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'''''Kashrut''''' (also '''''kashruth''''' or '''''kashrus''''', {{lang|he|כַּשְרוּת}}) refers to [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Taboo food and drink|dietary laws]]. [[Food]] in accord with ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law) is termed '''kosher''' in [[English language|English]], from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] term ''kashér'', meaning "fit" (in this context, fit for consumption by Jews according to traditional [[Halakha|Jewish law]]). Jews who keep kashrut may not consume non-kosher food, but there are no restrictions on non-dietary use of non-kosher products, for example, [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] of [[insulin]] of [[porcine]] origin.  
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[[Image:Seder Plate.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Traditional arrangement of symbolic foods on a [[Passover]] [[Seder]] Plate.]]
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'''''Kashrut''''' (from Hebrew כַּשְרוּת meaning "fit" or "proper") refers to [[Judaism|Jewish]] dietary laws that are in accord with ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law). Popularly known as '''kosher''' (meaning "fit" for consumption), Jewish dietary laws derive from the [[Torah]]'s Books of [[Leviticus]] and [[Deuteronomy]], and are further elucidated in the [[Oral Torah|oral law]] (the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]), and codified by later [[Rabbi|rabbinical authorities]]. The Torah does not explicitly state the reason for most ''kashrut'' laws but many justifications have been offered in subsequent reflection including philosophical, ritualistic, practical and hygienic reasons. For example, it has been said that Kashrut serves as a daily exercise in self-discipline and self-control, strengthening the practitioner's ability to cultivate ritual purity and holiness. Additionally, Jews consider the need to avoid unnecessary suffering of the animal<ref>e.g. Exodus 23:19 among other places, a "kid may not be boiled in its mother's milk."</ref> a reminder to the believer that having the power of life and death is a serious responsibility.  
  
Food that is not in accord with Jewish law is called '''''treif''''' ({{lang-yi|טרייף}} or treyf, derived from {{lang-he|טְרֵפָה}} ''trēfáh''). In the technical sense, treif means "torn" and refers to meat which comes from an animal containing a defect that renders it unfit for slaughter. An animal that died through means other than ritual slaughter (or by a botched slaughter) is called a '''neveila''' which literally means "an unclean thing".{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
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In addition to [[Judaism]], many other religions contain specific dietary regulations to encourage their followers to purify themselves, to avoid "unclean" foods, and to foster a distinct identity. Some have also suggested that [[science]] supports many of the intuitions found in Kashrut, albeit not in all specific kosher laws.
  
Many of the basic laws of ''kashrut'' are derived from the [[Torah]]'s Books of [[Leviticus]] and [[Deuteronomy]], with their details set down in the [[oral law]] (the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]) and codified by the ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'' and later [[rabbinic literature|rabbinical authorities]]. The Torah does not explicitly state the reason for most ''kashrut'' laws, and many varied reasons have been offered for these laws, ranging from philosophical and ritualistic, to practical and hygienic.
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The religion of [[Islam]] has a related but different system of dietary laws, named ''[[halal]],'' and both systems have a comparable form of ritual slaughter (''[[shechita]]'' in Judaism and ''Ḏabīḥah'' in Islam). Many religions follow dietary guidelines to encourage purity, discipline and symbolic remembrance in the practice of their community.
  
By extension, the word ''[[wiktionary:kosher|kosher]]'' means legitimate, acceptable, permissible, genuine or authentic, in a broader sense.<ref>For example, The [[Babylonian Talmud]] refers to [[Darius I|King Daryavesh]] (Darius the Great of Persia), who assisted in building the [[Second Temple]], as a "kosher king". The translation refers to 'kosher' being used in the sense of 'virtuous'. [[Rosh Hashanah (Talmud)|Tractate Rosh Hashanah]] 3a, ''Schottenstein Edition'', Mesorah Publications Ltd.</ref> 
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==Rationale==
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There continues to be a debate among various theories about the purposes and meaning of the laws regarding ''kashrut.'' Historically, the Jewish kashrut laws are counter some of the rituals of ancient times, such as eating only one leg of a live animal so that people would not have to deal with eating the entire animal at one time (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 56b); this law applies even to non-Jews and is part of the [[Noahide Laws]]. Some authorities have ruled that any unnecessary suffering by the animal can render otherwise kosher meat ''treife.'' Food that is not in accord with Jewish law is called ''treif'' ({{lang-yi|טרייף}} or //treyf,// derived from {{lang-he|טְרֵפָה}} ''trēfáh''). In the technical sense, treif means "torn" and refers to meat which comes from an animal containing a defect that renders it unfit for slaughter. An animal that died through means other than ritual slaughter (or by a botched slaughter) is called a ''neveila'' which literally means "an unclean thing."
  
