leadership derives from the power of the voters as conveyed through the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral college]]. Many individuals share authority, including the many legislators in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. <sup>[http://www.constitution.org/dfc/dfc_0917.htm]</sup>
 
 
 
=== Leadership cycles ===
 
 
 
If a group or an organization wants or expects identifiable leadership, it will require processes for appointing/acquiring and replacing leaders.
 
 
 
Traditional closed groups rely on [[dynasty|bloodlines]] or [[gerontocracy|seniority]] to select leaders and/or leadership candidates: [[monarchy|monarchies]], [[tribe|tribal]] [[chiefdom]]s, [[oligarchy|oligarchies]] and [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] societies rely on (and often define their [[institution]]s by) such methods.
 
 
 
Competence or perceived competence provides a possible basis for selecting leadership [[elite]]s from a broader pool of potential talent. Political [[lobbying]] may prove necessary in [[electoral system]]s, but immediately demonstrated [[skill]] and [[moral character|character]] may secure leadership in smaller groups such as [[gang]]s.
 
 
 
Many organizations and groups aim to identify, grow, foster and promote what they see as leadership potential or ability - especially among younger members of society. See for example the [[Scouting]] movement. For a specific environment, see [[leadership development]].
 
 
 
The issues of [[succession planning]] or of [[legitimation]] become important at times when leadership (particularly individual leadership) might or must change due to term-expiry, accident or [[senescence]]. can you really do this?
 
 
 
 
 
=== Leadership as a phase in human life-cycles===
 
Some cultures, especially those with a reverence for age and wisdom, see leadership as a [http://www.ima-art.org/cycles/ standard part of the life-cycle] of a person. Just as a youth becomes initiated into adulthood, so an adult may gain initiation as a leader. Such societies may require special reinforcement of the [[respect]] and [[kudos]] due to such senior members in order to maintain their position. If aged adults can no longer hunt or fight or play a full part in physical labor, for example, those adults' positions in society must rest on respect and implied wisdom and teaching roles, whether or not they show identified "leadership traits".
 
 
 
=== Titles emphasizing authority ===
 
 
 
At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied different degrees or ranks of leadership in society. Thus a [[knight]] led fewer men in general than did a [[duke]]; a [[baronet]] might in theory control less land than an [[earl]]. See [[peerage]] for a systematization of this hierarchy, and [[order of precedence]] for links to various systems.
 
 
 
In the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, several political operators took non-traditional paths to become dominant in their societies. They or their systems often expressed a belief in strong individual leadership, but existing titles and labels ("King", "Emperor", "President" and so on) often seemed inappropriate, insufficient or downright inaccurate in some circumstances. The formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their flunkies employed express and foster a general veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. The definite article when used as part of the title (in languages which use definite articles) emphasizes the existence of a sole "true" leader. Cases include:
 
* [[Caudillo]]s in Spanish-speaking countries, notably Spain's [[Francisco Franco]], Chile's [[Augusto Pinochet]] or the Dominican Republic's [[Rafael Leónidas Trujillo|Rafael Trujillo]]
 
* ''Conducător'' in Romania - [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]
 
* [[Duce|Il Duce]] in Italy - [[Benito Mussolini]]
 
* [[Führer|Der Führer]] in Germany - [[Adolf Hitler]]
 
* '''The Dear Leader''' in North Korea - [[Kim Jong-il]]
 
* '''The Great Helmsman''' in China - [[Mao Zedong]]
 
* '''The Great Leader''' in North Korea - [[Kim Il-sung]]
 
* '''Vozd''' in Serbia - [[Karadjordje]]
 
* '''Poglavnik''' in Croatia - [[Ante Pavelic|Ante Pavelić]]
 
* '''Vozhd''' in the Soviet Union - [[Joseph Stalin]]
 
 
 
The different etymologies of these titles suggest various images of leadership: that of a "driver" (Führer, Vozhd), of a "head" (Caudillo, Poglavnik), or of someone followed (Duce, ''Conducător'').
 
 
 
Such titles, and even the personal names associated with them, may also appear with reference — often jocular — to heirs and would-be imitators. Thus people may continue to speak of ''little Hitlers'' in a workplace or refer to a non-collegial prime minister ironically as ''The Great Helmsman''. Compare the way in which the personal family name ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' and the adopted by-name ''[[Augustus]]'' became effectively titles or designations for successive heads of the [[Roman Empire]].
 
 
 
The whole structure of military [[hierarchy|hierarchies]] and the idea and the titles of an [[officer corps]] tend to reinforce the importance attached to leadership and to the [[chain of command]] in the [[military]]. Thus (for example) [[other ranks]] defer to [[Lieutenant]]s who defer to [[Major]]s who defer to [[Colonel]]s who defer to [[General]]s who defer to [[Marshal]]s. Similar elaborate structures of hierarchical leadership titles can occur in Christian churches ([[Deacon]] - [[Priest]] - [[Bishop]] - [[Archbishop]] - [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]]) or in commercial enterprises ([[team leader]] - [[supervisor]] - [[line manager]]/[[middle management|middle manager]] - [[staff manager]]/[[senior management|senior manager]] - [[vice president]] etc).
 
 
 
Informal, often spontaneously-generated titles or descriptions can provide informative insights. The use of "[[boss]]" in work-places and crime-syndicates may suggest a relatively loose hierarchy, while dubbing someone "chief" can express either instantaneous readiness to follow of an acknowledgment of collegiality.
 
 
 
Some titles can outstay their use. "Divine [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]" fell prey to religious changes in the later Roman Empire. "[[Slavemaster|Master]]" (or "Massa") has fallen out of general use in the [[Southern United States|American South]], and "Baas" has new connotations in the new South Africa since the late 20th century.
 
 
 
Other honorifics can also change in accordance with social circumstances. Britons whose remote ancestors paid due deference to the local "[[lord]]" will now find that title more concentrated in the areas of politics and the law. Their American cousins have virtually confined the word "lord" to religious usage.
 
 
 
=== Symbolism of leadership ===
 
 
 
Main article: [[Symbols of leadership]]
 
 
 
Various symbolic attributes — often varying according to the cultural milieu — mark out authority-figures and help make them seem special and revered or feared. For examples and discussion, see [[symbols of leadership]].
 
 
 
== Leadership amongst primates ==
 
 
 
Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in ''[[Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence]]'' present evidence that only [[Homo sapiens|humans]] and [[chimpanzee]]s, among all the [[animal]]s living on [[earth]], share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: [[violence]], [[Territory (animal)|territoriality]], and [[competition]] for uniting behind the one chief male of the land. <sup>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/demonicmales.htm]</sup> This position is contentious.  Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.)  The evidence is not empirical, it is completely false.
 
 
 
By comparison, [[bonobo]]s, the second-closest species-relatives of man, do ''not'' unite behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male in the land. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership.
 
 
 
Some have argued that, since the bonobo pattern inverts the dominant pattern among chimpanzees and men with regard to whether a female can get more followers than a male, humans and chimpanzees both likely inherited gender-bias against women from the ancestors of the chimpanzees; [[bias|gender-bias]] features as a [[genetics|genetic]] condition of [[men]]. And the bias against women having leadership as a position of authority occurs in most [[culture]]s in the world. As of 2002, Sweden had the highest percentage of women in the legislature: but only 43%. And the United States, Andorra, Israel, Sierra Leone, and Ireland tied for 57th place with less than 15% of the legislature women.<sup>[http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm]</sup> Admittedly, those percentages significantly outclass the occurrence of female chimpanzees becoming [[Alpha male|alpha]] of the community by getting the most followers, but similar trends exist in manifesting a general gender-bias across cultures against females gaining leadership as a position of authority over followers.
 
 
 
An alternative explanation suggests that those individuals best suited to lead the a group will somehow rise to the occasion and that followers (for some reason) will accept them as leaders or as proto-leaders. In this scenario, the traits of the leaders (such as gender, aggressiveness, etc.) will depend on the requirements of a given situation, and ongoing leadership may become extrapolated from a series of such situations.
 
 
 
In [[cultural anthropology]], much speculation on the origins of human leadership relates to the perceived increasing need for [[dispute resolution]] in increasingly densely-populated and increasingly complex [[society|societies]].
 
 
 
rigin, the image of swarms of [[lemming]]s which follow the first lemming off a cliff appears frequently in characterizing followers. The animal kingdom also provides the actual model of the [[bellwether]] function in a mob of [[sheep]]. And human society also offers many examples of emulation. The [[fashion]] industry, for example, depends on it. Fashion marketers design clothing for celebrities, then offer less expensive variations/imitations for those who emulate the celebrities.
 
 
 
Unintentional leadership can also occur from more pro-active forms followership. For example, in organizations which punish both leadership inaction and mistakes, and in which a predicament has no good solution, a common tendency involves  declaring oneself a follower of someone else — metaphorically [[pass the buck|passing the buck]].
 
