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'''Korean architecture''' refers to the [[architecture]] of [[Korea]].  
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'''Korean architecture''' refers to the [[architecture]] of [[Korea]]. The early stages of Korean architecture date to the Neolithic period; [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence of [[ondol]], the unique Korean floor panel heating system, was found among the remains of the burnished plain pottery culture. For the first century B.C.E., Korean architecture was influenced by the Chinese. After the unification of the Korean peninsula into the kingdom of United Silla in the seventh century, the culture of the [[T'ang Dynasty]] was absorbed and modified to create a unique Korean cultural identity. [[Buddhist]] art and architecture flourished, and great temples were built. The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 introduced  [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian ideals]], which were expressed in architectural forms that emphasized veneration for ancestors and favored practicality, frugality, and harmony with nature. A consistent architectural style, graceful and elegant, appeared throughout Korean society.
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Beginning with the Japanese occupation of Korea in 1910, through the ravages of [[World War II]] and the [[Korean War]], Korean architecture suffered and many architectural monuments were burned or destroyed. The practical needs of rebuilding after the war took precedence over aesthetics, and only since the 1988 [[Olympic games]] and the economic growth of the last two decades have Korean architects been able to evolve a unique modern architectural style.  
  
==Introduction==
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==Ancient Architecture (Neolithic–Seventh century) ==
==Ancient architecture (Neolithic–7th century) ==
 
 
[[Image:Korea south silla pagoda.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A Silla pagoda.]]
 
[[Image:Korea south silla pagoda.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A Silla pagoda.]]
The Neolithic period was when the early stages of Korean architecture began. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence of [[ondol]], the unique Korean floor panel heating system, was found at the remains of the burnished plain pottery culture and the development of the vertical wall was evident in the primitive houses of this culture.  
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The early stages of Korean architecture date to the Neolithic period. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence of [[ondol]], the unique Korean floor panel heating system, was found among the remains of the burnished plain pottery culture, and the development of the vertical wall was evident in the primitive houses of this culture.  
  
[[Dolmen]]s, which were primitive tombs of important persons, have been found in the [[Korean Peninsula|Korean peninsula]]. There are two types of dolmens: the southern type, which is low and often a simple slab without supporting stones; and the northern type, which is larger and more definite in shape. The distribution of the dolmens would imply some relation to the [[megalithic]] cultures of the Western world.  
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Two types of dolmens, the primitive tombs of important persons, have been found in the Korean peninsula. The southern type is low and often a simple slab without supporting stones; the northern type is larger and more definite in shape. The distribution of the dolmens implies a relation to the megalithic cultures of the Western world.  
  
During this period building techniques of houses evolved from a pit dwelling to that of an earthen wall with [[Thatching|thatched roof]], to that of a [[log cabin]] construction, and finally, to a raised floor construction.
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During this period, building techniques of houses evolved from pit dwelling to houses of earthen walls with thatched roofs, to log cabin construction, and finally, to a raised floor construction.
  
In 109 B.C.E., the [[China|Chinese]] commandery at [[Nangnang]] (Lo-lang) was established in the northwest region of Korea. Official buildings of this period were built of wood and brick and roofed with tiles having the features of Chinese construction. [[Chinese architecture]] strongly influenced Korean architecture at this time, creating a basis for further Korean development.  
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In 109 B.C.E., the [[China|Chinese]] commandery at [[Nangnang]] (Lo-lang) was established in the northwest region of Korea. [[Chinese architecture]] strongly influenced Korean architecture at this time, creating a basis for further Korean development.  
  
After the fall of Nangnang in 313, [[Goguryeo]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], expanded her territory to included half of Manchuria and all of north Korea. Two different types of tombs evolved during this period: one is a stepped pyramid made of stone, while the other is a large earth mound form.  
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After the fall of Nangnang in 313, [[Goguryeo]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], expanded her territory to included half of Manchuria and all of northern Korea. Two different types of tombs evolved during this period: one is a stepped pyramid made of stone, while the other is a large earth mound form.  
  
[[Baekje]] was founded in 18 B.C.E. and its territory included the west coast of the Korean peninusula. After the fall of Nangnang, Paekche established friendships with China and Japan. Great temples were built during this time. The earliest stone [[pagoda]] of the [[Miruk Temple]] in [[Iksan]] country is of particular interest because it shows the transitional features from a wooden pagoda to a stone one. The art and architecture of the Paekche period had a touch of elegance, refinement and warmth. Paekche assimilated diverse influences and expressed its derivation from Chinese models. Later, important elements of the architectural style of Paekche were adopted by Japan.
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Baekje was founded in 18 B.C.E., and its territory included the west coast of the Korean peninusula. Paekche established friendships with China and Japan, and built temples. The earliest stone pagoda of the Miruk Temple in Iksan country is of particular interest, because it shows transitional features from a wooden pagoda to a stone one. The art and architecture of the Paekche period had a touch of elegance, refinement and warmth. Paekche assimilated diverse influences and expressed its derivation from Chinese models. Later, important elements of the architectural style of Paekche were adopted by Japan.
  
[[Image:Cheomseongdae.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Cheomsongdae, ancient astronomical observatory built during the reign of Queen Seondeok.]]
 