Members of the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] are predominantly [[vegetarian]], [[vegan]], or keep [[kosher]].
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Traditional [[Jewish philosophy]] divides the [[613 mitzvot|613 ''mitzvot'']] into ''mishpatim'' (laws which can be explained rationally) and ''chukim'' (laws which cannot be explained rationally). Those categorized as ''chukim'' include such laws as the [[Red Heifer]] ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 19). There are three basic points of view regarding these laws:
 
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#These laws were ordained for the protection and health of God's people in a time where basic [[hygiene]] was not yet understood. For example, [[carrion]] was against Jewish law; modern sanitary rules also exclude carrion, which may be from diseased animals or contain [[toxin]]s of decomposition. [[Shellfish]], also forbidden by Jewish law, can be [[toxic]] unless harvested and stored in known conditions. Hygiene-based explanations cannot be found to support every law.
[[Islam]] has a [[Islamic and Jewish dietary laws compared|related but different]] system, named ''[[halal]]'', and both systems have a comparable system of [[ritual slaughter]] (''[[shechita]]'' in Judaism and ''[[Ḏabīḥah]]'' in Islam).
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#These laws ''do'' have a reason which cannot be understood by humans because the ultimate explanation for ''[[mitzvot]]'' is beyond the human intellect;<ref>Rabbi Zalman Posner, Think Jewish, ''Why Do Mitzvot?'' (1978) [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/3249/jewish/Why-Do-Mitzvot.htm]. ''chabad.org''. Retrieved November 11, 2008.</ref> and
 
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#These laws have no meaning other than to instill [[obedience]]. Related to this is the idea that the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God's [[authority]] and that man should obey without asking for a reason.<ref>[http://www.adventistbiblicalresearch.org/documents/Clean%20&%20Unclean%20Meats.htm William H. Shea, ''Clean and Unclean Meats, Biblical Research Institute,'' December 1998.] ''Biblical Research Institute''. Retrieved September 18, 2008.</ref> However, this last view has been rejected by most classical and modern Jewish authorities, including [[Maimonides]] who holds that a Jew is permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah.<ref>''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' ''Korbanot,'' ''Temurah 4:13 (in eds. Frankel; "Rambam L'Am")''</ref>
==Principles==
 
[[Image:Feetmontage.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the Kosher requirements is having cloven [[hoof|hooves]] such as [[goat]]s (upper left), [[pig]]s (lower left) and [[cow]]s (lower right). Pigs, in spite of their cloven hooves, remain non-kosher because they lack the other kosher sign, [[Cud|cud-chewing]]. [[Horse]]s (upper right) are entirely uncloven.]]
 
The laws of kashrut derive from various passages in the [[Torah]], and are numerous and complex, but the key principles are as follows:
 
* Only meat from particular species is permissible:
 
** Mammals that ''both'' chew their cud ([[Ruminant|ruminate]]) and have [[Cloven hoof|cloven hooves]] are kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the [[camel]], the [[hyrax]] and the [[hare]] because they have no cloven hooves, and the [[pig]] because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:3-8}}).<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 79</ref>  (For a comprehensive review of the issue involving the difficulty that neither the hyrax nor the hare are ruminates, see [[Natan Slifkin|Rabbi Natan Slifkin's]] "The Camel, the Hare and the Hyrax.") In 2008, a rabbinical ruling determined that giraffes and their milk are eligible to be considered kosher.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/2084281/Giraffe-is-kosher,-Israeli-vets-have-ruled.html Giraffe is kosher, rabbis rule in Israel]</ref>
 
** Birds must fit certain criteria; birds of prey are not kosher. There must be an established tradition that a bird is kosher or  similar to one that is before it can be consumed.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 82:1-5</ref> The turkey, for example is native to the New World and would therefore not be found under tradition. However, it is similar to a known bird, the "fowl of India" and is therefore acceptable.
 
**Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:9-12}}). [[Shellfish]] and non-fish water [[fauna]] are not kosher.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 83 and 84</ref>
 
**Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of [[kosher locust]] (unrecognized in almost all communities).<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 85</ref>
 
**That an animal is untamed does not preclude it from being kashrut, but a wild animal must be trapped and ritually slaughtered (''[[Shechita|shechted]]'') rather than killed some other way to be kosher.
 
*Meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes, and sometimes different kitchens, for meat and milk, and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah  87 ''et seq''</ref>
 
 
 
[[Image:OUKosher.JPG|thumb|250px|The circled U indicates that this product is certified as kosher by the [[Orthodox Union]] (OU). The word "pareve" indicates that this product contains neither milk nor meat derived ingredients.]]
 
 
 
*Mammals and fowl must be slaughtered in a specific fashion: slaughter is done by a trained individual (a ''[[shochet]]'') using a special method of slaughter, ''[[shechita]]'' ({{Bibleverse||Deuteronomy|12:21}}). Among other features, ''shechita'' slaughter severs the [[jugular vein]], [[carotid artery]], [[esophagus]] and [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]] in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated, sharp [[Shechita#The knife|knife]], avoiding unnecessary pain to the animal. Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable. The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year, which would make the meat unsuitable.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 1-65</ref>
 
*As much blood as possible must be removed ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|17:10}}) through the ''kashering'' process; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat, but organs rich in blood (the [[liver]]) are grilled over an open flame.<ref>Shulchan Aruch Yoreh De'ah 66-78</ref>
 
*Utensils used for non-kosher foods become non-kosher, and make even otherwise kosher food prepared with them non-kosher. Some such utensils, depending on the material they are made from, can be made suitable for preparing kosher food again by immersion in boiling water or by the application of a blowtorch.
 
*Food that is prepared by Jews in a manner which violates the ''[[Shabbat]]'' (Sabbath) may not be eaten until the Shabbat is over.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 318:1</ref>
 
*[[Passover]] has special dietary rules, the most important of which is the prohibition on eating [[leavened bread]] or derivatives of this (''[[chametz]]'', {{Bibleverse||Exodus|12:15}}). Utensils used in preparing and serving ''chametz'' are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been cleansed (''kashering'').<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 431-452</ref> Observant Jews often have separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only.
 