 
 
Another example of followership without intentional leadership comes with the market leadership of a pioneering company, or the [[price leadership]] of a [[monopoly|monopolist]]. Other companies will emulate a successful strategy, product, or price, but originators may certainly not desire this — in fact they often do all they can legally do to prevent such direct competition.
 
 
 
The term "leadership" sometimes applies (confusingly) to a winning position in a race. One can speak of a front-runner in a sprint or of the "leader" in an election or poll as in a position of leadership. But such "leadership" does not involve any influence processes, and the "leader" will have followers who may not willingly choose to function as followers. Once again: one can make an important distinction between "in the lead" and the process of leadership. Once again, leadership implies a [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]] of [[power (sociology)|power]] - the power to [[guide]] others.
 
 
 
Leading from the front, in a military sense, may imply foolhardiness and unnecessary self-exposure to danger: these do not necessarily make for successful long-term leadership strategies.
 
 
 
== Scope of leadership ==
 
 
 
One can govern oneself, or one can govern the whole earth. In between, we may find leaders who operate primarily within:
 
* [[youth]]
 
* [[family|families]]
 
* [[band society|band]]s
 
* [[tribe]]s
 
* [[state]]s and [[nation]]s
 
* [[empire]]s
 
 
 
Intertwined with such categories, and overlapping them, we find (for example) religious leaders (potentially with their own internal hierarchies), work-place leaders ([[corporate officer|executive]]s, [[corporate officer|officer]]s, [[senior management|senior/upper manager]]s, [[middle management|middle manager]]s, staff-managers, line-managers, [[team leader|team-leader]]s, [[supervisor]]s ...) and leaders of voluntary associations.
 
 
 
Some anthropological ideas envisage a widespread (but by no means universal) pattern of progression in the organisation of society in ever-larger groups, with the needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly. Thus simple [[dispute resolution]] may become legalistic dispensation of justice before developing into proactive [[legislature|legislative]] activity. Some leadership careers parallel this sort of progression: today's school-board chairperson may become tomorrow's city councilor, then take in (say) a [[mayor]]dom before graduating to nation-wide politics. Compare the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' in ancient Rome.
 
 
 
== Orthogonality and leadership ==
 
 
 
Those who sing the praises of leadership or of certain types of leadership may encounter problems in implementing consistent leadership structures. For example, a pyramidal structure in which authority consistently emanates from the summit can stifle initiative and leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ranks of subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal direct democracy may become unwieldy, and a system consisting of nothing but representative leaders may well become stymied in committees.
 
 
 
Thus many leadership systems promote different rules for different levels of leadership. Hereditary autocrats meet in the United Nations on equal representative terms with elected governments in a collegial leadership. Or individual local democracies may assign some of their powers to temporary [[dictator]]s in emergencies, as in ancient Rome. Hierarchies intermingle with equality of opportunity at different levels.
 
 
 
== Support-structures for leadership ==
 
 
 
Though advocates of the "big man" school of visionary leadership would have us believe that [[charisma]] and [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] alone can work miracles, most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered-down [[will (philosophy)|will]] of the leader. This undercutting of the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower: compare [[followership]].
 
A more or less formal [[bureaucracy]] (in the [[Max Weber|Weber]]ian sense) can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: this phenomenon may occur (for example) in a [[politburo]] environment. Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership (see [[Peter Principle]]).
 
 
 
In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified potential leaders with promotions.
 
 
 
In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision leader may foster another sort of [[hierarchy]]: a fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate [[arbitration]].
 
 
 
Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: political parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example.
 
 
 
== Determining what makes "effective leadership" ==
 
 
 
In comparing various leadership styles in many cultures, academic studies have examined the patterns in which leadership emerges and then fades, other ways in which it maintains its effectiveness, sometimes by natural succession according to established rules, and sometimes by the imposition of brute force.
 
 
 
The simplest way to measure the effectiveness of leadership involves evaluating the size of the following that the leader can muster. By this standard, [[Adolf Hitler]] became a very effective leader for a period — even if through delusional promises and coercive techniques. <sup>[http://www.spicyquotes.com/html/Adolf_Hitler_Leadership.html]</sup> However, this approach may measure power rather than leadership. To measure leadership more specifically, one may assess the extent of influence on the followers, that is, the amount of leading.  Within an organizational context this means financially valuing productivity.  Effective leaders generate higher productivity, lower costs, and more opportunities than ineffective leaders.  Effective leaders create results, attain goal, realize vision, and other objectives more quickly and at a higher level of quality than ineffective leaders.
 
 
 
James MacGregor Burns introduced a normative element: an effective Burnsian leader will unite followers in a shared [[Goal (management)|vision]] that will improve an organization and society at large. Burns calls leadership that delivers "true" value, integrity, and trust ''[[transformational leadership]]''. He distinguishes such leadership from "mere" ''[[transactional leadership]]'' that builds [[power (sociology)|power]] by doing whatever will get more followers. <sup>[http://fecolumnists.expressindia.com/full_column.php?content_id=35970]</sup> But problems arise in quantifying the transformational [[quality]] of leadership - evaluation of that quality seems more difficult to quantify than merely counting the followers that the straw man of transactional leadership James MacGregor Burns has set as a primary standard for effectiveness. Thus transformational leadership requires an evaluation of quality, independent of the [[Aggregation of individual demand to total, or market, demand|market demand]] that exhibits in the number of followers.
 
 
 
[[as of 2006|Current]] assessments of transformational and transactional leadership commonly make use of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed by Bass and Avolio in 1990 and revised in 1995. It measures five dimensions of transformational leadership:
 
# idealized influence - attributions
 
# idealized influence - behaviors
 
# inspirational motivation
 
# individualized consideration
 
# intellectual stimulation 
 
The three dimensions of transactional leadership measured by the MLQ{{Fact|date=February 2007}} cover:
 
# contingent reward
 
# management by exception (active)
 
# management by exception (passive)
 
 
 
The [[functional leadership model]] conceives leadership as a set of behaviours that helps a group perform a task, reach their goal, or perform their function. In this model, effective leaders encourage functional behaviors and discourage dysfunctional ones.
 
 
 
In the [[path-goal model]] of leadership, developed jointly by Martin Evans and [[Robert House]] and based on the "Expectancy Theory of Motivation", a leader has the function of clearing the path toward the goal(s) of the group, by meeting the needs of subordinates.
 
 
 
Some commentators use the metaphor of an [[orchestra]]l [[Conductor (music)|conductor]] to describe the quality of the leadership process. An effective leader resembles an orchestra conductor in some ways. He/she has to somehow get a group of potentially diverse and talented people - many of whom have strong [[Wiktionary:personality|personalities]] - to work together toward a common output. Will the conductor harness and blend all the gifts his or her players possess? Will the players accept the degree of creative expression they have? Will the audience enjoy the sound they make? The conductor may have a clear determining influence on all of these questions.
 
 
 
=== Suggested qualities of leadership ===
 
 
 
Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include:
 
* Guiding others through modeling (in the sense of providing a [[role model]]) and through willingness to serve others first (compare [[followership]])
 
* [[LD Cozzolino]] and technical/specific skill at some task at hand
 
* Initiative and [[entrepreneurship|entrepreneur]]ial drive
 
* [[Charisma]]tic [[inspiration]] - attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this esteem to motivate others
 
* Preoccupation with a role - a dedication that consumes much of leaders' life - service to a cause
 
* A clear sense of purpose (or [[Strategic planning|mission]]) - clear goals - focus - commitment
 
* Results-orientation - directing every action towards a mission - prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue
 
*[[Cooperation]]-work well with others
 
* [[LD]] - very few pessimists become leaders
 
* Rejection of determinism - belief in one's ability to "make a difference"
 
* Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them - delegate in such a way as people will grow
 
* [[Role model]]s - leaders may adopt a ''[[persona]]'' that encapsulates their mission and lead by example
 
* [[Self-knowledge]] (in non-bureaucratic structures)
 
* [[Self-awareness]] - the ability to "lead" (as it were) one's own self prior to leading other selves similarly
 
* With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners - recognizing that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. ''Note that "picking winners" ("choosing winners") carries implications of [[gambling|gambler]]s' luck as well as of the capacity to take [[risk]]s, but "true" leaders, like gamblers but unlike "false" leaders, base their decisions on realistic insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from "real" wisdom).''
 
* Understanding ''what'' others say, rather than listening to ''how'' they say things - this could partly sum this quality up as "walking in someone else's shoes" (to use a common cliché).
 
 
 
The approach of listing leadership qualities, often termed "[[trait theory]]", assumes certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as "born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, [[leadership development]] involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential.
 
 
 
[[David McClelland]], a Harvard-based researcher in the psychology of power and achievement, saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called ''activity inhibition'' (one might call it [[self control|self-control]]).
 
