Difference between revisions of "Lapis lazuli" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
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{{Infobox mineral
 
{{Infobox mineral
 
| name        = Lapis lazuli
 
| name        = Lapis lazuli
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| twinning    =  
 
| twinning    =  
 
| cleavage    = None
 
| cleavage    = None
| fracture    = Uneven-Conciodal
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| fracture    = Uneven-Conchoidal
 
| mohs        = 5 - 5.5
 
| mohs        = 5 - 5.5
 
| luster      = dull
 
| luster      = dull
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| streak      = light blue
 
| streak      = light blue
 
| gravity    = 2.7 - 2.9
 
| gravity    = 2.7 - 2.9
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| density    =
 
| melt        =  
 
| melt        =  
 
| fusibility  =  
 
| fusibility  =  
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}}
 
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'''Lapis lazuli''', also known as '''lapis''', is a stone with one of the longest traditions of being considered a [[gemstone|gem]], with a history stretching back to 7000 B.C.E.. in [[Mehrgarh]] of [[Indian subcontinent]], situated in modern day [[Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]]. Deep [[blue]] in color and opaque, this gemstone was highly prized by the [[pharaohs]] of ancient [[Egypt]], as can be seen by its prominent use in many of the treasures recovered from pharaonic tombs. It is still extremely popular today.  
+
'''Lapis lazuli''', also referred to as '''lapis''', is a stone with one of the longest traditions of being considered a [[gemstone|gem]]. Deep [[blue]] in color and opaque, it was regarded as a stone fit for royalty and fetched a princely sum. It takes a prominent place in many treasures recovered from the tombs of the [[pharaohs]] of ancient [[Egypt]].
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Lapis has been used to produce jewelry, carvings, mosaics, and a variety of ornamental pieces. In addition, prior to the discovery and chemical synthesis of various blue pigments, the stone was ground and processed to produce [[ultramarine]], a pigment used in [[tempera]] paints. In architecture, the pigment has been used to clad the walls of palaces and shrines. The popularity of lapis as a gemstone continues through today.
  
Lapis is a [[Rock (geology)|rock]] and not a [[mineral]] because it is made up from various other minerals. To be a true mineral it would have one constituent only.<ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-2330.html Mindat.org]</ref>
+
== Etymology ==
  
The first part of the name is the [[Latin]] ''lapis'', meaning stone. The second part, ''lazuli'', is the [[genitive]] form of the medieval Latin ''lazulum'', which came from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''(al-)lazward'', which came from [[Persian language|Persian]] لاژورد ''lāzhward''. This was originally a place-name, but soon came to mean ''blue'' because of its association with the stone. The [[English language|English]] word ''azure'', the Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''azul'', and the Italian ''azzurro'' are [[cognate]]s. Taken as a whole, ''lapis lazuli'' means "stone of azure".
+
Taken as a whole, ''lapis lazuli'' means "stone of azure." The first part of the name is the [[Latin]] ''lapis,'' meaning stone. The second part, ''lazuli,'' is the [[genitive]] form of the medieval Latin ''lazulum,'' which came from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''(al-)lazward,'' which came from [[Persian language|Persian]] لاژورد ''lāzhward.'' This was originally the name of a place, but it soon came to mean ''blue'' because of its association with the stone. The [[English language|English]] word ''azure,'' the Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''azul,'' and the Italian ''azzurro'' are [[cognate]]s.
  
== Description ==
+
== Occurrence ==
The main component of lapis lazuli is [[lazurite]] (25% to 40%), a [[feldspathoid]] [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] mineral composed of [[sodium]], [[aluminium]], [[silicon]], [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], and [[chlorine]]. Most lapis also contains [[calcite]] (white), [[sodalite]] (blue) and [[pyrite]] (yellow). Other possible constituents are [[augite]], [[diopside]], [[enstatite]], [[mica]], [[hauynite]], [[hornblende]] and [[nosean]]. Lazurite's formula is (Na,Ca)<sub>8</sub>(AlSiO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>(S,SO<sub>4</sub>,Cl)<sub>1-2</sub>. <ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-2357.html Mindat - Lazurite]</ref>
 
  
Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline [[marble]] as a result of [[contact metamorphism]].
+
Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline [[marble]] as a result of [[contact metamorphism]]. The finest lapis comes from the [[Badakhshan]] area in northern [[Afghanistan]]. This source may be the world's oldest continually worked set of mines for lapis&mdash;the same mines operating today supplied lapis to the pharaohs and ancient [[Sumer|Sumerians]]. Using stones from this source, the artisans of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] made beautiful carvings and merchants traded them in distant lands.
  