 
[[Silla]] was the last of the three kingdoms to develop into a full-fledged kingdom. Again many great temples were built, but the most famous architectural development is [[Cheomseongdae]], said to be the first stone observatory in Asia, built during the reign of [[Queen Seondeok of Silla|Queen Seondeok]] (632-646). The structure is famous for its unique and elegant form.
 
[[Silla]] was the last of the three kingdoms to develop into a full-fledged kingdom. Again many great temples were built, but the most famous architectural development is [[Cheomseongdae]], said to be the first stone observatory in Asia, built during the reign of [[Queen Seondeok of Silla|Queen Seondeok]] (632-646). The structure is famous for its unique and elegant form.
  
==United Silla architecture (7th–10th century) ==
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[[Image:Cheomseongdae.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Cheomsongdae, ancient astronomical observatory built during the reign of Queen Seondeok.]]
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==United Silla Architecture (Seventh – Tenth century) ==
 
[[Image:Iro-dang, Unhyeongung - Seoul, Korea.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Iro-dang]]
 
[[Image:Iro-dang, Unhyeongung - Seoul, Korea.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Iro-dang]]
After the unification of the Korean peninsula into the kingdom of United Silla, Korean institutions were radically transformed. United Silla absorbed the fully matured culture of the T'ang dynasty in China, and at the same time developed a unique [[cultural identity]]. New Buddhist sects were introduced from the T'ang and [[Buddhist art]] flourished. It was a great period of peace and cultural advancement in all helds of the arts.
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After the unification of the Korean peninsula into the kingdom of United Silla, Korean institutions were radically transformed. United Silla absorbed the fully matured culture of the [[T'ang Dynasty]] in China, and at the same time developed a unique cultural identity of its own. New Buddhist sects were introduced from the T'ang, and Buddhist art flourished. It was a period of peace and cultural advancement in the arts, that displayed a new level of grace and elegance.  
 
 
Architecture flourished in the royal capital of Kyongju, though almost all traces of the former glory have vanished at the present time. The city with nealy a million inhabitants at her peak was strategically located at the junction of two rivers and three mountains encircling a fertile basin of about five by seven miles in area. The urban area of the city was developed and expanded in three stages. In the second stage, when Hwangyong Temple was located in the center, the region was developed into the grid network of road patterns with wide streets.
 
 
 
One of the Palace sites is marked by the [[Water reservoir|artificial lake]] of Annap with stone works of [[retaining wall]]s delineating the former building location. The residential district of the nobles in the city was composed of great houses which were constructed conforming to the [[building code]] that granted privileges to the nobles, but forbidden to the commoners. Tiles from many ruins of the buildings were found everywhere. Of those that are still intact, show elegant and graceful design.
 
 
 
The plans of Buddhist temples were characterized by two pagodas in front of the central main hall in a symrnetrical layout on the north-south axis with other buildings. [[Bulguksa|Pulguk Temple]], built on a stone platform at the foothill of Mt. Toham near Kyongju, is the oldest existing temple in Korea. The temple was first founded early in the sixth century and was entirely rebuilt and enlarged in 752. The original platform and foundations have remained intact to the present, but the existing wooden buildings were reconstructed during the Choson dynasty.  
 
  
The stone work of the two story platform exhibits a superb sense of architectural organization and advanced building methods. Two stone pagodas stand in front of the main hall of the temple. The simpler [[Seokgatap|Sokka-top]] located to the left of the court represents Buddha's manifestation in a transcendent calm. It has three stories with two pedestal layers and a total height reaching about twenty-five feet. The pagoda consists of simple undecorated pedestal slabs and three story stupa each of which has five stepped eaves and truncated roofs. These characteristics constitute a typical form of the Korean stone pagodas.  
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Architecture flourished in the royal capital of Kyongju, though almost all traces of the former glory have now vanished. The city was based around a fertile basin shaped by three mountains and two joining rivers. A gird network formed in the urban area, with the Hwangyong Temple at the center.  
  
To the right of the court, the complex [[Dabotap|Tabo-tap]] represents Buddha's manifestation in a diversified universe, and is unique in Korea, further so in Asia. With a height of thirty-five feet, this pagoda has one pedestal with a staircase on each side, four main stories with balustrade and is characterized by the final crown-ball-and-plate sequence. The design motif of the [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]] is apparent in mouldings and other details of the pagoda.  
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The plans of Korean Buddhist temples were characterized by two pagodas in front of the central main hall, in a symmetrical layout on the north-south axis with other buildings. [[Bulguksa|Pulguk Temple]], built on a stone platform at the foot hill of Mt. Toham near Kyongju, is the oldest existing temple in Korea. Its Tabo-tap, located to the right of the court, is unique in Korea and the rest of Asia. The temple was first founded early in the sixth century and was entirely rebuilt and enlarged in 752.  
  