 
 
[[Situational leadership theory]] offers an alternative approach. It proceeds from the assumption that different situations call for different characteristics. According to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. The situational leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard, for example, suggest four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behaviour becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Other situational leadership models introduce a variety of situational variables. These determinants include:
 
* the nature of the task (structured or routine)
 
* organizational policies, climate, and culture
 
* the preferences of the leader's superiors
 
* the expectations of peers
 
* the reciprocal responses of followers
 
 
 
The contingency model of Vroom and Yetton uses other situational variables, including:
 
* the nature of the problem
 
* the requirements for accuracy
 
* the acceptance of an initiative
 
* time-constraints
 
* cost constraints
 
 
 
However one determines leadership behaviour, one can categorize it into various ''leadership styles''. Many ways of doing this exist. For example, the [[Managerial Grid Model]], a behavioral leadership-model developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964, suggests five different leadership styles, based on leaders' strength of concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.
 
 
 
[[Kurt Lewin]], Ronald Lipitt, and R. K. White identified three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, based on the amount of influence and power exercised by the leader.
 
 
 
The [[Fiedler contingency model]] bases the leader’s effectiveness on what [[Fred Fiedler]] called ''situational contingency''. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favourableness (later called "situational control").
 
 
 
=== Leadership "styles" (per House and Podsakoff) ===
 
 
 
In 1994 House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders" that they obtained from some more modern theories and research findings. These leadership behaviors and approaches do not constitute '''specific''' styles, but cumulatively they probably{{Fact|date=February 2007}} characterize the most effective style of [[as of 1994|today]]'s leaders/managers. The listed leadership "styles" cover:
 
  
 +
==Types==
 +
===Leadership by an individual===
 +
Robert House and Philip Podsakoff have attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders."<ref>Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness: Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research," in Jerald Greenberg (ed.), ''Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science'' (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994).</ref> The leadership "styles" they articulated include:
 
# [[Vision statement|Vision]]. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right.
 
# [[Vision statement|Vision]]. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right.
 
# Passion and [[self-sacrifice]]. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and [[mission]].
 
# Passion and [[self-sacrifice]]. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and [[mission]].
 
# [[Confidence]], [[determination]], and [[persistence]]. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of [[faith]] in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they [[articulation|articulate]]. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the ''status quo'' and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order.
 
# [[Confidence]], [[determination]], and [[persistence]]. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of [[faith]] in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they [[articulation|articulate]]. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the ''status quo'' and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order.
 
# [[Brand|Image]]-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy.
 
# [[Brand|Image]]-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy.
# [[role model|Role-modeling]]. Leader-image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms.
+
# [[role model|Role-modeling]]. Leader image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms.
 
# External representation. Outstanding leaders act as [[spokesperson]]s for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external [[constituency|constituencies]].
 
# External representation. Outstanding leaders act as [[spokesperson]]s for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external [[constituency|constituencies]].
 
# Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high [[performance]] from their followers and strong confidence in their followers’ ability to meet such expectations.
 
# Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high [[performance]] from their followers and strong confidence in their followers’ ability to meet such expectations.
 
# Selective [[motivation|motive]]-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission.
 
# Selective [[motivation|motive]]-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission.
# Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement [[change]], outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment". This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader’s activities, goals, and [[ideology]], becomes [[congruence|congruent]] and complementary.
+
# Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement [[change]], outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment." This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader’s activities, goals, and [[ideology]], becomes [[congruence|congruent]] and complementary.
# [[Inspiration]]al [[communication]]. Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid [[narrative|stories]], [[slogan]]s, [[symbol]]s, and [[ceremony|ceremonies]].
+
# [[Inspiration]]al [[communication]]. Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid [[narrative|stories]], [[slogan]]s, [[symbol]]s, and [[ceremony|ceremonies]].
 
 
Even though these ten leadership behaviors and approaches do not really equate to specific styles, evidence has started to accumulate{{Fact|date=February 2007}} that a leader’s style can make a [[difference]]<!-- a difference to what, exactly? —>. Style becomes the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and plays an important role in [[workgroup|work-group]] members’ activity and in [[team]] [[citizenship]]. Little doubt exists that the ''way'' (style) in which leaders influence work-group members can make a difference in their own and their people’s performance{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.  
 
  
(Adopted from: Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness: Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research" in Jerald Greenberg (ed.), ''Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science'', Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ., 1994, pp {{Fact|date=February 2007}} .)
+
=== Leadership by a group ===
 +
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing [[creativity]], reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a [[boss]] as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive—either by draining the resources of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the [[team]], even unintentionally.
  
== Leadership and vision ==
+
A common example of group leadership involves [[cross-functional team]]s. A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses "rotating leadership." The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s).
  
Many definitions of leadership involve an element of [[Goal (management)|vision]] — except in cases of involuntary leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A vision provides direction to the influence process. A leader (or group of leaders) can have one or more visions of the future to aid them to move a group successfully towards this goal. A vision, for effectiveness, should allegedly:
+
For example, the [[Orpheus Chamber Orchestra]] has performed for over thirty years without a [[conducting|conductor]]—that is, without a sole leader. As a team of over 25 members, it has drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class [[orchestra]]s.
* appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader
 
* describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state
 
* act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state
 
* appear desirable enough to energize followers
 
* succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level (logical appeals by themselves seldom muster a following)
 
  
For leadership to occur, according to this theory, some people ("leaders") must communicate the vision to others ("followers") in such a way that the followers adopt the vision as their own. Leaders must not just see the vision themselves, they must have the ability to get others to see it also. Numerous techniques aid in this process, including: [[narrative]]s, [[metaphor]]s, [[symbol]]ic actions, leading by example, [[incentive]]s, and [[penalty|penalties]].
+
Rather than an [[autocratic]] or [[charisma]]tic conductor deciding the overall conception of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks, the Orpheus team generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of music. The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece, and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including checking from various places in the auditorium how the [[acoustics|sound]] balances and verifying the quality of the final [[recording studio|recording]]. At times, the entire Orpheus team may follow a single leader, but whom the team follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members. The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the Orpheus Process to [[business]].<ref>The Orpheus Orchestra, [http://www.orpheusnyc.com/about/process.htm The Orpheus Process.] Retrieved December 6, 2007.</ref>
 
 
Stacey (1992) has suggested that the emphasis on vision puts an unrealistic burden on the leader. Such emphasis appears to perpetuate the myth that an organization must depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to decide what to do. Stacey claims that this fosters a culture of dependency and conformity in which followers take no pro-active incentives and do not think independently.
 
 
 
kanungo's charismatic leadership model describes the role of the vision in three stages that are continuously ongoing, overlapping one another. Assessing the status quo, formulation and articulation of the vision, and implementation of the vision. This model suggests effective leadership needs these behaviors
 
 
 
== Leadership's relation with management ==
 
 
 
Some commentators link leadership closely with the idea of [[management]]. Some regard the two as synonymous, and others consider management a subset of leadership: see http://www.leadership501.com/node/4/leadership-vs-management . If one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as:
 
* centralized or decentralized
 
* broad or focused
 
* [[decision]]-oriented or [[morale]]-centred
 
* intrinsic or derived from some [[authority]]
 
 
 
Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words: management forms a sub-set of the broader process of leadership. They put it this way: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. . . . Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount." (Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. : 1982 : page 3)
 
 
 
However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide the following definition:
 
 
 
* Management involves power by position.
 
* Leadership involves power by influence.
 
 
 
Abraham Zaleznik (1977), for example, delineated differences between leadership and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance; while managers he views as [[plan]]ners who have concerns with process. [[Warren Bennis]] (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:
 
* Managers administer, leaders innovate
 
* Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why
 
* Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people
 
* Managers do things right, leaders do the right things
 
* Managers maintain, leaders develop
 
* Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust
 
* Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective
 
* Managers accept the status-quo, leaders challenge the status-quo
 
* Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon
 
* Managers imitate, leaders originate
 
* Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person
 
* Managers copy, leaders show originality
 
 
 
Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on "the task." Indeed, the things that characterise a great leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership.  Managers typically a leader's vision.  The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while the manager may not.
 
 
 
This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task. Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an organization might have the overall task of generating [[profit]], but a good leader may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision differentiates their company from the competition.
 
 
 
Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a [[business]] phenomenon. Many people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing whatever to do with business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisations. Non-business [[organization]]s should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not occur.
 
 
 
Differences in the mix of leadership and management can define various management styles. Some management styles tend to de-emphasize leadership. Included in this group one could include participatory management, democratic management, and collaborative management styles. Other management styles, such as authoritarian management, micro-management, and top-down management, depend more on a leader to provide direction. Note, however, that just because an organisation has no single leader giving it direction, does not mean it necessarily has weak leadership. In many cases group leadership (multiple leaders) can prove effective. Having a single leader (as in [[dictatorship]]) allows for quick and decisive decision-making when needed as well as when not needed. Group decision-making sometimes earns the derisive label "committee-itis" because of the longer times required to make decisions, but group leadership can bring more expertise, experience, and perspectives through a democratic process.
 