*Certain foods must have been prepared in whole or in part by Jews, including:
 
**[[kosher wine|Wine]]<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 114</ref>
 
**Certain cooked foods (''[[Bishul Yisrael|bishul akum]]'')<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 113</ref>
 
**[[Cheese]] (''[[gvinat akum]]'') and according to some also butter (''chem'at akum'')<ref name=YD115>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 115</ref>
 
** According to many: certain dairy products (Hebrew: חלב ישראל [[chalav Yisrael]] "milk of Israel")<ref name=YD115/><ref>Many rely on lenient rulings by Rabbi [[Moshe Feinstein]] in Teshuvot Igrot Moshe. Yoreh De'ah 1:47 and other 20th century rabbinic authorities who rule that strict government supervision prevents the admixture of non-kosher milk, making supervision unnecessary. See also {{cite web |url=http://www.koltorah.org/RAVJ/13-7%20Chalav%20Yisrael%20-%20Part%201.htm |author=Rabbi Chaim Jachter|title=Chalav Yisrael - Part I: Rav Soloveitchik's View |accessdate=2007-12-02 |format= |work=}}</ref>
 
** According to some: [[bread]] (under certain circumstances) ([[Pat Yisrael]])<ref>Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 112, Orach Chayim 603</ref>
 
*Biblical rules control the use of agriculture produce: for produce grown in the [[Land of Israel]] a modified version of the Biblical [[tithe]]s must be applied, including [[Terumat hamaaser|Terumat HaMaaser]], [[Maaser Rishon]], [[Maaser Sheni]], and [[Maaser Ani]] (untithed produce is called ''[[tevel]]''); the fruit of the first three years of a tree’s growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as ''[[orlah]]'' [http://www.star-k.org/kashrus/kk-medi-terumos.htm]; produce grown in the [[Land of Israel]] on the seventh year is [[Shviis]], and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the ''[[Shmita]]'' (Sabbatical Year).
 
 
 
The following rules of ''kashrut'' are not universally observed:
 
*The rule against eating ''[[yoshon|chadash]]'' (new grain) before the 16th of the month [[Nisan]]; many hold that this rule does not apply outside the [[Land of Israel]]
 
*In addition, some groups follow various eating restrictions on [[Passover]] which go beyond the rules of ''kashrut'', such as the eating of ''[[gebrochts]]'' or [[garlic]].
 
 
 
[[Image:Barley bug.jpg|250px|thumb|right|A [[Pupa#Cocoon|cocoon]] found among [[barley]]corns in a commercially available bag of barley. Food such as [[seed]]s, [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s and [[vegetable]]s need to be checked so as to avoid eating insects.]]
 
  
 
Conservative Judaism follows a number of leniencies, including:
 
Conservative Judaism follows a number of leniencies, including:
*Permitting kashering with less than boiling water under certain circumstances (which permits a dishwasher to be used for meat and dairy dishes, although not at the same time, provided the dishwasher will not absorb particles of the food)
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#Permitting kashering with less than boiling water under certain circumstances (which permits a dishwasher to be used for meat and dairy dishes, although not at the same time, provided the dishwasher will not absorb particles of the food)
*Classifying various chemical additives derived from non-kosher meat products as nonfood and permissible (for example, permitting [[rennet]] from cow's stomachs to be used in cheese and horse-hoof gelatin in foods)
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#Classifying various chemical additives derived from non-kosher meat products as nonfood and permissible (for example, permitting [[rennet]] from cow's stomachs to be used in [[cheese]] and horse-hoof [[gelatin]] in foods).
*A variety of additional details.{{Specify|date=April 2007}}
 
  
 
Although [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] and some perspectives within [[Reform Judaism]] encourage individuals to follow some or all aspects of the kashrut rules required by the more traditional branches, these branches do not require their observance and do not maintain their own sets of required rules.
 
Although [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] and some perspectives within [[Reform Judaism]] encourage individuals to follow some or all aspects of the kashrut rules required by the more traditional branches, these branches do not require their observance and do not maintain their own sets of required rules.
  