The rock cave shrine of [[Seokguram|Sokkuram]] is located on the crest of Mt. Toham. It was built by the same master architect of Pulguk Temple, and built around the same era. This cave shrine was artificially and skillfully constructed with granite blocks and covered with an earth mound on top to give the appearance of a natural landscape. The shrine boasts a rectangular anteroom lined with large stone slabs carved with the figures of the protectors of Buddhism on each side of the walls and at the entrance passageway to the main chamber. The circular main chamber covered by an elegant dome ceiling and surrounded by carved stone wall panels depicting bodhisattvas and the ten disciples. The graceful statue of Buddha on a lotus pedestal in the center is the dominant feature of the chamber.  
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The rock cave shrine of Sokkuram, located on the crest of Mt. Toham was built around the same era, by the same master architect who built Pulguk Temple. This cave shrine was artificially and skillfully constructed with granite blocks, and covered with an earth mound on top to give the appearance of a natural landscape. The graceful statue of Buddha on a lotus pedestal in the center is the dominant feature of the chamber. Rock cave shrines are common in Asia, but few of these shrines and sculptures reveal such a high level of artistry. None are as religiously and artistically complete in overall design as those at Sokkuram
 
 
Rock cave shrines are not rare in Asia, but few of these shrines and sculptures reveal such high level of artistry. None are as religiously and artistically complete in overall design as those at Sokkuram
 
 
[[Image:Pagoda detail, Tapgol Park - Seoul, Korea.JPG|200px|thumb|Pagoda detail]]
 
[[Image:Pagoda detail, Tapgol Park - Seoul, Korea.JPG|200px|thumb|Pagoda detail]]
  
==Goryeo architecture (10th–14th century) ==
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==Goryeo Architecture (Tenth – Fourteenth century) ==
Much of the architecture of this time was inspired by [[Buddhism]], such as magnificent [[Buddhist temple]]s and the [[Korean pagoda]]. Unfortunately, since most of the architecture of this time was built of wood, little has survived to the present day. Also, the capital of [[Goryeo]] was based in Gaesong, in modern day North Korea, which has made this era especially problematic to study for historians at large.
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Much of the architecture of this time was inspired by [[Buddhism]], such as magnificent [[Buddhist temple]]s and the [[Korean pagoda]]. Unfortunately, since most of the architecture of this time was built of wood, little has survived to the present day. Also, the capital of [[Goryeo]] was based in Gaesong, in modern-day North Korea, which has made it difficult for historians to study this era
  
The few remaining wooden structures surviving from the late Goryeo period in [[South Korea]] indicates significantly simpler bracketing than those found in Joseon period architecture. Bright and soft coloring of the structures indicate further devolopment since the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] era.[http://www.koreanculture.org/06about_korea/symbols/14dancheong.htm]
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==Joseon architecture (Fourteenth – Nineteenth century) ==
 
 
==Joseon architecture (14th–19th century) ==
 
 
[[Image:Korean architecture roof detail 2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Joseon dynasty]] court architecture]]
 
[[Image:Korean architecture roof detail 2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Joseon dynasty]] court architecture]]
The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 brought to power like-minded men steeped in the doctrines of [[Neo-Confucianism]], which had slowly percolated into Korea from China in the 14th century. This ushered in a new environment that was relatively hostile to Buddhism, causing the state to gradually shift its patronage from Buddhist temples to Confucian institutions. Throughout the early dynasty, the impetus to reform society along Neo-Confucian lines led to the construction of hyanggyo (local schools) in Seoul and numerous provincial cities. Here, sons of the aristrocracy prepared for civil service careers in an atmosphere of Confucian learning. Although these institutions endured through the end of the dynasty, they began to fall out of favor in the mid-16th century for a variety of reasons. Among these, the rise in population made it the prospects of a civil service career less likely than in earlier years. Also, as the yangban aristocracy matured in its understanding of Neo-Confucianism, they grew more selective in the quality and type of instruction they favored for their sons. As a result, private confucian academies (seowon) gradually supplanted hyanggyos and became a staple of rural aristocratic life until the end of the dynasty.
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The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 brought to power like-minded men steeped in the doctrines of [[Neo-Confucianism]], which had slowly percolated into Korea from China during the fourteenth century. This ushered in a new environment that was relatively hostile to [[Buddhism]], causing the state to gradually shift its patronage from Buddhist temples to Confucian institutions.  
  
Neo-Confucianism inspired new architectural paradigms. Jaesil, or clan memorial halls, became common in many villages where [[Extended family|extended families]] erected facilities for common veneration of a distant ancestor. Jongryo, or memorial shrines, were established by the government to commemorate exceptional acts of filial piety or devotion. Even beyond these archetypes, the aesthetics of Neo-Confucianism, which favored practicality, frugality, and harmony with nature, forged a consistent architectural style throughout Korean society.
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Neo-Confucianism inspired new architectural paradigms. Jaesil, or clan memorial halls, became common in many villages, where extended families erected facilities for common veneration of a distant ancestor. Jongryo, or memorial shrines, were established by the government to commemorate exceptional acts of filial piety or devotion. Even beyond these archetypes, the aesthetics of Neo-Confucianism, which favored practicality, frugality, and harmony with nature, forged a consistent architectural style throughout Korean society.
  
==Japanese occupation architecture (1910-1945)==
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Confucian homes were designed with special attention to the position and role of each member of the household. The houses were usually arranged around one or more central courtyards, with separate living quarters for the men on the outside and the women on the inside. An ancestral hall or shrine dedicated to the family ancestors was located in a central or elevated place. Confucian temples consisted of two halls, one for study and one for the performance of ceremonial rites, and dormitories. If the temple was built on level ground, the ceremonial hall occupied the front position; on a slope it was located in the higher position to indicate its importance.<ref>[http://www.orientalarchitecture.com], Orientalarchitecture.com, 2007. Retrieved December 22, 2007</ref> 
During the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation of Korea]], there was a systematic attempt by the [[Empire of Japan]] to destroy native Korean architecture and replace it with [[Japanese architecture]].  
 