The finest color is intense blue, lightly dusted with small flecks of golden [[pyrite]]. There should be no white [[calcite]] veins and the pyrite inclusions should be small. Stones that contain too much calcite or pyrite are not as valuable. Patches of pyrite are an important help in identifying the stone as genuine and do not detract from its value. Often, inferior lapis is dyed to improve its color, but these are often a very dark blue with a noticeable grey cast.
+
In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis has been found in the [[Andes]] near [[Ovalle, Chile|Ovalle]], [[Chile]], where it is usually pale blue rather than deep blue. Other less important sources are the [[Lake Baikal]] region of [[Russia]], [[Siberia]], [[Angola]], [[Burma]], [[Pakistan]], [[United States]] ([[California]] and [[Colorado]]), [[Canada]], and India.
  
==Sources==
+
== Characteristics ==
The finest lapis comes from the [[Badakshan]] area of [[Afghanistan]]. This source of lapis may be the oldest continually worked set of mines in the world, the same mines operating today having supplied the lapis of the pharaohs and ancient [[Sumer|Sumerians]]. Using this ancient source, the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]'s artists used to make beautiful carvings and traders used to trade them to distant places. More recently, during the 1980s conflict with the USSR, Afghanistan resistance fighters disassembled unexploded Soviet landmines and ordnance and used the scavenged explosive to help mine lapis to further fund their resistance efforts.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
  
In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis has been found in the [[Andes]] near [[Ovalle, Chile|Ovalle]], [[Chile]], where it is usually pale rather than deep blue. Other less important sources are the [[Lake Baikal]] region of [[Russia]], [[Siberia]], [[Angola]], [[Burma]], [[Pakistan]], [[United States|USA]] ([[California]] and [[Colorado]]), [[Canada]] and India.
+
Geologically, lapis is classified as a [[Rock (geology)|rock]], not a [[mineral]], because it is made up of various minerals. To be called a mineral, it would have to be composed of a single constituent.<ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-2330.html Lapis lazuli.] ''Mindat.org''. Retrieved March 21, 2007.</ref>
 +
 
 +
The main component of lapis lazuli is [[lazurite]] (25 to 40 percent), a blue [[feldspathoid]] [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] mineral composed of [[sodium]], [[aluminum]], [[silicon]], [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], and [[chlorine]]. Most lapis also contains [[calcite]] (white), [[sodalite]] (blue), and [[pyrite]] (yellow). Other possible constituents are [[augite]], [[diopside]], [[enstatite]], [[mica]], [[hauynite]], [[hornblende]], and [[nosean]]. Lazurite's chemical formula may be written as (Na,Ca)<sub>8</sub>(AlSiO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>(S,SO<sub>4</sub>,Cl)<sub>1-2</sub>. <ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-2357.html Lazurite.] ''Mindat.org''. Retrieved March 21, 2007.</ref>
 +
 
 +
== Evaluating the stone ==
 +
 
 +
The finest color is intense blue, lightly dusted with small flecks of golden [[pyrite]]. There should be no white [[calcite]] veins, and the pyrite inclusions should be small. Stones that contain too much calcite or pyrite are not as valuable. Patches of pyrite are an important help in identifying the stone as genuine and do not detract from its value. Often, inferior stones are dyed to improve their color, but these are often a very dark blue with a noticeable gray cast.
  