==Identification of kosher foods==
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==Kashrut Laws==
{{details|Hechsher}}
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[[Image:Feetmontage.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the Kosher requirements is having cloven [[hoof|hooves]] such as [[goat]]s (upper left), [[pig]]s (lower left) and [[cow]]s (lower right). Pigs, in spite of their cloven hooves, remain non-kosher because they lack the other kosher sign, cud-chewing. [[Horse]]s (upper right) are entirely uncloven.]]
Store-bought foods can be identified as kosher by the presence of a ''[[hechsher]]'' (plural ''hechsherim''), a graphical symbol that indicates that the food has been certified as kosher by a rabbinical authority. (This might be an individual rabbi, but is more often a rabbinic organization.) One of the most common symbols in the United States is the "OU", a U inside a circle, standing for the [[Union of Orthodox Congregations]] (or "Orthodox Union"). Many rabbis and organizations, however, have their own [[certification mark]], and the other symbols are too numerous to list.
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The most important Jewish laws of kashrut laws are as follows:
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#[[Meat]] and [[milk]] (or derivatives) cannot be mixed in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes, and sometimes different kitchens, for meat and milk, and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 87, ''et seq''</ref>
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#[[Mammals]] and [[fowl]] must be slaughtered in a specific fashion: slaughter is done by a trained individual (a ''[[shochet]]'') using a special method of slaughter, ''[[shechita]]'' ({{Bibleverse||Deuteronomy|12:21}}). Among other features, ''shechita'' slaughter severs the jugular vein, carotid artery, esophagus and trachea in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated, sharp knife, avoiding unnecessary pain to the animal. Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable. The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year, which would make the meat unsuitable.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 1-65</ref>
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#As much blood as possible must be removed ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|17:10}}) through the ''kashering'' process; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat, but organs rich in blood (the [[liver]]) are grilled over an open flame.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 66-78</ref>
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#The prohibition against eating the fruits of a tree for the first three years also represents a capacity for self-discipline and self-denial, as well as a lengthy period of appreciation for the bounty of God, prior to losing oneself in its enjoyment. Similarly, the requirement to tithe one's harvest, aside from the social justice aspect, serves as a reminder that this material wealth is not purely the result of one's own efforts, but represents a gift from God; and as such, to share the gift with one's fellows does not represent a real loss to anyone, even oneself.
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#[[Passover]] has special dietary rules, the most important of which is the prohibition on eating [[leavened bread]] or derivatives of this (''chametz,'' {{Bibleverse||Exodus|12:15}}). Utensils used in preparing and serving ''chametz'' are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been cleansed ''(kashering).''<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Orach Chayim,'' 431-452</ref> Observant Jews often have separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only.
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#Certain foods must have been prepared in whole or in part by Jews, including Wine<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah,'' 114</ref>, Certain cooked foods ''(bishul akum)''<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah,'' 113</ref>, [[Cheese]] ''([[gvinat akum]])'' and according to some also [[butter]] (''chem'at akum'')<ref name=YD115>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 115</ref>
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#Only meat from mammals that ''both'' chew their cud and have cloven hooves are kosher (permissible to eat). Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the [[camel]], the hyrax and the [[hare]] because they have no cloven hooves, and the [[pig]] because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:3-8}}).<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 79</ref> 
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#Birds must fit certain criteria; birds of prey are not kosher. There must be an established tradition that a bird is kosher or  similar to one that is before it can be consumed.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 82:1-5</ref> The [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], for example is native to the New World and would therefore not be found under tradition. However, it is similar to a known bird, the "fowl of India" and is therefore acceptable.
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#Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:9-12}}). [[Shellfish]] and non-fish water [[fauna]] are not kosher.<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 83 and 84</ref>
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#Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of kosher [[locust]] (unrecognized in almost all communities).<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 85</ref>
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#According to many: certain dairy products (Hebrew: חלב ישראל chalav Yisrael "milk of Israel")<ref name=YD115/><ref>Many rely on lenient rulings by Rabbi Moshe Feinstein in ''Teshuvot Igrot Moshe. Yoreh De'ah'' 1:47 and other twentieth century rabbinic authorities who rule that strict government supervision prevents the admixture of non-kosher milk, making supervision unnecessary. See also [http://www.koltorah.org/RAVJ/13-7%20Chalav%20Yisrael%20-%20Part%201.htm Rabbi Chaim Jachter, Chalav Yisrael - Part I: Rav Soloveitchik's View]. ''Torah Academy of Bergen County''. accessdate 2007-12-02</ref>
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#According to some: [[bread]] (under certain circumstances) ([[Pat Yisrael]])<ref>Shulchan Aruch, ''Yoreh De'ah'' 112, ''Orach Chayim'' 603</ref>
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#Biblical rules control the use of agriculture produce: for produce grown in the [[Land of Israel]] a modified version of the Biblical [[tithe]]s must be applied, including [[Terumat hamaaser|Terumat HaMaaser]], [[Maaser Rishon]], Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani (untithed produce is called ''tevel''); the [[fruit]] of the first three years of a tree’s growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as ''[[orlah]]'' [http://www.star-k.org/kashrus/kk-medi-terumos.htm]; produce grown in the Land of Israel on the seventh year is [[Shviis]], and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the ''Shmita]'' (Sabbatical Year).
  
Many ''kashrut'' certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the food. In common usage is "D" for Dairy, "M" for Meat or poultry, "Pareve" for food that is neither meat nor dairy, "Fish" for foods containing such, and "P" for Passover (not to be confused with Pareve). Note that
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==Application in Daily Life==
many foods meet the US FDA standard for "Non-Dairy" while they do not meet the Jewish standard for "Pareve" and are labeled with the "D" next to the kosher symbol.  
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[[Image:OUKosher.JPG|thumb|250px|The circled U indicates that this product is certified as kosher.]]
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Store-bought foods can be identified as kosher by the presence of a ''hechsher'' (plural ''hechsherim''), a graphical symbol that indicates that the food has been certified as kosher by a rabbinical authority. (This might be an individual rabbi, but is more often a rabbinic organization.) One of the most common symbols in the United States is the "OU," a U inside a circle, standing for the Union of Orthodox Congregations (or "Orthodox Union"). Many rabbis and organizations, however, have their own certification mark, and the other symbols are too numerous to list.
  