  
Important architectural sites were destroyed, often by burning. Significant elements of [[landscaping]], such as [[Korean gardens]], were razed, with important artistic pieces sold or taken to Japan, even to the extent of ancient [[bunjae]] trees taken for replanting in Japanese [[bonsai]] gardens. It was at this time as well that the traditional religious architecture was discouraged.   
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==Japanese Occupation Architecture (1910-1945)==
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During the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation of Korea]], there was a systematic attempt by the [[Empire of Japan]] to destroy native Korean architecture and replace it with [[Japanese architecture]]. Important architectural sites were destroyed, often by burning, and significant elements of [[landscaping]], such as [[Korean gardens]], were razed. Traditional religious architecture was also discouraged.   
  
Japanese architecture was first introduced in the Korean transportation networks. [[Railroad]] lines saw the construction of Japanese-style [[rail station]]s and [[hotel]]s. [[Port]]s as transit points, however, had limited construction. Inland, the Japanese built new [[city hall]]s, [[barrack]]s and [[military base]]s, [[Prison|jail]] and prisons, [[police station]]s, and [[Koban (police box)|police box]]es. Having prohibited the teaching of the [[Korean language]] in schools, Japan built many new schools along Japanese educational models. Korean architectural schools were subsequently closed, and Korean architects were required to train only in Japan and encouraged to design exclusively along Japanese models when they returned. While the assumption was that [[Western architecture|Western influences]] on Japanese architects would have transferred to Korea, this did not happen.
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Japanese architecture was first introduced in the Korean transportation networks. [[Railroad]] lines saw the construction of Japanese-style [[rail station]]s and [[hotel]]s. [[Port]]s as transit points, however, had limited construction. Inland, the Japanese built new [[city hall]]s, [[barrack]]s and [[military base]]s, [[Prison|jail]] and prisons, [[police station]]s, and [[Koban (police box)|police box]]es. Korean architects were required to train only in Japan and encouraged to design exclusively along Japanese models when they returned. While the assumption was that Western influences on Japanese architects would have transferred to Korea, this did not happen.
  
Materials were in short supply, with the Japanese [[logging]] almost all [[Old growth forest|old-growth]] forests and shipping particularly large [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] logs to Japan, taking any other [[building material]]s of use for export. It left Korean buildings unrestored and neglected, and contributed to the deterioration of much of Korean architectural history. Historic buildings were also decorated by Japanese ornamentation.
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Building materials were in short supply, and much of the timber logged in Korea was sent to Japan. As a result, Korean buildings were left unrestored and neglected, contributing to the deterioration of much of Korean architectural history. Historic buildings were also decorated using Japanese ornamentation.
  
The Japanese discarded European cultural influences in Korea as well, meaning that Korea had in a period spanning about 55 years in which there were no influences of [[art nouveau]], [[art deco]], [[Bauhaus]], or [[style moderne]], and no influence until the post-war period of [[American architecture]], such as [[skyscraper]]s or large-scale apartment buildings.
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==Post-war Period and Korean War Architecture==
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After the unconditional surrender in 1945, American architecture assumed supremacy. Under [[Douglas MacArthur]], Korean architecture by Koreans was resumed in domestic areas, with extensive repair of the missionary churches being given priority funding. Essential repair to infrastructure followed, often patch-work reconstruction rather than new projects, and simple construction of block-built hospitals, schools, and industries began under military supervision.
  
==Post-war period and Korean War architecture==
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[[Seoul]] had survived much of [[World War II]], but during the [[Korean War]] (1950-1953), many of its buildings were destroyed, with the city changing command between [[North Korea]]n and [[South Korea]]n powers five times. Important architectural sites were over-run and burned by invading [[People's Liberation Army]] forces, and the urban landscape suffered lack of financial resources for repairs.  
After the [[unconditional surrender]] in 1945, American architecture assumed supremacy. Under [[Douglas MacArthur]], who set Korean domestic and political policy from the [[Supreme Command of the Allied Powers]] headquarters in [[Tokyo]]. Korean architecture by Koreans began once again in domestic areas, with extensive repair of the missionary churches being given priority funding. Essential repair to infrastructure followed, more patch-work than new projects, and block-built hospitals, schools, industries began simple construction under military supervision.
 
  
Seoul had survived much of [[World War II]] but during the [[Korean War]] (1950-1953), many buildings were destroyed, with the city changing command between [[North Korea]]n and [[South Korea]]n powers five times. [[Urban warfare|Street-to-street fighting]] and [[artillery]] barrages levelled much of the city, as well as the [[bridge]]s over the [[Han River]].  Important architectural sites were over-run and burnt by invading [[People's Liberation Army]] forces, [[looting]] was extensive, and the urban landscape suffered with little money for repairs.  
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== Modern Architecture ==
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With the armistice, distinct architectural styles determined by foreign governments began a long period of development. In the north, [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] and [[absolutism|absolutist]], often [[brutalism|brutalist]] architecture, was championed. North Korean architects studied in [[Moscow]] or Soviet satellites, and brought back socialist worker styles and huge celebratory people's architecture on a grand and massively impressive scale. Nearly all architecture was government sponsored, and maintained great homogeneity of function and style.
  