 
==Uses==
 
==Uses==
Lapis takes an excellent polish and has been made into jewelry, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments and vases. In architecture it has been used for cladding the walls and columns of palaces and churches.
+
[[image:Lapis.elephant.800pix.060203.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An [[Elephant]] carving in high quality lapis lazuli, showing gold-colored inclusions of [[pyrite]]. These inclusions are common in lapis and are an important help in identifying the stone. The carving is 8 centimeters (3 inches) long.]]
 +
 
 +
Lapis takes an excellent polish and has been made into jewelry, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, and vases. In architecture, it has been used for cladding the walls and columns of churches and palaces.
  
It was also ground and processed to make the [[pigment]] [[Ultramarine]] for [[tempera]] paint and, more rarely, [[oil paint]]. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint ended in the early nineteenth century as a chemically identical synthetic variety, often called French Ultramarine, became available.
+
It was also ground to a powder, processed to remove impurities, and lazurite was isolated to prepare the [[pigment]] [[ultramarine]]. This pigment was used for [[tempera]] paint and, more rarely, [[oil paint]]. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint nearly ended in the early nineteenth century, as a chemically identical synthetic variety, often called French ultramarine, became available.
  
==Cultural and historical/mythical usage==
+
==Historical and cultural significance==
[[Image:mesolapis.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Mesopotamian]] lapis lazuli pendant circa 2900 b.c.e.]]
+
[[Image:mesolapis.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Mesopotamian]] lapis lazuli pendant, circa 2900 B.C.E.]]
[[image:Lapis.elephant.800pix.060203.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An [[Elephant]] carving in high quality lapis lazuli, showing gold-colored inclusions of [[pyrite]]. These inclusions are common in lapis and are an important help in identifying the stone. The carving is 8 cm (3 inches) long.]]
 
  
In ancient Egypt lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as [[scarab]]s; it was also used by the Assyrians and Babylonians for [[Cylinder seal|seals]]. Egyptian burial sites dating before 3000 b.c.e. contained thousands of jewelry items, many of lapis. Powdered lapis was used by Egyptian ladies as a cosmetic eye shadow.
+
The history of lapis lazuli stretches back to 7000 B.C.E. in [[Mehrgarh]], situated in modern-day [[Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]]. In ancient Egypt, it was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as [[scarab]]s. Egyptian burial sites dating before 3000 B.C.E. contain thousands of jewelry items, many of lapis. Powdered lapis was used by Egyptian women as a cosmetic eye shadow. In addition, the Assyrians and Babylonians used it for [[cylinder seal]]s.
  
As inscribed in the 140th chapter of the Egyptian [[Book of the Dead]], lapis lazuli, in the shape of an eye set in gold, was considered an amulet of great power. On the last day of the month, an offering was made before this symbolic eye, for it was believed that, on that day, the supreme being placed such an image on his head.
+
As inscribed in the 140th chapter of the Egyptian [[Book of the Dead]], lapis lazuli, in the shape of an eye set in gold, was considered an amulet of great power. On the last day of the month, an offering was made before this symbolic eye, for it was believed that on that day, the supreme being placed such an image on his head.
  
The ancient royal Sumerian tombs of Ur, located near the Euphrates River in lower Iraq, contained more than 6,000 beautifully executed lapis lazuli statuettes of birds, deer, and rodents as well as dishes, beads, and cylinder seals. These carved artifacts undoubtedly came from material mined in [[Badakhshan]] in northern [[Afghanistan]]. The word lazuli itself originates from the [[Persian language|Persian]] dialect of Badakhshan. Much Sumerian and [[Akkadian]] poetry makes reference to lapis lazuli as a gem befitting royal splendor.
+
The ancient royal Sumerian tombs of Ur, located near the Euphrates River in lower Iraq, contained more than 6,000 beautifully executed lapis lazuli statuettes of birds, deer, and rodents, as well as dishes, beads, and cylinder seals. These carved artifacts undoubtedly came from material mined in Badakhshan, [[Afghanistan]]. The word ''lazuli'' originates from the [[Persian language|Persian]] dialect of Badakhshan.
  