A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for ''kosher'', but as a letter cannot be [[trademark]]ed (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse) in many countries, it only indicates that the company producing the food claims it is kosher.
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Many ''kashrut'' certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the food. In common usage is "D" for Dairy, "M" for Meat or poultry, "[[Pareve]]" for food that is neither meat nor dairy, "Fish" for foods containing such, and "P" for Passover (not to be confused with Pareve). Note that
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many foods meet the [[U.S. FDA]] standard for "Non-Dairy" while they do not meet the Jewish standard for "Pareve" and are labeled with the "D" next to the kosher symbol.  
  
The ''hechsheirim'' of certain authorities are sometimes considered invalid by certain other authorities. {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
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A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for ''kosher,'' but as a letter cannot be [[trademark]]ed (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse) in many countries, it only indicates that the company producing the food claims it is kosher.
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The ''hechsheirim'' of certain authorities are sometimes considered invalid by certain other authorities.  
  
 
Before there were certification agencies, kosher consumers would read the list of ingredients to determine if a product was acceptable to eat. Today, however, this is considered insufficient as many things are not included in this list, such as pan lubricants and release agents (which may be derived from [[lard]]), flavorings ("natural [[Flavouring|flavorings]]" which are more likely to be derived from non-kosher substances than others), etc. Reading the label can, however, identify obviously unkosher ingredients.
 
Before there were certification agencies, kosher consumers would read the list of ingredients to determine if a product was acceptable to eat. Today, however, this is considered insufficient as many things are not included in this list, such as pan lubricants and release agents (which may be derived from [[lard]]), flavorings ("natural [[Flavouring|flavorings]]" which are more likely to be derived from non-kosher substances than others), etc. Reading the label can, however, identify obviously unkosher ingredients.
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Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish authorities to have their products certified as kosher: a committee will visit their facilities to inspect production methods and contents, and issue a certificate if everything is in order. In many cases constant supervision is required.
 
Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish authorities to have their products certified as kosher: a committee will visit their facilities to inspect production methods and contents, and issue a certificate if everything is in order. In many cases constant supervision is required.
  
For various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products which were kosher may cease to be so; for example, a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing [[tallow]]. Such changes are often coordinated with the supervising rabbi or organization to ensure that new packaging, which will not suggest any ''hechsher'' or ''kashrut'', is used for the new formulation. But in some cases existing stocks of preprinted labels with the ''hechsher'' may continue to be used on the now non-kosher product; for such reasons, there is an active "[[Grapevine (gossip)|grapevine]]", among the Jewish community, as well as newspapers and periodicals, identifying which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the ''hechsher''.
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For various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products which were kosher may cease to be so; for example, a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing [[tallow]]. Such changes are often coordinated with the supervising rabbi or organization to ensure that new packaging, which will not suggest any ''hechsher'' or ''kashrut,'' is used for the new formulation. But in some cases existing stocks of preprinted labels with the ''hechsher'' may continue to be used on the now non-kosher product; for such reasons, there is an active "[[Grapevine (gossip)|grapevine]]," among the Jewish community, as well as newspapers and periodicals, identifying which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the ''hechsher.''
  
==Attempts to explain the laws of kashrut==
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==Interpretations==
There continues to be a debate among various theories about the purposes and meaning of the laws regarding ''kashrut''.  
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[[Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Conservative Judaism]] hold that Jews should follow the laws of ''kashrut'' as a matter of religious obligation. [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] hold that these laws are no longer binding. Historically, Reform Judaism actively opposed kashrut as an archaism inhibiting the integration of Jews in the general society. More recently, some parts of the Reform community have begun to explore the option of a more traditional approach. This tradition-leaning faction agrees with mainstream Reform that the rules concerning ''kashrut'' are not obligatory, but believe that Jews should consider keeping kosher because it is a valuable way for people to bring holiness into their lives. Thus Jews are encouraged to consider adopting some or all of the rules of ''kashrut'' on a voluntary basis. The Reconstructionist movement advocates that its members accept some of the rules of ''kashrut,'' but does so in a non-binding fashion; their stance on ''kashrut'' is the same as the tradition-leaning wing of Reform.
  
===Jewish religious explanations===
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Many Jews who do not meet the complete requirements of ''kashrut'' nevertheless maintain some subset of the laws; for instance, abstaining from pork or shellfish. Many Jews will likewise avoid drinking milk with a meat dish. Similarly, many keep a degree of ''kashrut'' at home while having no problems eating in a non-kosher restaurant, or will follow leniencies when eating out that they would not follow at home.
{{Refimprove|section|date=August 2007}}
 
Traditional [[Jewish philosophy]] divides the [[613 mitzvot|613 ''mitzvot'']] into ''mishpatim'' (laws which can be explained rationally) and ''chukim'' (laws which cannot be explained rationally). Those categorized as ''chukim'' include such laws as the [[Red Heifer]] ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 19). There are three basic points of view regarding these laws:
 
*These laws were ordained for the protection and health of God's people in a time where basic hygiene was not yet understood. For example, [[carrion]] was against Jewish law; modern sanitary rules also exclude carrion, which may be from diseased animals or contain [[toxin]]s of decomposition. Shellfish, also forbidden by Jewish law, can be toxic unless harvested and stored in known conditions. Hygiene-based explanations cannot be found to support every law.
 