== Modern architecture ==
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In the south, the pragmatic need to rebuild a country devastated by genocide, then a civil war, led to buildings of no particular style, that were executed repetitively, and a factory system which produced simple, cheap, expendable buildings. Little attention was given to an architectural aesthetic. It was fortunate that most of this took place in the urban areas.  
With the armistice, and distinct architectural styles determined by foreign governments began a long period of development.
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In the north, [[Stalinist architecture|Stalinist]] and absolutist, often [[brutalist architecture]], was championed. North Korean architects studied in [[Moscow]] or [[Satellite state|Soviet satellites]], and brought back socialist worker styles and huge celebratory people's architecture on a grand and massively impressive scale.  [[Nomenclatura]] lived in [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style apartment blocks, farmers and rural workers lived in traditional houses as they always had; urbanization did not occur.  Grand buildings and huge public squares were developed in [[Pyongyang]] as architectural showpieces.  Formal processional landscapes accompanied these sites.  Nearly all architecture was government sponsored, and maintained great homogeneity of function and style.
 
 
 
In the south, American models defined all new Korean buildings of any importance, with domestic architecture both civil and rural keeping to traditional buildings, building techniques, and using local materials, and local vernacular styles.  The pragmatic need to rebuild a country devastated by genocide, then a civil war, led to ad hoc buildings with no particular styles, extended repeatedly, and a factory system of simple cheap expendable buildings. As few Korean cities had a grid-system, and were often given limits by mountains, few if any urban landscapes had a sense of distinction; by the mid-1950s, rural areas were underfunded, urban areas overfilled, and [[urban sprawl]] began with little money to build distinctive important buildings.
 
 
 
Buildings were built as quickly as money and demand would allow in a workman-like anonymous way, but without individual identities.  Architects were almost to a man trained in the United States, and brought American design, perspective, and methods without much recourse to the local community look and feel.  As the need for housing for workers increased, traditional [[hanoak]] villages were razed, hundreds of simple cheap apartments were put up very fast, and [[Bedroom community|bedroom communities]] on the periphery of the urban centres grew, built and financed as company housing. Little effort was made to have a sense of an architectural aesthetic.
 
  
 
[[Image:Bundang apartment buildings.JPG|thumb|Apartment buildings in [[Seongnam]] city, South Korea]]
 
[[Image:Bundang apartment buildings.JPG|thumb|Apartment buildings in [[Seongnam]] city, South Korea]]
 
This urgency for simple fast housing left most Korean downtowns as faceless as [[Hong Kong]]: concrete towers for work or living and local neighborhoods rebuilt with cheap materials.  Little or no attempt was made for planning, if planning had been possible.  In the countryside, traditional building continued.
 
 
Well into the 1980s, Korea had architecture, but its buildings had little aesthetic, a limited sense of design, and did not integrate into the neighbourhoods or culture.  Awareness that functionality had reached its limits came quickly as Korea moved into the world through sports culture.
 
  
 
==Sports architecture==
 
==Sports architecture==
{{Cleanup|date=November 2006}}
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New waves of new building activity were initiated when South Korea won the contract to host the [[1986 Asian Games]] and the [[1988 Summer Olympics|1988 Olympic games]]. To market the country globally, international architects were encouraged to submit designs for the sports complexes and accommodation facilities, introducing alternative concepts for modern architecture that began to put style and form ahead of spartan practicality. Historically, sports architecture has received the most funding and the attention as an expression of identity within Korea. Hundreds of billions of won have been spent on defining Korea as a sports mecca, with architecture leading the way.
Sports architecture transited to a Korean style.
 
  
South Korea won the [[1986 Asian Games]] and the [[1988 Summer Olympics|1988 Olympic games]], which spurred waves of new building activity. To market the country globally, international architects were encouraged to submit designs, introducing alternative concepts for modern architecture that began to put style and form ahead of spartan practicality. Historically, sports architecture has occupied the most money and the greatest expression of form identity within Korea. Hundreds of billions of won have been spent on defining Korea as a sports mecca with the architecture leading the way.
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Important architects at this time, often led by the atelier-style architectural co-operative [[Space Group of Korea]] were:
 
 
As in the North, most of the largest projects in the South were government sponsored works: but instead worked in confined, rather than open spaces, and worked with huge amounts of enclosed space, primarily in the state subsidized hugely expensive sports architecture. Korea since the 1980s had its most famous architectural works driven by sports: the [[Asian Games]] (1986), the Olympics (1988), and the [[Football World Cup 2002|2002 World Cup]] stadia, as well as great support being given by the [[chaebol]]s such as the [[Samsung]] Group which itself owned the sports teams for marketing purposes.
 
 
 
Important architects at this time and their works often led by the atelier-style architectural co-operative [[Space Group of Korea]] were:
 
  
 
* [[Park Kil-ryong]]
 
* [[Park Kil-ryong]]
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* [[Gyusung Woo]] - Olympic Village, 1984.
 
* [[Gyusung Woo]] - Olympic Village, 1984.
  
It wasn't until the late 1980s and early 1990s that an entirely new generation of Korean architects had the freedom and the financing to build Korean architecture in a distinct Korean manner. This was a result of architects studying and training in Europe, Canada, and even in South America, and seeing the need for more of a sense of unique style, and more sophisticated materials.  
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It was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that an entirely new generation of Korean architects had the freedom and the financing to build Korean architecture in a distinct Korean manner. As a result of studying and training in Europe, Canada, and even in South America, Korean architects saw the need for a more unique style, and more use of sophisticated materials. There was a new determination that nationalistic architectural elements had to be revived and refined, and that buildings should have a meaning within their cultural context.
  