In ancient times, lapis lazuli was known as [[sapphire]], which is the name that is used today for the blue corundum variety sapphire. It appears to have been the sapphire of ancient writers because Pliny refers to sapphirus as a stone sprinkled with specks of gold. A similar reference can be found in the Hebrew Bible in Job 28:6.
+
It appears that ancient writers referred to lapis lazuli as [[sapphire]]. For instance, Pliny describes sapphirus as a stone sprinkled with specks of gold. A similar reference can be found in the Hebrew scriptures, in Job 28:6. Currently, the term sapphire is used for blue and other varieties of corundum.
  
The Romans believed that lapis was a powerful [[aphrodisiac]]. In the Middle Ages, it was thought to keep the limbs healthy, and free the soul from error, envy and fear.
+
It was once believed that lapis had medicinal properties. The stone was ground down, mixed with milk, and applied as a dressing for boils and ulcers. The ancient Romans believed that lapis was a powerful [[aphrodisiac]]. In the Middle Ages, it was thought to be capable of keeping the limbs healthy and freeing the soul from error, envy, and fear.
  
It was once believed that lapis had medicinal properties. It was ground down, mixed with milk and applied as a dressing for boils and ulcers.
+
Many of the blues used in painting, from medieval [[illuminated manuscripts]] to [[Renaissance]] panels, were derived from lapis lazuli. The clear, bright blue known as [[ultramarine]] (mentioned above) was one of the few available to painters before the nineteenth century, and it cost a princely sum. As [[tempera]] painting was superseded by the advent of [[oil paint]] during the Renaissance, painters found that the brilliance of ultramarine was greatly diminished when it was ground in oil. This factor, along with its cost, led to a steady decline in usage.
  
Many of the blues in painting from medieval [[Illuminated manuscripts]] to [[Renaissance]] panels were derived from lapis lazuli. Ground to a powder and processed to remove impurities and isolate the component lazurite, it forms the pigment [[ultramarine]]. This clear, bright blue, which was one of the few available to painters before the nineteenth century, cost a princely sum. As [[tempera]] painting was superseded by the advent of [[oil paint]] in the Renaissance, painters found that the brilliance of ultramarine was greatly diminished when it was ground in oil and this, along with its cost, led to a steady decline in usage. Since the synthetic version of ultramarine was discovered in the nineteenth century (along with other nineteenth-century blues, such as [[cobalt]] blue), production and use of the natural variety has almost ceased, though several pigment companies still produce it and some painters are still attracted to its brilliance and its romantic history.
+
The use of naturally occurring lapis lazuli in paints almost ceased in the nineteenth century, with the chemical synthesis of French ultramarine and the discovery of other sources for blue pigments, such as [[cobalt]] blue. Nonetheless, several pigment companies continue to produce it, and some painters are still attracted to its brilliance and romantic history.
  
===Poetry/Literature===
+
===Poetry and literature===
''Lapis Lazuli'' is a poem written by [[William Butler Yeats]]. [http://www.readprint.com/work-1586/William-Butler-Yeats Text available at Readprint.com]
 
  
As noted above, lapis lazuli is also repeatedly mentioned in the Sumerian and Akkadian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]. For instance, the [[Bull of Heaven]]'s horns are composed of Lapis lazuli.
+
* Much of Sumerian and [[Akkadian]] poetry makes reference to lapis lazuli as a gem befitting royal splendor. For instance, this stone is repeatedly mentioned in the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]. The [[Bull of Heaven]]'s horns were said to be composed of lapis lazuli.
  
Lapis Lazuli is also mentioned in Browning's 'The Bishop Order's His Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church'.
+
* ''Lapis Lazuli'' is a poem written by [[William Butler Yeats]].<ref>Text of the poem by Yeats is available at [http://www.readprint.com/work-1586/William-Butler-Yeats Readprint.com]. Retrieved March 21, 2007.</ref> This stone is also mentioned in Robert Browning's "The Bishop Order's His Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church."
  