*These laws ''do'' have a reason which cannot be understood by humans because the ultimate explanation for ''[[mitzvot]]'' is beyond the human intellect;<ref>Rabbi Zalman Posner, Think Jewish, ''Why Do Mitzvot?'' (1978)</ref> and
 
* These laws have no meaning other than to instill obedience. {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
 
  
:''Some Jewish scholars have held that these dietary laws should simply be categorized with a group of laws that are considered irrational in that there is no particular explanation for their existence. The reason for this is that there are some of God's regulations for mankind that the human mind is not necessarily capable of understanding. Related to this is the idea that the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God's authority and that man should obey without asking for a reason.''<ref>[http://www.adventistbiblicalresearch.org/documents/Clean%20&%20Unclean%20Meats.htm William H. Shea, Clean and Unclean Meats, Biblical Research Institute], December 1998</ref>
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===Prevention of socialization===
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According to Gordon J. Wenham, the purpose of kashrut is to help maintain Jews as a separate people. The laws of ''kashrut'' had the effect of preventing [[socialization]] and [[intermarriage]] with non-Jews, helping the Jewish community maintain its identity. Wenham writes that "[[circumcision]] was a private matter, but the food laws made one's Jewish faith a public affair. Observance of the food laws was one of the outward marks of a practicing Jew, and this in turn enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of their special status."<ref name="separation">Gordon J. Wenham, "The Theology of Unclean Food," ''The Evangelical Quarterly'' 53, (January March 1981): 6-15</ref>
  
This last view has been rejected by most classical and modern Jewish authorities {{Fact|date=January 2007}}. For example [[Maimonides]] holds that a Jew is permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah.<ref>''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' ''[[Korban]]ot'', ''[[Temurah (Halacha)|Temurah]] 4:13 (in eds. Frankel; "Rambam L'Am")''</ref>
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===Hygienic benefits===
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There have been attempts to provide empirical support for the view that ''kashrut'' laws have hygienic benefits.  
  
There is also the view that obedience to the laws of kashrut is a necessary precondition for a Jew to be able to reach his utmost spiritual capacity. According to this understanding, the intention of the laws is to instil obedience in the base, animalistic sectors of a person's life in order to achieve obedience and spirituality in the more lofty pursuits of Judaism. {{Fact|date=August 2007}}
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Another theory is that kosher animals were healthier to eat than non-kosher animals. It was also noted that the laws of purity (Leviticus 11–15) not only describe the difference between clean and unclean animals, but also describe other phenomena that appear to be related to health. Such a rationale seems reasonable when considering the laws prohibiting the consumption of carrion birds or birds of prey (which are advantageous scavengers), as they may carry disease from the carrion they consume; [[shellfish]], which as filter feeders can accumulate harmful [[parasite]]s or [[toxin]]s; or [[pork]], which can harbor [[trichinosis]] if not properly cooked. Thus, it was natural for many to assume that all the laws of ''kashrut'' were merely hygienic in intent and origin. One of the rabbinical authorities that mention the hygiene hypothesis is [[Maimonides]] in his ''Guide for the Perplexed.''
  
There are numerous examples of biblical commandments which are either too ambiguous or documented in such a concise fashion that proper adherence is absolutely impossible without the details provided by the oral tradition.<ref>Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. The Oral Law: The Heart of The Torah, [http://jewishinspiration.com/tape.php?tape_id=33]</ref> The rules regarding the forbidden mixing of milk and meat are but one example. As indicated in Exodus 23:19 among other places, a "kid may not be boiled in its mother's milk," as a literal translation provides.  In addition to numerous other problems with understanding the ambiguous nature of this law, a fundamental problem is that there are no vowelization characters in the Torah; they are provided only by the oral tradition. This is particularly relevant to this law, as the Hebrew word for ''milk'' (chalav) is identical to the word for ''fat'' (cheilev) when vowels are absent.  Without the oral tradition, it is not known whether the violation is in mixing meat with milk or with fat.<ref>Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. The Oral Law: The Heart of The Torah, [http://jewishinspiration.com/tape.php?tape_id=33]</ref>
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In 1953, Dr. David I. Macht, a Johns Hopkins University researcher, performed [[experiment]]s on many different kinds of animals and fish, and concluded that the concentration of zoological toxins of the "unclean" animals was higher than that of the "clean" animals, and that the correlation with the description in Leviticus was 100%.<ref name="Macht 1953">Dr. David I. Macht, "An Experimental Pharmalogical Appreciation of Leviticus XI and Deuteronomy XIV." [http://members.dslextreme.com/users/hollymick/Macht1953.pdf]. ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'' 27:444-450. Retrieved September 18, 2008.</ref> His criterion for toxicity was the effect on germination of [[Lupinus albus|lupin]] seedlings. In addition, Dr. Macht's research indicated harmful physiological effects of mixtures of meat and milk, and ritually slaughtered meat appeared to be lower in toxins than meat from other sources<ref name="Macht 1940">David I. Macht, ''Medical Leaves'' (1940) 3:174-184</ref> The conclusions of the paper published in Johns Hopkins ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'' were challenged in a paper by biologists written at the request of a [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] publication.<ref name="SDA">[http://members.dslextreme.com/users/hollymick/web/ministry-1954-March-p37.htm Ministry Magazine, March 1953, p37-38 "This Question of Unclean Meats"] Responses to Macht's study from heads of biology depts. Retrieved September 18, 2008.</ref>
  