There was a new determination that nationalistic architectural elements had to be revived and refined. Buildings had to mean something within their cultural context.
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==Post-modern Korean Architecture (1986–2005)==
  
==Post-modern Korean architecture (1986&ndash;2005)==
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Individuality and experimentation became the new cause for young architects; however, the country as a whole was slow to move from the old traditions and to value good architectural aesthetics as important to the sense of a village, town, or city. At times, change was forcefully brought about in the face of intense resistance, and new buildings evolved at a substantial personal cost to the architects and builders, and under a great deal of tension.
  
Cultural and museum buildings have followed; with city halls and buildings for the civil service appearing generally in a New York/Chicago style rather than following London or Paris trends.
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Cultural and museum buildings have followed; city halls and buildings for the civil service appear generally in a New York or Chicago style, rather than following London or Paris trends. Much of the growth of new architecture came from retail stores, clothing shops, bistros, and cafes. Foreign corporations setting up Korean headquarters also brought in an entirely new spirit of architecture to define their own visions.
 
 
Individuality and experimentation became the new cause for young architects, however the country as a whole was slow to move from the old traditions into seeing good architecture aesthetics as being important to the sense of a village, town, or city. Change was forced at times against intense resistance, and new buildings evolved at great cost to the architects and builders and within a great tension.
 
 
 
Much of the growth of new architecture came from retail stores, clothing shops, bistros, cafes, and bars; and the underside of architectural commissions, rather than from major [[government contracts]] or the financial and corporate community. Foreign corporations setting up Korean headquarters also brought in an entirely new spirit of architecture to define their own visions.
 
  
 
Important architects at this time include:
 
Important architects at this time include:
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* Korean Architects Collaborative International under the guidance of Fentress Bradburn Architects - [[Incheon International Airport]]
 
* Korean Architects Collaborative International under the guidance of Fentress Bradburn Architects - [[Incheon International Airport]]
  
{{Asia in topic|Architecture of}}
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==Notes==
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<references/>
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==References==
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*Bongryol, Kim, Lee Yongsuk, and E. Inmi. 2005. ''The secret spirit of Korean architecture.'' London, UK: Saffron Books. ISBN 1872843824 ISBN 9781872843827 ISBN 1872843832 ISBN 9781872843834
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* Chin, Hong-sŏp. 1993. ''Cultural treasures of Korea''. Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym International Corp. ISBN 1565911008 ISBN 9781565911000
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* CHOI, H.-V. 2002. ''Hanvit the beauty of Korean architecture''. Seoul, Korea, Kwanhoon. ISBN 8995164522 ISBN 9788995164525
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*Kim, Wŏn, and Eung-Sik Limb. 1983. ''Korean architecture''. Seoul: Kwangjang Pr.
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* ''Korean architecture''. 1959. Pyongyang, D.P.R.K.: Foreign Languages Pub. House.
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* Lee, Sang-Leem. 2006. ''Space + house''. Seoul, Korea: Space Pub. ISBN 8985127187 ISBN 9788985127189
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* Park, Sam Y. 1991. ''An introduction to Korean architecture.'' Seoul, Korea: Jungwoo Sa Pub. Co.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
* [http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/index.htm  Asian Historical Architecture]
+
All links retrieved April 24, 2018.
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/architecture/3-1.htm  History of Korean architecture by Shin Young-hoon]
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* [http://nongae.gsnu.ac.kr/~mirkoh/korb01.html A Brief History of Korean Architecture]
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* [http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?article_class=2&no=219633&rel_no=1 Silla Sightings Over the Namhan River].
* [http://www.enhr2004.org/files/papers/Sohn,%20S.K.%20-%20The%20modernisation%20of%20the%20Korean.pdf ENHR Conference report by Jun, N.I., Hong, H.O. and Professor Yang on Japan's occupation architecture in Korea]
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* [http://home.junglim.co.kr/eng%20version/eng_index.htm Junglim, a leading edge architectural atelier]
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* [http://home.junglim.co.kr/index/index-bestwork.htm Visuals and plans of Junglim's larger projects]
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[[Category:History]]
* [http://www.ucnet.pe.kr/Architecture%20in%20Korea/KA-Contemporary%20Building-Seoul-01.htm Korean contemporary building, cityscapes shown to indicate changes] 
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[[Category:History of Korea]]
* [http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?article_class=2&no=219633&rel_no=1 Silla Architecture]
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[[Category:Korea]]
* [http://www.architecture-trend-press.net/Data/_archi/Print.php?time=1093869443&year=2004-2005 Yi Jongho's atelier designs]
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{{Asia in topic|Architecture of}}
[[Category:Korean art|Architecture]]
 
  
 
{{Credits|141640540}}
 
{{Credits|141640540}}

Latest revision as of 14:32, 24 April 2018

Korean architecture refers to the architecture of Korea. The early stages of Korean architecture date to the Neolithic period; archaeological evidence of ondol, the unique Korean floor panel heating system, was found among the remains of the burnished plain pottery culture. For the first century B.C.E., Korean architecture was influenced by the Chinese. After the unification of the Korean peninsula into the kingdom of United Silla in the seventh century, the culture of the T'ang Dynasty was absorbed and modified to create a unique Korean cultural identity. Buddhist art and architecture flourished, and great temples were built. The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 introduced Neo-Confucian ideals, which were expressed in architectural forms that emphasized veneration for ancestors and favored practicality, frugality, and harmony with nature. A consistent architectural style, graceful and elegant, appeared throughout Korean society.