Lapis lazuli also makes an appearance in [[Marianne Moore]]'s poem, "A Talisman" - which is quoted by [[T. S. Eliot]] in his "Introduction to ''Selected Poems'' [of Marianne Moore]." The stanza of Moore's poem reads: "Of lapis-lazuli,/A scarab of the sea,/With wings spread-". Eliot, in the next paragraph, raises the question: "I cannot see what a bird carved of ''lapis-lazuli'' should be doing with ''coral'' feet; but even here the cadence, the use of rhyme, and a certain authoritativeness of manner distinguish the poem."
+
* Lapis lazuli also makes an appearance in [[Marianne Moore]]'s poem, "A Talisman" - which is quoted by [[T. S. Eliot]] in his "Introduction to ''Selected Poems'' [of Marianne Moore]." The stanza of Moore's poem reads: "Of lapis-lazuli,/A scarab of the sea,/With wings spread-." Eliot, in the next paragraph, raises the question: "I cannot see what a bird carved of ''lapis-lazuli'' should be doing with ''coral'' feet; but even here the cadence, the use of rhyme, and a certain authoritativeness of manner distinguish the poem."
  
In [[Lorna Crozier]]'s poem "The Memorial Wall", "a young man who'd come/ from Montana to find his brother's name,/paints te side door lapis lazuli".
+
* In [[Lorna Crozier]]'s poem "The Memorial Wall," "a young man who'd come/ from Montana to find his brother's name,/paints the side door lapis lazuli."
  
In [[Robert Heinlein]]'s novel, "[[Time Enough for Love]]," the centuries old main charater, [[Lazarus Long]], names one of his two twin cloned daughters Lapis Lazuli.
+
* In [[Robert Heinlein]]'s novel, "[[Time Enough for Love]]," the centuries-old main character, [[Lazarus Long]], names one of his twin cloned daughters Lapis Lazuli.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
Line 91: Line 96:
 
* [[Gemstone]]
 
* [[Gemstone]]
 
* [[Mineral]]
 
* [[Mineral]]
 +
* [[Pigment]]
 +
* [[Paint]]
 
* [[Rock (geology)]]
 
* [[Rock (geology)]]
  
Line 98: Line 105:
 
==References==
 
==References==
  
* Farndon, John. 2006. ''The Practical Encyclopedia of Rocks & Minerals: How to Find, Identify, Collect and Maintain the World's best Specimens, with over 1000 Photographs and Artworks''. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 0754815412 and ISBN 978-0754815419.
+
* Farndon, John. 2006. ''The Practical Encyclopedia of Rocks & Minerals: How to Find, Identify, Collect and Maintain the World's best Specimens, with over 1000 Photographs and Artworks.'' London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 9780754815419.
  
* Klein, Cornelis, and Barbara Dutrow. 2007. ''Manual of Mineral Science''. 23rd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0471721573 and ISBN 978-0471721574.
+
* Klein, Cornelis, and Barbara Dutrow. 2007. ''Manual of Mineral Science.'' 23rd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 9780471721574.
  
* Pellant, Chris. 2002. ''Rocks and Minerals''. Smithsonian Handbooks. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0789491060 and ISBN 978-0789491060.
+
* Pellant, Chris. 2002. ''Rocks and Minerals.'' Smithsonian Handbooks. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 9780789491060.
  
* Shaffer, Paul R., Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. 2001. ''Rocks, Gems and Minerals''. Rev. ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 1582381321 and ISBN 978-1582381329.
+
* Shaffer, Paul R., Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. 2001. ''Rocks, Gems and Minerals.'' Rev. ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9781582381329.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved October 22, 2022.
 +
* Bancroft, Peter. [http://www.palagems.com/lapis_lazuli_bancroft.htm Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan] ''Pala International''
  
* Bancroft, Peter. 1984. [http://www.palagems.com/lapis_lazuli_bancroft.htm "Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan" in ''Gem and Crystal Treasures''] Western Enterprises/Mineralogical Record, Fallbrook, CA - Palagems.com information page.
 
* [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~eps2/wisc/Lect16.html Berkely.edu info page]
 
* [http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/amber/go340/students/haltom/ Emporia.edu What is it?]
 
  
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]

Latest revision as of 22:35, 22 October 2022

Lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli block.jpg
General
CategoryRock
Chemical formulamixture of minerals
Identification
ColorBlue, mottled with white calcite and brassy pyrite
Crystal habitCompact, massive
Crystal systemNone, as lapis is a rock. Lazurite, the main constituent, frequently occurs as dodecahedra
CleavageNone
FractureUneven-Conchoidal
Mohs Scale hardness5 - 5.5
Lusterdull
Refractive index1.5
Streaklight blue
Specific gravity2.7 - 2.9
Other CharacteristicsThe variations in composition cause a wide variation in the above values.