====Hasidic view of the laws of kashrut====
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For a number of reasons, however, this idea has fallen out of favor among Biblical scholars. Fruits and vegetables may be eaten without prohibition even though there are many poisonous herbs, seeds, berries, and fruits. Additionally, this hypothesis does not explain other parts of the Jewish dietary laws; for instance forbidding the consumption of [[fish]] without true scales, such as [[shark]]s and [[swordfish]], or fruit from trees which are less than four years old, or residual blood in meat.
According to the teachings of Hasidism when a Jew manipulates any object for a holy reason (which includes eating, if it is done with a proper intention&mdash;to provide strength to follow laws of Torah), he releases "sparks of Holiness" which are found in every object. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=73850] These "sparks" are actually channels of connection with the [[God|Divinity]], and their "activation" allows the drawing of the [[Shechinah|Divine Presence]] into the physical world. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=73827]
 
  
However, there are some types of animals whose products are not applicable for performance of commandments because the "sparks of holiness" cannot be released from their matter. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=7887] Therefore, we are provided with "signs" of the animals whose sparks can be released [http://www.rabbifriedman.org/sichaReeh.asp]. These signs are split hooves (hooves symbolize connection with the material world which, however, is not so complete as to lose connection with the spiritual world), and rechewing of food (food symbolizes Torah or in more general terms, holiness; rechewing of food symbolizes ability to penetrate deeper into some holy concepts or holiness, as is necessary to separate sparks from their matter). For fish (which symbolize sages), these signs are scales (protection from water, which is a symbol of intellectual influence) and fins (that gives fish ability to move in water better, which symbolizes ability to move from one area of Torah or holiness to another).  
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===Survival===
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[[Anthropologist]] Marvin Harris has proposed that the Jewish prohibition of pork results from the fact that in arid countries such as Israel it is possible to raise pork only by feeding it grains that are also eaten by people, since the pigs cannot forage in nonexistent forests. In bad harvest years there would be a social conflict between those who could afford to raise and eat pork and those who would be at risk of starvation due to the scarcity of edible grains. Thus, in the interest of social survival, the prohibition entered the Jewish religion. Harris in ''Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches'' cites worldwide examples of similar ecologically determined religious practices, including other prohibitions of pork for similar reasons.
  
It must be noted that these are not the ''causes'' of these animals not being kosher, they are merely ''signs'' that alert us to spiritual characteristics of these animals' products (namely,  whether it's possible to activate their "sparks of Divinity") which cannot be seen from the physical perspective.[http://www.rabbifriedman.org/sichaReeh.asp] For example, camels do not normally have cloven hooves and so are not kosher; according to [[Talmud]] if a camel is, exceptionally, born with completely cloven hooves, it does not thereby become kosher.
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According to Harris preserving pork requires too much [[salt]] to guarantee the elimination of the carcass liquids, due to high fat content. The reverse process of washing out the preserving salt when it came to eating the meat also made it difficult to justify. This same reason would apply to many other forbidden foods, either because preservation by salting was impossible or because the salting process was not reversible.
  
===Contemporary academic opinions===
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===Symbolic values===
====Ritual purity and holiness====
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During the first few centuries of the [[Common Era]], some philosophers held that the laws of ''kashrut'' were symbolic in character. In this view, kosher animals represent [[virtue]]s, while non-kosher animals represent [[vice]]s. The first indication of this view can be found in the second century B.C.E. [[Letter of Aristeas]] (par. 145-148, 153). It later reappears in the writings of [[Philo]] of Alexandria, and in the writings of some of the early [[Church Fathers]]. This hypothesis has long since been rejected by most Jewish and Christian scholars. Modern [[Biblical criticism]] also has found nothing to support this hypothesis, although the concept of the pig as a particularly 'unclean' animal persists among Jews.
In her work, "Purity and Danger," cultural anthropologist [[Mary Douglas]] has written on how kashrut reflects, symbolically, the biblical emphasis on the idea of "wholeness" and completion. Noting that the word "shalem," meaning "whole, complete, finished, perfect," is a recurring theme throughout the Torah, she observes that virtually all of the animals prohibited in Leviticus lack key physical attributes that otherwise define their category. For example, animals without a cloven hoof and who do not ruminate are viewed as outside the range of what normatively defines a qaudruped; they are anomalies that "violate their category" and are for this reason prohibited. For creatures that live in the oceans, scales and fins were seen as essential, defining attributes; those lacking scales and fins similarly fall outside the category of what is normal for a sea creature. Douglas notes that states of "liminality," in which persons are at the fringes of a group are often fraught with danger in human society, and applies this insight into the laws of kashrut. Hence, to be kosher and fit for human consumption is to possess the minimally required characteristics that enable an animal to fully belong to its overall category. Douglas writes, "...holiness is exemplified by completeness. Holiness requires that individuals shall conform to the class to which they belong. And holiness requires that different classes of things shall not be confused." (Douglas, p. 53)
 
  
According to other theories, the practice of ''kashrut'' serves as a daily exercise in self-discipline and self-control, strengthening the practitioner's ability to choose other difficult paths. The ability to rationally curb one's most basic appetites can be seen as the prerequisite to living in a civilized society. Also, Jews consider the aspects of kosher slaughter which emphasize and incorporate the need to avoid unnecessary suffering of the animal a reminder to the believer that having the power of life and death or to cause suffering, even to a farm animal born and bred to be eaten, is a serious responsibility rather than a pleasure to be sought after; and that to actually indulge in pleasure in the power to cause suffering, even in so common a practice as hunting, is to damage our own moral sensibilities. {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
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Although the symbolic explanation for ''kashrut'' has been largely rejected, a number of authorities maintain that the laws are intended to promote ethical and moral behavior. A recent authority who has reexamined the symbolic/ethical meaning of ''kashrut'' is [[Rabbi]] [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]] (Germany, nineteenth century).
 