Beginning with the Japanese occupation of Korea in 1910, through the ravages of World War II and the Korean War, Korean architecture suffered and many architectural monuments were burned or destroyed. The practical needs of rebuilding after the war took precedence over aesthetics, and only since the 1988 Olympic games and the economic growth of the last two decades have Korean architects been able to evolve a unique modern architectural style.

Ancient Architecture (Neolithic–Seventh century)

A Silla pagoda.

The early stages of Korean architecture date to the Neolithic period. Archaeological evidence of ondol, the unique Korean floor panel heating system, was found among the remains of the burnished plain pottery culture, and the development of the vertical wall was evident in the primitive houses of this culture.

Two types of dolmens, the primitive tombs of important persons, have been found in the Korean peninsula. The southern type is low and often a simple slab without supporting stones; the northern type is larger and more definite in shape. The distribution of the dolmens implies a relation to the megalithic cultures of the Western world.

During this period, building techniques of houses evolved from pit dwelling to houses of earthen walls with thatched roofs, to log cabin construction, and finally, to a raised floor construction.

In 109 B.C.E., the Chinese commandery at Nangnang (Lo-lang) was established in the northwest region of Korea. Chinese architecture strongly influenced Korean architecture at this time, creating a basis for further Korean development.

After the fall of Nangnang in 313, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, expanded her territory to included half of Manchuria and all of northern Korea. Two different types of tombs evolved during this period: one is a stepped pyramid made of stone, while the other is a large earth mound form.

Baekje was founded in 18 B.C.E., and its territory included the west coast of the Korean peninusula. Paekche established friendships with China and Japan, and built temples. The earliest stone pagoda of the Miruk Temple in Iksan country is of particular interest, because it shows transitional features from a wooden pagoda to a stone one. The art and architecture of the Paekche period had a touch of elegance, refinement and warmth. Paekche assimilated diverse influences and expressed its derivation from Chinese models. Later, important elements of the architectural style of Paekche were adopted by Japan.

Silla was the last of the three kingdoms to develop into a full-fledged kingdom. Again many great temples were built, but the most famous architectural development is Cheomseongdae, said to be the first stone observatory in Asia, built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632-646). The structure is famous for its unique and elegant form.

Cheomsongdae, ancient astronomical observatory built during the reign of Queen Seondeok.

United Silla Architecture (Seventh – Tenth century)

Iro-dang

After the unification of the Korean peninsula into the kingdom of United Silla, Korean institutions were radically transformed. United Silla absorbed the fully matured culture of the T'ang Dynasty in China, and at the same time developed a unique cultural identity of its own. New Buddhist sects were introduced from the T'ang, and Buddhist art flourished. It was a period of peace and cultural advancement in the arts, that displayed a new level of grace and elegance.

Architecture flourished in the royal capital of Kyongju, though almost all traces of the former glory have now vanished. The city was based around a fertile basin shaped by three mountains and two joining rivers. A gird network formed in the urban area, with the Hwangyong Temple at the center.

The plans of Korean Buddhist temples were characterized by two pagodas in front of the central main hall, in a symmetrical layout on the north-south axis with other buildings. Pulguk Temple, built on a stone platform at the foot hill of Mt. Toham near Kyongju, is the oldest existing temple in Korea. Its Tabo-tap, located to the right of the court, is unique in Korea and the rest of Asia. The temple was first founded early in the sixth century and was entirely rebuilt and enlarged in 752.

The rock cave shrine of Sokkuram, located on the crest of Mt. Toham was built around the same era, by the same master architect who built Pulguk Temple. This cave shrine was artificially and skillfully constructed with granite blocks, and covered with an earth mound on top to give the appearance of a natural landscape. The graceful statue of Buddha on a lotus pedestal in the center is the dominant feature of the chamber. Rock cave shrines are common in Asia, but few of these shrines and sculptures reveal such a high level of artistry. None are as religiously and artistically complete in overall design as those at Sokkuram

Pagoda detail

Goryeo Architecture (Tenth – Fourteenth century)

Much of the architecture of this time was inspired by Buddhism, such as magnificent Buddhist temples and the Korean pagoda. Unfortunately, since most of the architecture of this time was built of wood, little has survived to the present day. Also, the capital of Goryeo was based in Gaesong, in modern-day North Korea, which has made it difficult for historians to study this era

Joseon architecture (Fourteenth – Nineteenth century)

Joseon dynasty court architecture

The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 brought to power like-minded men steeped in the doctrines of Neo-Confucianism, which had slowly percolated into Korea from China during the fourteenth century. This ushered in a new environment that was relatively hostile to Buddhism, causing the state to gradually shift its patronage from Buddhist temples to Confucian institutions.

Neo-Confucianism inspired new architectural paradigms. Jaesil, or clan memorial halls, became common in many villages, where extended families erected facilities for common veneration of a distant ancestor. Jongryo, or memorial shrines, were established by the government to commemorate exceptional acts of filial piety or devotion. Even beyond these archetypes, the aesthetics of Neo-Confucianism, which favored practicality, frugality, and harmony with nature, forged a consistent architectural style throughout Korean society.