Lapis lazuli, also referred to as lapis, is a stone with one of the longest traditions of being considered a gem. Deep blue in color and opaque, it was regarded as a stone fit for royalty and fetched a princely sum. It takes a prominent place in many treasures recovered from the tombs of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt.

Lapis has been used to produce jewelry, carvings, mosaics, and a variety of ornamental pieces. In addition, prior to the discovery and chemical synthesis of various blue pigments, the stone was ground and processed to produce ultramarine, a pigment used in tempera paints. In architecture, the pigment has been used to clad the walls of palaces and shrines. The popularity of lapis as a gemstone continues through today.

Etymology

Taken as a whole, lapis lazuli means "stone of azure." The first part of the name is the Latin lapis, meaning stone. The second part, lazuli, is the genitive form of the medieval Latin lazulum, which came from Arabic (al-)lazward, which came from Persian لاژورد lāzhward. This was originally the name of a place, but it soon came to mean blue because of its association with the stone. The English word azure, the Spanish and Portuguese azul, and the Italian azzurro are cognates.

Occurrence

Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline marble as a result of contact metamorphism. The finest lapis comes from the Badakhshan area in northern Afghanistan. This source may be the world's oldest continually worked set of mines for lapis—the same mines operating today supplied lapis to the pharaohs and ancient Sumerians. Using stones from this source, the artisans of the Indus Valley Civilization made beautiful carvings and merchants traded them in distant lands.

In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis has been found in the Andes near Ovalle, Chile, where it is usually pale blue rather than deep blue. Other less important sources are the Lake Baikal region of Russia, Siberia, Angola, Burma, Pakistan, United States (California and Colorado), Canada, and India.

Characteristics

Geologically, lapis is classified as a rock, not a mineral, because it is made up of various minerals. To be called a mineral, it would have to be composed of a single constituent.[1]

The main component of lapis lazuli is lazurite (25 to 40 percent), a blue feldspathoid silicate mineral composed of sodium, aluminum, silicon, oxygen, sulfur, and chlorine. Most lapis also contains calcite (white), sodalite (blue), and pyrite (yellow). Other possible constituents are augite, diopside, enstatite, mica, hauynite, hornblende, and nosean. Lazurite's chemical formula may be written as (Na,Ca)8(AlSiO4)6(S,SO4,Cl)1-2. [2]

Evaluating the stone

The finest color is intense blue, lightly dusted with small flecks of golden pyrite. There should be no white calcite veins, and the pyrite inclusions should be small. Stones that contain too much calcite or pyrite are not as valuable. Patches of pyrite are an important help in identifying the stone as genuine and do not detract from its value. Often, inferior stones are dyed to improve their color, but these are often a very dark blue with a noticeable gray cast.

Uses

An Elephant carving in high quality lapis lazuli, showing gold-colored inclusions of pyrite. These inclusions are common in lapis and are an important help in identifying the stone. The carving is 8 centimeters (3 inches) long.

Lapis takes an excellent polish and has been made into jewelry, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, and vases. In architecture, it has been used for cladding the walls and columns of churches and palaces.

It was also ground to a powder, processed to remove impurities, and lazurite was isolated to prepare the pigment ultramarine. This pigment was used for tempera paint and, more rarely, oil paint. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint nearly ended in the early nineteenth century, as a chemically identical synthetic variety, often called French ultramarine, became available.

Historical and cultural significance

A Mesopotamian lapis lazuli pendant, circa 2900 B.C.E.

The history of lapis lazuli stretches back to 7000 B.C.E. in Mehrgarh, situated in modern-day Balochistan, Pakistan. In ancient Egypt, it was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs. Egyptian burial sites dating before 3000 B.C.E. contain thousands of jewelry items, many of lapis. Powdered lapis was used by Egyptian women as a cosmetic eye shadow. In addition, the Assyrians and Babylonians used it for cylinder seals.