 
 
Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers. She used a [[factor analysis (in marketing)|factor analysis]] technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles. She characterises one group as imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive, daring, and emotional, and calls them "artists". In a second grouping she places "craftsmen" as well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy. Finally she identifies "technocrats" as cerebral, detail-oriented, fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed. She speculates that no one profile offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should find an "artist leader"; if we want to solidify our position, we should find a "craftsman leader"; and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done (like downsizing), we should find a "technocratic leader." Pitcher also observed that a balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found none in her study.
 
 
 
== Leadership by a group ==
 
 
 
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a [[boss]] as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the [[team]], even unintentionally.
 
 
 
A common example of group leadership involves [[cross-functional team]]s. A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses ''rotating leadership''. The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s).
 
 
 
For example, the [[Orpheus Chamber Orchestra|Orpheus orchestra]] has performed for over thirty years without a [[conducting|conductor]] — that is, without a sole leader. As a team of over 25 members, it has drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class orchestras.<sup>[http://www.orpheusnyc.com]</sup>
 
 
 
Rather than an [[autocratic]] or [[charisma]]tic conductor deciding the overall conception of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks, the Orpheus [[team]] generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of music. The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece, and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including checking from various places in the auditorium how the [[acoustics|sound]] balances and verifying the quality of the final [[recording studio|recording]].
 
 
 
At times the entire Orpheus [[team]] may follow a single leader, but whom the team follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members.  
 
 
 
The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the Orpheus Process to [[business]].<sup>[http://www.orpheusnyc.com/about/process.htm]</sup>
 
  
 
=== Co-leadership ===
 
=== Co-leadership ===
 +
As a compromise between individual leadership and an open group, leadership structures of two or three people or entities occur commonly. [[Ancient Rome]] preferred two [[consul]]s to a single king, and the [[Roman Empire]] grew to accommodate two Emperors—those of the East and of the West—simultaneously. The [[Middle Ages]] saw leadership divided between the secular and spiritual realms - between [[Emperor]] and [[Pope]]. Some groups—often left-wing or Green in orientation—employ a co-leader structure today.
  
As a compromise between individual leadership and an open group, leadership structures of two or three people or entities occur commonly. Ancient Rome preferred two [[consul]]s to a single king, and the [[Roman Empire]] grew to accommodate two Emperors - those of the East and of the West - simultaneously. The Middle Ages saw leadership divided between the secular and spiritual realms - between [[Emperor]] and [[Pope]]. Some groups - often left-wing or Green in orientation - employ a co-leader structure today.
+
[[Triumvirate]]s have long served to balance leadership ambitions--notably in Rome in the first century B.C.E., but also as recently as in the [[Soviet Union]] [[troika (triumvirate)|troika]]s of the twentieth century. Compare the [[separation of powers]] (legislative, judicial, and executive) formalized (for example) in the [[constitution]] of the [[United States]].
 
 
[[Triumvirate]]s have long served to balance leadership ambitions - notably in Rome in the first century BC, but also as recently as in the Soviet Union [[troika (triumvirate)|troika]]s of the 20th century. Compare the [[separation of powers]] (legislative, judicial and executive) formalised (for example) in the constitution of the United States of America.
 
  
 
=== Divided leadership ===
 
=== Divided leadership ===
 +
Whereas sometimes one can readily and definitively identify the locus of leadership, in other circumstances the situation remains obscured. Pre-modern [[Japan]] offers a classical example: The [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]]s provided symbolic and religious leadership, but the [[shogun]]s embodied virtually all political and administrative leadership.
  
Whereas sometimes one can readily and definitively identify the locus of leadership, in other circumstances the situation remains obscured. Pre-modern [[Japan]] offers a classical example: the [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]]s provided symbolic and religious leadership, but the [[shogun]]s embodied virtually all political and administrative leadership.
+
Similar dichotomies appear in many places and in many periods. Any [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]] has a potentially confusing relationship with the day-to-day leader (typically a [[prime minister]]) who remains (at least theoretically) subordinate—socially as well as politically. [[Regent]]s may stand against monarchs (and their supporters) during the minority or absence of those monarchs. [[Head of state|Heads of state]] may operate at cross-purposes with [[head of government|heads of government]] ([[Cohabitation (government)|governmental co-habitation]]). Political leaders may or may not align closely with religious leaders. And in [[federalism|federal]]-type systems, regional leadership, and its potentially different systems may cross swords with national leaders. Not to mention the potentially conflicting leadership manifestations of [[board of directors|boards of directors]] and of [[Chief Executive]]s.
  
Similar dichotomies appear in many places and in many periods. Any [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]] has a potentially confusing relationship with the day-to-day leader (typically a [[prime minister]]) who remains (at least theoretically) subordinate - socially as well as politically. [[Regent]]s may stand against monarchs (and their supporters) during the minority or absence of those monarchs. [[Head of state|Heads of state]] may operate at cross-purposes with [[head of government|heads of government]] (see [[Cohabitation (government)|governmental co-habitation]]). Political leaders may or may not align closely with religious leaders. And in [[federalism|federal]]-type systems, regional leadership and its potentially different systems may cross swords with national leaders. Not to mention the potentially conflicting leadership manifestations of [[board of directors|boards of directors]] and of [[Chief Executive]]s.
+
===Hierarchical leadership===
 +
Certain organizations have a rigid order to their leadership structure. These organizations have established chains of command that are adhered to vigorously by its members. Such organizations include militaries or government [[bureaucracy|bureaucracies]]. Within these organizations decisions may be made by members of similar levels within the hierarchy, but once made they are normally enforced with question by those of lower ranks or positions.
  
== Leader relationships with followers ==
+
==Qualities of effective leaders==
 
+
Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include:
Greiner’s study of the language of U.S. Presidents examined the relationship between leader and followers and observed that changes have taken place in the presidential use of words that define the leader and the community as one. Modern US presidents have an observed tendency to make more use of inclusive words like ''we,'' ''us'' and ''our'' in their inaugural speeches. The use of inclusive words may suggest an effort by these democratically selected leaders to make the community work together to solve problems collectively. (See ERIC document ED468083 <sup>[http://www.eric.ed.gov/]</sup>)
+
* Guiding others through modeling (in the sense of providing a [[role model]]) and through willingness to serve others first)
 
+
* Technical/specific skill at some task at hand
== Historical views on leadership ==
+
* Initiative and [[entrepreneurship|entrepreneur]]ial drive
 
+
* [[Charisma]]tic [[inspiration]]—attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this esteem to motivate others
[[Aristocracy|Aristocratic]] thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or [[gene]]s: [[monarchy]] takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction: see the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]]. Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have pointed to examples of [[meritocracy|meritocratic]] leaders, such as the [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleonic]] marshals profiting from [[career]]s open to [[talent]].
+
* Preoccupation with a role—a dedication that consumes much of leaders' life--service to a cause
 
+
* A clear sense of purpose (or [[Strategic planning|mission]])—clear goals—focus—commitment
In the [[autocracy|autocratic]]/[[paternalism|paternalistic]] strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman ''[[pater familias]]''. [[Feminism|Feminist]] thinking, on the other hand, may damn such models as [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] and posit against them emotionally-attuned, responsive, and consensual [[empathy|empathetic]] guidance and [[matriarchy|matriarchies]].
+
* Results-orientation—directing every action towards a mission—prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue
 
+
* [[Cooperation]]—work well with others
Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of [[Confucianism]] on "right living" relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.
+
* [[Optimism]]—very few pessimists become leaders
 
+
* Rejection of determinism—belief in one's ability to "make a difference"
Within the context of [[Islam]], views on the nature, scope and inheritance of leadership have played a major role in shaping sects and their history. See [[caliphate]].
+
* Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them—delegate in such a way as people will grow
 
+
* [[Role model]]s—leaders may adopt a ''[[persona]]'' that encapsulates their mission and lead by example
In the 19th century, the elaboration of [[anarchism|anarchist]] thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. (Note that the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One response to this denial of [[élitism]] came with [[Leninism]], which demanded an élite group of disciplined [[professional revolutionaries|cadre]]s to act as the [[vanguard party|vanguard]] of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]].
+
* [[Self-knowledge]] (in non-bureaucratic structures)
 
+
* [[Self-awareness]]--the ability to "lead" (as it were) one's own self prior to leading other selves similarly
Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of [[Caesaro-papism]] have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized [[stewardship]] of divinely-provided resources - human and material - and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare [[servant leadership]].
+
* With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners—recognizing that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. ''Note that "picking winners" ("choosing winners") carries implications of [[gambling|gambler]]s' luck as well as of the capacity to take [[risk]]s, but "true" leaders, like gamblers but unlike "false" leaders, base their decisions on realistic insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from "real" wisdom).''
 +
* Understanding ''what'' others say, rather than listening to ''how'' they say thingsthis could partly sum this quality up as "walking in someone else's shoes" (to use a common cliché).
  