Confucian homes were designed with special attention to the position and role of each member of the household. The houses were usually arranged around one or more central courtyards, with separate living quarters for the men on the outside and the women on the inside. An ancestral hall or shrine dedicated to the family ancestors was located in a central or elevated place. Confucian temples consisted of two halls, one for study and one for the performance of ceremonial rites, and dormitories. If the temple was built on level ground, the ceremonial hall occupied the front position; on a slope it was located in the higher position to indicate its importance.[1]

Japanese Occupation Architecture (1910-1945)

During the Japanese occupation of Korea, there was a systematic attempt by the Empire of Japan to destroy native Korean architecture and replace it with Japanese architecture. Important architectural sites were destroyed, often by burning, and significant elements of landscaping, such as Korean gardens, were razed. Traditional religious architecture was also discouraged.

Japanese architecture was first introduced in the Korean transportation networks. Railroad lines saw the construction of Japanese-style rail stations and hotels. Ports as transit points, however, had limited construction. Inland, the Japanese built new city halls, barracks and military bases, jail and prisons, police stations, and police boxes. Korean architects were required to train only in Japan and encouraged to design exclusively along Japanese models when they returned. While the assumption was that Western influences on Japanese architects would have transferred to Korea, this did not happen.

Building materials were in short supply, and much of the timber logged in Korea was sent to Japan. As a result, Korean buildings were left unrestored and neglected, contributing to the deterioration of much of Korean architectural history. Historic buildings were also decorated using Japanese ornamentation.

Post-war Period and Korean War Architecture

After the unconditional surrender in 1945, American architecture assumed supremacy. Under Douglas MacArthur, Korean architecture by Koreans was resumed in domestic areas, with extensive repair of the missionary churches being given priority funding. Essential repair to infrastructure followed, often patch-work reconstruction rather than new projects, and simple construction of block-built hospitals, schools, and industries began under military supervision.

Seoul had survived much of World War II, but during the Korean War (1950-1953), many of its buildings were destroyed, with the city changing command between North Korean and South Korean powers five times. Important architectural sites were over-run and burned by invading People's Liberation Army forces, and the urban landscape suffered lack of financial resources for repairs.

Modern Architecture

With the armistice, distinct architectural styles determined by foreign governments began a long period of development. In the north, Stalinist and absolutist, often brutalist architecture, was championed. North Korean architects studied in Moscow or Soviet satellites, and brought back socialist worker styles and huge celebratory people's architecture on a grand and massively impressive scale. Nearly all architecture was government sponsored, and maintained great homogeneity of function and style.

In the south, the pragmatic need to rebuild a country devastated by genocide, then a civil war, led to buildings of no particular style, that were executed repetitively, and a factory system which produced simple, cheap, expendable buildings. Little attention was given to an architectural aesthetic. It was fortunate that most of this took place in the urban areas.


Apartment buildings in Seongnam city, South Korea

Sports architecture

New waves of new building activity were initiated when South Korea won the contract to host the 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 Olympic games. To market the country globally, international architects were encouraged to submit designs for the sports complexes and accommodation facilities, introducing alternative concepts for modern architecture that began to put style and form ahead of spartan practicality. Historically, sports architecture has received the most funding and the attention as an expression of identity within Korea. Hundreds of billions of won have been spent on defining Korea as a sports mecca, with architecture leading the way.

Important architects at this time, often led by the atelier-style architectural co-operative Space Group of Korea were:

  • Park Kil-ryong
  • Jungup Kim or Kim Chung-up - Trained in France and designed the Olympic Memorial Gate/World Peace Gate, 1988.
  • Jongseong Kim - Weight Lifting Gymnasium, Olympic Park, 1986.
  • Kim Su-keun who trained in Tokyo - Olympic Stadium. 1984. Total area is 133,649metres³, 100,000seats, 245×180m diameter, 830m in perimeter.
  • Gyusung Woo - Olympic Village, 1984.

It was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that an entirely new generation of Korean architects had the freedom and the financing to build Korean architecture in a distinct Korean manner. As a result of studying and training in Europe, Canada, and even in South America, Korean architects saw the need for a more unique style, and more use of sophisticated materials. There was a new determination that nationalistic architectural elements had to be revived and refined, and that buildings should have a meaning within their cultural context.

Post-modern Korean Architecture (1986–2005)

Individuality and experimentation became the new cause for young architects; however, the country as a whole was slow to move from the old traditions and to value good architectural aesthetics as important to the sense of a village, town, or city. At times, change was forcefully brought about in the face of intense resistance, and new buildings evolved at a substantial personal cost to the architects and builders, and under a great deal of tension.

Cultural and museum buildings have followed; city halls and buildings for the civil service appear generally in a New York or Chicago style, rather than following London or Paris trends. Much of the growth of new architecture came from retail stores, clothing shops, bistros, and cafes. Foreign corporations setting up Korean headquarters also brought in an entirely new spirit of architecture to define their own visions.

Important architects at this time include:

  • Um Tok-mun - Sejong Cultural Centre
  • Kim Seok-Chul - Seoul Arts Centre
  • Korean Architects Collaborative International under the guidance of Fentress Bradburn Architects - Incheon International Airport

Notes

  1. [1], Orientalarchitecture.com, 2007. Retrieved December 22, 2007

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All links retrieved April 24, 2018.

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