As inscribed in the 140th chapter of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, lapis lazuli, in the shape of an eye set in gold, was considered an amulet of great power. On the last day of the month, an offering was made before this symbolic eye, for it was believed that on that day, the supreme being placed such an image on his head.

The ancient royal Sumerian tombs of Ur, located near the Euphrates River in lower Iraq, contained more than 6,000 beautifully executed lapis lazuli statuettes of birds, deer, and rodents, as well as dishes, beads, and cylinder seals. These carved artifacts undoubtedly came from material mined in Badakhshan, Afghanistan. The word lazuli originates from the Persian dialect of Badakhshan.

It appears that ancient writers referred to lapis lazuli as sapphire. For instance, Pliny describes sapphirus as a stone sprinkled with specks of gold. A similar reference can be found in the Hebrew scriptures, in Job 28:6. Currently, the term sapphire is used for blue and other varieties of corundum.

It was once believed that lapis had medicinal properties. The stone was ground down, mixed with milk, and applied as a dressing for boils and ulcers. The ancient Romans believed that lapis was a powerful aphrodisiac. In the Middle Ages, it was thought to be capable of keeping the limbs healthy and freeing the soul from error, envy, and fear.

Many of the blues used in painting, from medieval illuminated manuscripts to Renaissance panels, were derived from lapis lazuli. The clear, bright blue known as ultramarine (mentioned above) was one of the few available to painters before the nineteenth century, and it cost a princely sum. As tempera painting was superseded by the advent of oil paint during the Renaissance, painters found that the brilliance of ultramarine was greatly diminished when it was ground in oil. This factor, along with its cost, led to a steady decline in usage.

The use of naturally occurring lapis lazuli in paints almost ceased in the nineteenth century, with the chemical synthesis of French ultramarine and the discovery of other sources for blue pigments, such as cobalt blue. Nonetheless, several pigment companies continue to produce it, and some painters are still attracted to its brilliance and romantic history.

Poetry and literature

  • Much of Sumerian and Akkadian poetry makes reference to lapis lazuli as a gem befitting royal splendor. For instance, this stone is repeatedly mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Bull of Heaven's horns were said to be composed of lapis lazuli.
  • Lapis Lazuli is a poem written by William Butler Yeats.[3] This stone is also mentioned in Robert Browning's "The Bishop Order's His Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church."
  • Lapis lazuli also makes an appearance in Marianne Moore's poem, "A Talisman" - which is quoted by T. S. Eliot in his "Introduction to Selected Poems [of Marianne Moore]." The stanza of Moore's poem reads: "Of lapis-lazuli,/A scarab of the sea,/With wings spread-." Eliot, in the next paragraph, raises the question: "I cannot see what a bird carved of lapis-lazuli should be doing with coral feet; but even here the cadence, the use of rhyme, and a certain authoritativeness of manner distinguish the poem."
  • In Lorna Crozier's poem "The Memorial Wall," "a young man who'd come/ from Montana to find his brother's name,/paints the side door lapis lazuli."
  • In Robert Heinlein's novel, "Time Enough for Love," the centuries-old main character, Lazarus Long, names one of his twin cloned daughters Lapis Lazuli.

See also

Notes

  1. Lapis lazuli. Mindat.org. Retrieved March 21, 2007.
  2. Lazurite. Mindat.org. Retrieved March 21, 2007.
  3. Text of the poem by Yeats is available at Readprint.com. Retrieved March 21, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Farndon, John. 2006. The Practical Encyclopedia of Rocks & Minerals: How to Find, Identify, Collect and Maintain the World's best Specimens, with over 1000 Photographs and Artworks. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 9780754815419.
  • Klein, Cornelis, and Barbara Dutrow. 2007. Manual of Mineral Science. 23rd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 9780471721574.
  • Pellant, Chris. 2002. Rocks and Minerals. Smithsonian Handbooks. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 9780789491060.
  • Shaffer, Paul R., Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. 2001. Rocks, Gems and Minerals. Rev. ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9781582381329.

External links

All links retrieved October 22, 2022.

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