For a more general take on leadership in [[politics]], compare the concept of the [[statesman]].
+
Though advocates of the "big man" school of visionary leadership would have us believe that [[charisma]] and [[personality]] alone can work miracles, most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered-down [[will (philosophy)|will]] of the leader. This undercutting of the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower.  
  
== Specific theories of leadership ==
+
A more or less formal [[bureaucracy]] (in the [[Max Weber|Weber]]ian sense) can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: This phenomenon may occur (for example) in a [[politburo]] environment. Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership, (per the [[Peter Principle]]). In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified potential leaders with promotions.
=== Giorgio Agamben ===
 
  
In ''State of Exception'' (2005), [[Giorgio Agamben|Agamben]] reads [[Carl Schmitt]]'s theory of [[sovereignty]] in the light of [[Walter Benjamin]]. Agamben traces Schmitt's definition of sovereignty as the power to decide the [[state of exception]] to the Roman concept of ''[[auctoritas]]'' - the power to declare ''[[justitium]]''. In chapter 6 §8, Agamben writes:
+
In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision leader may foster another sort of [[hierarchy]]: A fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate [[arbitration]]. Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: Political parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example.
  
:"It is significative that modern specialists were so inclined to admit that ''auctoritas'' was inherent to the living person of the ''[[pater]]'' or the ''[[princeps]]''. What was evidently an [[ideology]] or a ''fictio'' aiming to be the groundwork of ''auctoritas'' ' preeminence or, at least, specific rank compared to ''[[potestas]]'' thus became a figure of right's immanence to [[life]]. (...) Although it is evident that there can't be an eternal human type that would incarnate itself each time in [[Augustus]], [[Napoleon]], [[Hitler]], but only more or less similar mechanisms {"dispositif", a term often used by [[Foucault]]} - the state of exception, ''justitium'', the ''auctoritas principis'', the ''[[Führertum]]'' - put in use in more or less different circumstances, in the 1930s - overall, but not only - in Germany, the power that [[Max Weber|Weber]] had defined as "[[charismatic authority|charismatic]]" is related to the concept of ''auctoritas'' and elaborated in a ''Führertum'' doctrine as the original and personal power of a leader. In 1933, in a short article intending to define the fundamental concepts of national-socialism, Schmitt defines the ''Führung'' principal by the "root identity between the leader and his entourage" {"identité de souche entre le chef et son entourage"} (we shall note the use of Weberian concepts)." [10]
+
Author [[Stephen Covey]] described traits of successful leaders in his books, ''The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People'' and the ''Eighth Habit.'' Some of the habits characteristic of effective leaders that he identified include remaining proactive, prioritizing, visualizing the end towards which one is aiming, maintaining a positive [[attitude]], [[communication|communicating]] effectively, and self development.
  
 +
==Theories==
 
=== James MacGregor Burns ===
 
=== James MacGregor Burns ===
 
+
James MacGregor Burns wrote that a study of the definition of the word, "leadership" revealed 130 definitions. However, several generally-accepted variations on the definition appear in the management and leadership literature.
James MacGregor Burns (1978, p. 2) wrote that a study of the definition of the word ''leadership'' revealed 130 definitions. However, several generally-accepted variations on the definition appear in the management and leadership literature.
 
  
 
Burns concluded by presenting five characteristics of leadership, namely:  
 
Burns concluded by presenting five characteristics of leadership, namely:  
  
# Leadership is [[collectivism|collective]] (p. 452). James Burns regards the notion of one-person leadership as “a contradiction in terms”, because both leaders and followers must exist. Also, an organization may have multiple leaders all acting in consort with one another.
+
# Leadership is [[collectivism|collective]]. James Burns regards the notion of one-person leadership as “a contradiction in terms,because both leaders and followers must exist. Also, an organization may have multiple leaders all acting in consort with one another.
# Leadership is dissension (p. 453). Burns claims that leadership coexists with [[dissent]]. Indeed, much of the growth of any organization centers on the management/leadership of dissent except in times of war.
+
# Leadership is dissension. Burns claims that leadership coexists with [[dissent]]. Indeed, much of the growth of any organization centers on the management/leadership of dissentexcept in times of war.
# Leadership is causative (p. 454). True Burnsian leadership affects the motives of individuals and groups of peoples and alters the course of the organizational history. It causes positive change.
+
# Leadership is causative. True Burnsian leadership affects the motives of individuals and groups of peoples and alters the course of the organizational history. It causes positive change.
# Leadership is morally purposeful (p. 455). Burns sees leadership as goal-oriented, with leaders and followers pointing the way to some future state of the organization with plans about how those goals might be met.
+
# Leadership is morally purposeful. Burns sees leadership as goal-oriented, with leaders and followers pointing the way to some future state of the organization with plans about how those goals might be met.
# Transforming leadership is elevating (p. 455). Engagement between leaders and followers takes place on a [[morality|moral]] but not a [[moralism|moralistic]] - plane, as both leaders and followers rise to live more principled [[personal life|lives]].
+
# Transforming leadership is elevating. Engagement between leaders and followers takes place on a [[morality|moral]]but not a [[moralism|moralistic]]--plane, as both leaders and followers rise to live more principled [[personal life|lives]].
  
 
=== Ronald Heifetz ===
 
=== Ronald Heifetz ===
 
+
Ronald Heifetz described the difference between a descriptive view and a prescriptive view of leadership. A descriptive view describes leadership and how it occurs, and a prescriptive view suggests how it should occur. The notion of "adaptive work" forms a central concept of Heifetz’s prescriptive view. Heifetz pointed out that people fail to adapt to new and unsettling situations through six avoidance mechanisms:
Ronald Heifetz (Heifetz 1994) described the difference between a descriptive view and a prescriptive view of leadership. A descriptive view describes leadership and how it occurs, and a prescriptive view suggests how it should occur. The notion of "adaptive work" forms a central concept of Heifetz’s prescriptive view. Heifetz pointed out (p. 37) that people fail to adapt to new and unsettling situations through six avoidance mechanisms:
+
# [[blame|Blaming]] others
# [[blame|blaming]] others
+
# Finding [[scapegoat]]s (to the extent that this differs from blaming)
# finding [[scapegoat]]s (to the extent that this differs from blaming)
+
# Externalizing the enemy
# externalizing the enemy
+
# Denying that a problem exists
# denying that a problem exists
+
# Jumping to conclusions
# jumping to conclusions
+
# Finding a distracting issue  
# finding a distracting issue  
+
In a prescriptive view, the leader would squarely face the problem and avoid the six surface-level solutions of the non-leader. A true leader would help a community face reality and deal with the issues: Finding solutions where none previously existed. Using the 1950s [[television]] character, the ''Lone Ranger,'' as an example, one sees the Ranger in a weekly episode, moving from frontier town to frontier town, discovering problems wherever he goes, fixing the problems and riding off into the sunset. In this metaphor, the Ranger fixes the symptom, but not the problem. A Lone Ranger non-leader would catch fish to feed the poor while a true leader would teach the poor how to catch fish and would motivate them to do so. The true leader finds a way to help the community engage the problem and collectively find a solution.
In a prescriptive view, the leader would squarely face the problem and avoid the six surface-level solutions of the non-leader. A true leader would help a community face reality and deal with the issues: finding solutions where none previously existed. Using the 1950s television character, [[the Lone Ranger]], as an example, we see the Ranger in a weekly episode, moving from frontier town to frontier town, discovering problems wherever he goes, fixing the problems and riding off into the sunset. In this metaphor, the Ranger fixes the symptom, but not the problem. A Lone Ranger non-leader would catch fish to feed the poor while a true leader would teach the poor how to catch fish and would motivate them to do so. The true leader finds a way to help the community engage the problem and collectively find a solution. For more detail, see Heifetz, R. (1994). ''Leadership without easy answers.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 
  
 
=== George Terry ===
 
=== George Terry ===
 +
George Terry has defined leadership as: "The activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives." If one defines leadership simply as "influencing others to some purpose" and [[followership]] as "becoming influenced by others to accept (willingly or unwillingly) some purpose," then leadership and followership emerge as two sides of the same coin. In this scenario, leadership—whether successful or not—has not occurred until at least one follower joins in. Likewise, no followership exists without someone or something (not necessarily a leader) to follow. However, in this latter case, a "leader" need not exercise deliberate or even conscious leadership—that is, followers can follow someone who is not trying to lead. Some see "unconscious leadership" as a dubious concept, however. Many, using a different definition of ''leadership,'' would claim that it does not classify as leadership at all—simply because no deliberate intention to lead exists. Unconscious "leading by example" (as the phrase has it) may nevertheless exemplify such "leadership."
  
George Terry (Terry, G. 1960) has defined leadership as: "the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives". If we define leadership simply as "influencing others to some purpose" and we define [[followership]] as "becoming influenced by others to accept (willingly or unwillingly) some purpose", then leadership and followership emerge as two sides of the same coin. In this scenario, leadership - whether successful or not - has not occurred until at least one follower joins in. Likewise, no followership exists without someone or something (not necessarily a leader) to follow. However, in this latter case, a "leader" need not exercise deliberate or even conscious leadership - that is, followers can follow someone who is not trying to lead. Some see "unconscious leadership" as a dubious concept, however. Many, using a different definition of ''leadership'', would claim that it does not classify as leadership at all - simply because no deliberate intention to lead exists. Unconscious "leading by example" (as the phrase has it) may nevertheless exemplify such "leadership".
+
=== James Farr ===
 +
James Farr argued not for any one "correct leadership style" but for the style that each situation requires. He argued that great leaders require the use of nearly every leadership style: One must apply the correct style to meet the situation. Farr terms this "conscious leadership."<ref>Farr.net, [http://www.farr.net/thefarrdifference/afocusonconsciousleadership.html Conscious Leadership.]  Retrieved December 6, 2007.</ref> 
  
=== Robert Blake and Jane Mouton ===
+
"Conscious Leadership" consists of the art and science of leading change from a self-aware perspective, with clarity of purpose and an acute insight into others' perspectives and state of mind. This fully-aware state uniquely allows leaders to properly inspire motivation in others and to choose the most appropriate course of action both to solve pressing problems and to effectively achieve long-term organizational goals.
Rachel K. McKee and Bruce Carlson's book ''The power to change'' ©1999 (ISBN 0-9679981-0-7) describes "The Leadership Grid" or the "9,9 Style" of leadership developed by Drs. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964. The theory/model allows the comparison of leadership styles.
 
  
=== Conscious Leadership ===
+
[[Futurists|Futurist]] John Renesch has written extensively on conscious leadership, which he advocates for everyone—not only those in positions of authority or holding designated titles:
  
Dr. [http://www.farr.net/about/drfarrmemorial.html James Farr] (1918 - 2000) argued not for any one "correct leadership style" but for the style that each situation requires. Great leaders require the use of nearly every leadership style: one must apply the correct style to meet the situation. Farr terms this [http://www.farr.net/thefarrdifference/afocusonconsciousleadership.html "Conscious Leadership"].
+
<blockquote>Conscious leaders don't tolerate conditions or processes where people feel the need to compromise their values--to
 +
"sell their souls" for the task at hand. Conscious leadership includes conscious discernment, a principle that demands performance, [[integrity]], competence and a noncalloused form of spiritual toughness. The conscious leader does not sit with his or her head in the clouds, dreaming of utopian schemes and professing [[New Age]] idealism. The conscious leader walks in the spiritual and physical domains concurrently, remaining simultaneously grounded and comfortable in both.<ref>Datajoe, [http://lohas.datajoe.com/app/ecom/pub_article_details.php?id=67115 conscious leadership.] Retrieved December 6, 2007.</ref></blockquote>
  
"Conscious Leadership" consists of the art and science of leading change from a self-aware perspective, with clarity of purpose and an acute insight into others' perspectives and state of mind. This fully-aware state uniquely allows leaders to properly inspire motivation in others and to choose the most appropriate course of action both to solve pressing problems and to effectively achieve long-term organizational goals.
+
===Arthur Carmazzi===
 +
According to Arthur Carmazzi, leadership does not involve changing the mindset of the group,  but the cultivation of an environment that brings out the best (inspires) the individuals in that group… Each individual has various environments that bring out different facets from their own [[identity]], and emotionally charged perceptions drive each facet within each environment. To lead, Carmazzi says, one must build a [[platform]] through education and awareness where individuals fill each others needs. Leaders accomplish this by knowing why people may react favorably to a situation in environment A, but get frustrated or disillusioned in environment B.
  
[[Futurists|Futurist]] [http://www.renesch.com John Renesch] has written extensively on [http://lohas.datajoe.com/app/ecom/pub_article_details.php?id=67115 conscious leadership], which he advocates for everyone — not only those in positions of authority or holding designated titles. As he wrote in early 2001:
+
When leaders change their actions in accordance with their awareness of what those actions really mean, they affect the emotional and perceptive affects on a group. By taking control of the “standard” reactions to the actions of the group, a leader can in effect change the psychology of the group and change the culture of an organization.<ref>Carmazzi.net, [http://carmazzi.net/afc_motivational_keynote_speaker_trainer_asia.html Arthur F Carmazzi.] Retrieved December 6, 2007.</ref>
  
<blockquote>
+
===Max Weber===
Conscious leaders don't tolerate conditions or processes where people feel the need to compromise their values — to
+
Sociologist [[Max Weber]] wrote of three forms of leadership: Charismatic, traditional, and legal/rational. Charismatic rule in the literal sense as if they are blessed by a divine power and expect their followers to treat them as such. Traditional rulers were in the mold of patriarchs or feudal authorities in which they held absolute, brutal power. The final form, legal/rational, features rulers who create or abide by a system of rules. This final form of leadership is that under which [[bureaucracy]] thrives.
"sell their souls" for the task at hand. Conscious leadership includes conscious discernment, a principle that demands performance, [[integrity]], competence and a noncalloused form of spiritual toughness. The conscious leader does not sit with his or her head in the clouds, dreaming of utopian schemes and professing [[New Age]] idealism. The conscious leader walks in the spiritual and physical domains concurrently, remaining simultaneously grounded and comfortable in both.
 
</blockquote>
 
  
Renesch also writes about "[http://www.renesch.com/conso.html The Conscious Organization]" which he defines as "one which continually examines itself, committed to becoming as conscious as it can. In other words, it has very low tolerance for unconsciousness. It possesses the collective will to be vigilant, the collective commitment to continuous evolution, and the collective courage to act."
+
==Leadership training==
 +
Many would argue that leadership is an innate quality that cannot be learned. Despite this argument, there exist a number of avenues by which people receive leadership training. Some are formal, such as military officer schools, or professional programs, such as law schools. Shorter, but still formal, programs include leadership trainings offered by motivational speakers. Some high schools and colleges have leadership programs in which students are exposed to different programs on their campus with the idea that they will eventually assume a position of leadership in them. Leadership training can also occur more informally. This type of training can take the form of a parent's instruction to their child or a teacher with their student.
  
== Alternatives to leadership ==
+
==Alternatives to leadership==
 +
Leadership can have many variations other than the types listed above. While leaders will necessarily emerge within any group no matter how non-hierarchical, the structure in which they emerge can differ. Leadership does not have to be permanent, but can change hands through rotation, elections, or other mechanisms. Also, leadership does not have to take the role of just a single person, as seen in the above example of the Orpheus orchestra, or co-leadership. Despite the fact that leadership positions are generally seen as glamorous and desirable, the job can in fact be mundane, tedious, or downright exhausting, which is an alternative view to the standardly accepted one.
  
Within groups, alternatives to the cult of leadership include using decision-making structures such as [[co-operative]] ventures, [[collegiality]], [[consensus]], [[anarchism]] and applied [[democracy]]. One can down play the ubiquitous idea of leadership by using structures such as information [[clearing house]]s or stressing functions such as administration. Note the different implications and connotations of the two phrases "[[coalition of the willing]]" and "[[US-led coalition]]". The [[Orpheus Chamber Orchestra]], which practices a form of distributed leadership, provides a textbook example of alternative leadership.
+
== Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
==See also ==
+
==References==
{{col-begin}}
+
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Transforming Leadership: The Pursuit of Happiness.'' Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003. ISBN 0871138662
{{col-5}}
+
* Covey, Stephen R. ''The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness.'' Free Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0743287937
* [[John Adair (Leadership Guru)]]
+
* Greenberg, Jerald, ed. ''Organizational Behavior: the State of the Science.'' Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994. ISBN 978-0805812152
* [[Max Weber]]'s [[Charismatic authority]]
+
* Heifetz, R. ''Leadership without Easy Answers.'' Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0674518586
* [[Chieftain]]
+
* Pitcher, P. ''Artists, Craftsmen, and Technocrats: The Dreams Realities and Illusions of Leadership.'' Toronto: Stoddart Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0773758542
* [[Coaching]]
+
* Northouse, Peter. ''Leadership: Theory and Practice.'' Sage Publications, 2006. ISBN 141294161X
* [[Crowd psychology]]
+
* Terry, George. ''Principles of Management.'' Learning Systems Company, 1978. ISBN 0256021341
* [[Antonio Gramsci]]'s theory of [[Cultural hegemony]]
+
* Weber, Max. ''From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology.'' Oxford University Press, 1958. ISBN 0195004620
* [[Dale Carnegie]]
 
* [[Dependability]]
 
* [[Determination]]
 
* [[Discipline]]
 
* [[Excellence]]
 
* [[Fairness]]
 
{{col-5}}
 
* [[Attention|Focus]] 
 
* [[Foresight]]
 
* [[Forgiveness]]
 
* [[Fortitude]]
 
* [[Fiedler contingency model]]
 
* [[Followership]]
 
* [[Functional leadership model]]
 
* [[Hero]]
 
* [[Islamic leadership]]
 
* [[Ideal leadership]] Model
 
* [[Justice]]
 
* [[Lance Secretan]]
 
* [[Leader (Scouting)]]
 
* [[Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)]]
 
* [[Leadership Character Model]]
 
* [[Leadership development]]
 
* [[Managerial grid model]]
 
* [[Minister]]
 
{{col-5}}
 
* [[Morality]]
 
* [[Nicomachean Ethics]]
 
* [[Parent]]
 
* [[Perseverance]]
 
* [[Potential]]
 
* [[Purpose]]fulness
 
* [[Priest]]
 
* [[Professional development]]
 
* [[Path-goal model]]
 
* [[Respect]]fulness
 
* [[Social responsibility|Responsibility]] 
 
* [[Restraint]]
 
* [[Self-awareness]] 
 
* [[Self-discipline]]
 
{{col-5}} 
 
* [[Self-reliance]]
 
* [[Sensitivity (human)|sensitivity]]
 
* [[Servant leadership]]
 
* [[Situational leadership theory]]
 
* [[Social skills]]
 
* [[Three theological virtues]]
 
* [[Trait theory]]
 
* [[Trustworthiness]]
 
* [[Honesty|Truthfulness]]
 
* [[Toxic leader|Toxic Leadership]]
 
* [[Youth leadership]]
 
{{col-end}}
 
 
 
== References==
 
<references/>
 
===General references===
 
* Argyris, C. (1976) ''Increasing Leadership Effectiveness'', Wiley, New York, 1976 (even though published in 1976, this still remains a "standard" reference text)
 
* Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (1995). ''MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire for Research: Premission Set''.  Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden.
 
* Bennis, W. (1989) ''On Becoming a Leader'', Addison Wesley, New York, 1989
 
* Burns, J. M. (1978). ''Leadership'', New York, NY: Harper Torchbooks.
 
* Greiner, K. (2002). ''The inaugural speech.'' ERIC Accession Number ED468083 <sup>[http://www.eric.ed.gov/]</sup>.
 
* Heifetz, R. (1994). ''Leadership without easy answers.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51858-6
 
* House, R. J. (2004) ''Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies'', SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2004 <sup>[http://www.sagepub.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book226013]</sup>.
 
* Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. (2002). ''The leadership challenge.'' San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 
* Laubach, R. (2005) ''Leadership is Influence''
 
* Machiavelli, Niccolo (1530) ''The Prince''
 
* Maxwell, J. C. & Dornan, J. (2003) ''Becoming a Person of Influence''
 
* Nanus, Burt (1995) ''The visionary leadership''
 
* Pitcher, P. (1994 French) ''Artists, Craftsmen, and Technocrats: The dreams realities and illusions of leadership'', Stoddart Publishing, Toronto, 2nd English edition, 1997. ISBN 0-7737-5854-2
 
* Renesch, John (1994) ''Leadership in a New Era: Visionary Approaches to the Biggest Crisis of Our Time'', San Francisco, New Leaders Press (paperback 2002, New York, Paraview Publishing
 
* Roberts, W. (1987) ''Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun''
 
* Stacey, R. (1992) ''Managing Chaos'', Kogan-Page, London, 1992
 
* Terry, G. (1960) ''The Principles of Management'', Richard Irwin Inc, Homewood Ill, pg 5.
 
* Torbert, W. (2004) ''Action Inquiry: the Secret of Timely and Transforming Leadership'', San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
 
* Warneka, T. (2006). ''Leading People the Black Belt Way: Conquering the Five Core Problems Facing Leaders Today''. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. [http://www.blackbeltconsultants.com website]
 
* Zaleznik, A. (1977) "Managers and Leaders: Is there a difference?", ''Harvard Business Review'', May-June, 1977
 
  
 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved October 25, 2022.
  
 +
*[http://www.leadersinstitute.com/ The Leaders Institute].
  
  
 
{{Credits|Leadership|136496197|}}
 
{{Credits|Leadership|136496197|}}

Latest revision as of 18:44, 25 October 2022


Leadership is the ability to lead or someone who is the head of a group of people. There are different strategies for obtaining and executing the most effective leadership along with different styles of management. Effective leadership does not necessarily mean the leader is good and the results benefit society, as evidenced by Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. Good societies, however, are rarely extant without effective leadership.

Understanding leadership has been the source of much research and theorizing. Sociologists such as Max Weber have been in the forefront of such work. It has been suggested that there are several kinds of leadership, with different qualities such as charisma, entrepreneurial spirit, and the ability to communicate and work well together with others. Understanding how to lead also involves understanding the role and needs of the followers. Thus, a leader who can motivate their followers to a common goal, that benefits all, encourage them to work together cooperatively, and take care of their needs is one who is most likely to be successful in the long run.

Scope of leadership

Leadership can refer to simply governing oneself, or to government of the whole earth. In between, there are leaders who operate primarily within:

Intertwined with such categories, and overlapping them, one finds (for example) religious leaders (potentially with their own internal hierarchies), work-place leaders (executives, officers, senior/upper managers, middle managers, staff-managers, line-managers, team-leaders, supervisors), and leaders of voluntary associations.

Some anthropologists have envisaged a widespread (but by no means universal) pattern of progression in the organization of society in ever-larger groups, with the needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly. Thus, simple dispute resolution may become legalistic dispensation of justice before developing into proactive legislative activity. Some leadership careers parallel this sort of progression: Today's school-board chairperson may become tomorrow's city councilor, then take in (say) a mayordom before graduating to nation-wide politics. This can be compared to the cursus honorum in ancient Rome.

Types

Leadership by an individual

Robert House and Philip Podsakoff have attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders."[1] The leadership "styles" they articulated include:

  1. Vision. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right.
  2. Passion and self-sacrifice. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and mission.
  3. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order.
  4. Image-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy.
  5. Role-modeling. Leader image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms.
  6. External representation. Outstanding leaders act as spokespersons for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external constituencies.
  7. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high performance from their followers and strong confidence in their followers’ ability to meet such expectations.
  8. Selective motive-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission.
  9. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change, outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment." This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader’s activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary.
  10. Inspirational communication. Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.

Leadership by a group

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive—either by draining the resources of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even unintentionally.

A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional teams. A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses "rotating leadership." The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s).

For example, the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra has performed for over thirty years without a conductor—that is, without a sole leader. As a team of over 25 members, it has drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class orchestras.

Rather than an autocratic or charismatic conductor deciding the overall conception of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks, the Orpheus team generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of music. The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece, and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including checking from various places in the auditorium how the sound balances and verifying the quality of the final recording. At times, the entire Orpheus team may follow a single leader, but whom the team follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members. The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the Orpheus Process to business.[2]

Co-leadership

As a compromise between individual leadership and an open group, leadership structures of two or three people or entities occur commonly. Ancient Rome preferred two consuls to a single king, and the Roman Empire grew to accommodate two Emperors—those of the East and of the West—simultaneously. The Middle Ages saw leadership divided between the secular and spiritual realms - between Emperor and Pope. Some groups—often left-wing or Green in orientation—employ a co-leader structure today.

Triumvirates have long served to balance leadership ambitions—notably in Rome in the first century B.C.E., but also as recently as in the Soviet Union troikas of the twentieth century. Compare the separation of powers (legislative, judicial, and executive) formalized (for example) in the constitution of the United States.

Divided leadership

Whereas sometimes one can readily and definitively identify the locus of leadership, in other circumstances the situation remains obscured. Pre-modern Japan offers a classical example: The emperors provided symbolic and religious leadership, but the shoguns embodied virtually all political and administrative leadership.

Similar dichotomies appear in many places and in many periods. Any constitutional monarch has a potentially confusing relationship with the day-to-day leader (typically a prime minister) who remains (at least theoretically) subordinate—socially as well as politically. Regents may stand against monarchs (and their supporters) during the minority or absence of those monarchs. Heads of state may operate at cross-purposes with heads of government (governmental co-habitation). Political leaders may or may not align closely with religious leaders. And in federal-type systems, regional leadership, and its potentially different systems may cross swords with national leaders. Not to mention the potentially conflicting leadership manifestations of boards of directors and of Chief Executives.

Hierarchical leadership

Certain organizations have a rigid order to their leadership structure. These organizations have established chains of command that are adhered to vigorously by its members. Such organizations include militaries or government bureaucracies. Within these organizations decisions may be made by members of similar levels within the hierarchy, but once made they are normally enforced with question by those of lower ranks or positions.

Qualities of effective leaders

Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include:

  • Guiding others through modeling (in the sense of providing a role model) and through willingness to serve others first)
  • Technical/specific skill at some task at hand
  • Initiative and entrepreneurial drive
  • Charismatic inspiration—attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this esteem to motivate others
  • Preoccupation with a role—a dedication that consumes much of leaders' life—service to a cause
  • A clear sense of purpose (or mission)—clear goals—focus—commitment
  • Results-orientation—directing every action towards a mission—prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue
  • Cooperation—work well with others
  • Optimism—very few pessimists become leaders
  • Rejection of determinism—belief in one's ability to "make a difference"
  • Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them—delegate in such a way as people will grow
  • Role models—leaders may adopt a persona that encapsulates their mission and lead by example
  • Self-knowledge (in non-bureaucratic structures)
  • Self-awareness—the ability to "lead" (as it were) one's own self prior to leading other selves similarly
  • With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners—recognizing that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. Note that "picking winners" ("choosing winners") carries implications of gamblers' luck as well as of the capacity to take risks, but "true" leaders, like gamblers but unlike "false" leaders, base their decisions on realistic insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from "real" wisdom).
  • Understanding what others say, rather than listening to how they say things—this could partly sum this quality up as "walking in someone else's shoes" (to use a common cliché).

Though advocates of the "big man" school of visionary leadership would have us believe that charisma and personality alone can work miracles, most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered-down will of the leader. This undercutting of the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower.

A more or less formal bureaucracy (in the Weberian sense) can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: This phenomenon may occur (for example) in a politburo environment. Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership, (per the Peter Principle). In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified potential leaders with promotions.

In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision leader may foster another sort of hierarchy: A fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate arbitration. Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: Political parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example.

Author Stephen Covey described traits of successful leaders in his books, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People and the Eighth Habit. Some of the habits characteristic of effective leaders that he identified include remaining proactive, prioritizing, visualizing the end towards which one is aiming, maintaining a positive attitude, communicating effectively, and self development.

Theories

James MacGregor Burns

James MacGregor Burns wrote that a study of the definition of the word, "leadership" revealed 130 definitions. However, several generally-accepted variations on the definition appear in the management and leadership literature.

Burns concluded by presenting five characteristics of leadership, namely:

  1. Leadership is collective. James Burns regards the notion of one-person leadership as “a contradiction in terms,” because both leaders and followers must exist. Also, an organization may have multiple leaders all acting in consort with one another.
  2. Leadership is dissension. Burns claims that leadership coexists with dissent. Indeed, much of the growth of any organization centers on the management/leadership of dissent—except in times of war.
  3. Leadership is causative. True Burnsian leadership affects the motives of individuals and groups of peoples and alters the course of the organizational history. It causes positive change.
  4. Leadership is morally purposeful. Burns sees leadership as goal-oriented, with leaders and followers pointing the way to some future state of the organization with plans about how those goals might be met.
  5. Transforming leadership is elevating. Engagement between leaders and followers takes place on a moral—but not a moralistic—plane, as both leaders and followers rise to live more principled lives.

Ronald Heifetz

Ronald Heifetz described the difference between a descriptive view and a prescriptive view of leadership. A descriptive view describes leadership and how it occurs, and a prescriptive view suggests how it should occur. The notion of "adaptive work" forms a central concept of Heifetz’s prescriptive view. Heifetz pointed out that people fail to adapt to new and unsettling situations through six avoidance mechanisms:

  1. Blaming others
  2. Finding scapegoats (to the extent that this differs from blaming)
  3. Externalizing the enemy
  4. Denying that a problem exists
  5. Jumping to conclusions
  6. Finding a distracting issue

In a prescriptive view, the leader would squarely face the problem and avoid the six surface-level solutions of the non-leader. A true leader would help a community face reality and deal with the issues: Finding solutions where none previously existed. Using the 1950s television character, the Lone Ranger, as an example, one sees the Ranger in a weekly episode, moving from frontier town to frontier town, discovering problems wherever he goes, fixing the problems and riding off into the sunset. In this metaphor, the Ranger fixes the symptom, but not the problem. A Lone Ranger non-leader would catch fish to feed the poor while a true leader would teach the poor how to catch fish and would motivate them to do so. The true leader finds a way to help the community engage the problem and collectively find a solution.

George Terry

George Terry has defined leadership as: "The activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives." If one defines leadership simply as "influencing others to some purpose" and followership as "becoming influenced by others to accept (willingly or unwillingly) some purpose," then leadership and followership emerge as two sides of the same coin. In this scenario, leadership—whether successful or not—has not occurred until at least one follower joins in. Likewise, no followership exists without someone or something (not necessarily a leader) to follow. However, in this latter case, a "leader" need not exercise deliberate or even conscious leadership—that is, followers can follow someone who is not trying to lead. Some see "unconscious leadership" as a dubious concept, however. Many, using a different definition of leadership, would claim that it does not classify as leadership at all—simply because no deliberate intention to lead exists. Unconscious "leading by example" (as the phrase has it) may nevertheless exemplify such "leadership."

James Farr

James Farr argued not for any one "correct leadership style" but for the style that each situation requires. He argued that great leaders require the use of nearly every leadership style: One must apply the correct style to meet the situation. Farr terms this "conscious leadership."[3]

"Conscious Leadership" consists of the art and science of leading change from a self-aware perspective, with clarity of purpose and an acute insight into others' perspectives and state of mind. This fully-aware state uniquely allows leaders to properly inspire motivation in others and to choose the most appropriate course of action both to solve pressing problems and to effectively achieve long-term organizational goals.

Futurist John Renesch has written extensively on conscious leadership, which he advocates for everyone—not only those in positions of authority or holding designated titles:

Conscious leaders don't tolerate conditions or processes where people feel the need to compromise their values—to "sell their souls" for the task at hand. Conscious leadership includes conscious discernment, a principle that demands performance, integrity, competence and a noncalloused form of spiritual toughness. The conscious leader does not sit with his or her head in the clouds, dreaming of utopian schemes and professing New Age idealism. The conscious leader walks in the spiritual and physical domains concurrently, remaining simultaneously grounded and comfortable in both.[4]

Arthur Carmazzi

According to Arthur Carmazzi, leadership does not involve changing the mindset of the group, but the cultivation of an environment that brings out the best (inspires) the individuals in that group… Each individual has various environments that bring out different facets from their own identity, and emotionally charged perceptions drive each facet within each environment. To lead, Carmazzi says, one must build a platform through education and awareness where individuals fill each others needs. Leaders accomplish this by knowing why people may react favorably to a situation in environment A, but get frustrated or disillusioned in environment B.

When leaders change their actions in accordance with their awareness of what those actions really mean, they affect the emotional and perceptive affects on a group. By taking control of the “standard” reactions to the actions of the group, a leader can in effect change the psychology of the group and change the culture of an organization.[5]

Max Weber

Sociologist Max Weber wrote of three forms of leadership: Charismatic, traditional, and legal/rational. Charismatic rule in the literal sense as if they are blessed by a divine power and expect their followers to treat them as such. Traditional rulers were in the mold of patriarchs or feudal authorities in which they held absolute, brutal power. The final form, legal/rational, features rulers who create or abide by a system of rules. This final form of leadership is that under which bureaucracy thrives.

Leadership training

Many would argue that leadership is an innate quality that cannot be learned. Despite this argument, there exist a number of avenues by which people receive leadership training. Some are formal, such as military officer schools, or professional programs, such as law schools. Shorter, but still formal, programs include leadership trainings offered by motivational speakers. Some high schools and colleges have leadership programs in which students are exposed to different programs on their campus with the idea that they will eventually assume a position of leadership in them. Leadership training can also occur more informally. This type of training can take the form of a parent's instruction to their child or a teacher with their student.

Alternatives to leadership

Leadership can have many variations other than the types listed above. While leaders will necessarily emerge within any group no matter how non-hierarchical, the structure in which they emerge can differ. Leadership does not have to be permanent, but can change hands through rotation, elections, or other mechanisms. Also, leadership does not have to take the role of just a single person, as seen in the above example of the Orpheus orchestra, or co-leadership. Despite the fact that leadership positions are generally seen as glamorous and desirable, the job can in fact be mundane, tedious, or downright exhausting, which is an alternative view to the standardly accepted one.

Notes

  1. Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness: Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research," in Jerald Greenberg (ed.), Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994).
  2. The Orpheus Orchestra, The Orpheus Process. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
  3. Farr.net, Conscious Leadership. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
  4. Datajoe, conscious leadership. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
  5. Carmazzi.net, Arthur F Carmazzi. Retrieved December 6, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Burns, James MacGregor. Transforming Leadership: The Pursuit of Happiness. Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003. ISBN 0871138662
  • Covey, Stephen R. The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness. Free Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0743287937
  • Greenberg, Jerald, ed. Organizational Behavior: the State of the Science. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994. ISBN 978-0805812152
  • Heifetz, R. Leadership without Easy Answers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0674518586
  • Pitcher, P. Artists, Craftsmen, and Technocrats: The Dreams Realities and Illusions of Leadership. Toronto: Stoddart Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0773758542
  • Northouse, Peter. Leadership: Theory and Practice. Sage Publications, 2006. ISBN 141294161X
  • Terry, George. Principles of Management. Learning Systems Company, 1978. ISBN 0256021341
  • Weber, Max. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Oxford University Press, 1958. ISBN 0195004620

External links

All links retrieved October 25, 2022.


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