 
The prohibition against eating the fruits of a tree for the first three years also represents a capacity for self-discipline and self-denial, as well as a lengthy period of appreciation for the bounty of God, prior to losing oneself in its enjoyment. Similarly, the requirement to tithe one's harvest, aside from the social justice aspect, serves as a reminder that this material wealth is not purely the result of one's own efforts, but represents a gift from God; and as such, to share the gift with one's fellows does not represent a real loss to anyone, even oneself. {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
 
 
 
====Symbolic purpose====
 
During the first few centuries of the [[Common Era]] some philosophers held that the laws of ''kashrut'' were symbolic in character. In this view, kosher animals represent [[virtue]]s, while non-kosher animals represent [[vice]]s. The first indication of this view can be found in the 2nd century B.C.E. [[Letter of Aristeas]] (par. 145-148, 153). It later reappears in the writings of [[Philo]] of Alexandria, and in the writings of some of the early [[Church Fathers]].
 
 
 
This hypothesis has long since been rejected by most Jewish and Christian scholars. Modern Biblical criticism also has found nothing to support this hypothesis, although the concept of the pig as a particularly 'unclean' animal persists among Jews.
 
 
 
Although the symbolic explanation for ''kashrut'' has been largely rejected, a number of authorities maintain that the laws are intended to promote ethical and moral behaviour. A recent authority who has reexamined the symbolic/ethical meaning of ''kashrut'' is [[Rabbi]] [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]] (Germany, 19th century).
 
  
 
To some degree, the prohibition on combining milk with meat represents a symbolic separation between death, represented by the flesh of a dead animal, and life, represented by the milk required to sustain a newborn creature. The often-quoted humane component to this law is also of symbolic value; the [[Torah]] prohibits 'seething the kid (goat, sheep, calf) in its mother's milk', a practice cruel only in concept, which would not be understood as cruelty by either the kid or its mother and would not cause them additional suffering; but which could still potentially inflame a human's taste for ultimate power over those creatures who are weaker. Thus, ''kashrut'' prohibits the practice itself, even if the resulting mixture is to be discarded.
 
To some degree, the prohibition on combining milk with meat represents a symbolic separation between death, represented by the flesh of a dead animal, and life, represented by the milk required to sustain a newborn creature. The often-quoted humane component to this law is also of symbolic value; the [[Torah]] prohibits 'seething the kid (goat, sheep, calf) in its mother's milk', a practice cruel only in concept, which would not be understood as cruelty by either the kid or its mother and would not cause them additional suffering; but which could still potentially inflame a human's taste for ultimate power over those creatures who are weaker. Thus, ''kashrut'' prohibits the practice itself, even if the resulting mixture is to be discarded.
  
Similarly, the prohibition against consuming carnivorous mammals and birds, 'loathsome crawling creatures', and scavengers, as well as the prohibition against consuming sick or diseased animals, would seem to rely, at least in part, on their perceived symbolic character.
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===Connection to Vegetarianism===
 
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Since there are few laws of ''kashrut'' restricting the consumption of plant products, many people assume that a strictly [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]] meal would usually be inherently kosher. In practice, however, those who follow the laws of ''kashrut'' do not automatically regard all restaurants or prepared or canned food which claim to be [[vegetarian]] as kosher, due to the likelihood that the utensils were used previously with non-kosher products, as well as the concern that there may be non-kosher ingredients mixed in, which, although they may still be considered vegetarian, would make the food not kosher. Additionally, ''kashrut'' does provide special requirements for some vegetarian products, such as [[wine]] and [[bread]].  
====Maintenance of a separate culture====
 
According to Christian theologian [[Gordon Wenham|Gordon J. Wenham]] the purpose of kashrut is to help maintain Jews as a separate people. The laws of ''kashrut'' had the effect of preventing socialization and intermarriage with non-Jews, helping the Jewish community maintain its identity. Wenham writes that "[[circumcision]] was a private matter, but the food laws made one's Jewish faith a public affair. Observance of the food laws was one of the outward marks of a practising Jew, and this in turn enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of their special status."<ref name="separation">Gordon J. Wenham, "The Theology of Unclean Food," The Evangelical Quarterly 53, January March 1981, p.6-15</ref>
 
 
 
====Hygiene====
 
There have been attempts to provide empirical support for the view that ''kashrut'' laws have hygienic benefits.  
 
  
It was believed by some people {{Specify|date=January 2007}} that kosher animals were healthier to eat than non-kosher animals. It was also noted that the laws of purity (Leviticus 11–15) not only describe the difference between clean and unclean animals, but also describe other phenomena that appear to be related to health. For instance, ''glatt'', the requirement that lungs be checked to be free of adhesions, would prevent consumption of animals who had been infected with tuberculosis; similarly, the ban on slaughtering of an unconscious animal would eliminate many sick and possibly infectious animals from being consumed. Such a rationale seems reasonable when considering the laws prohibiting the consumption of [[carrion]] birds or birds of prey (which are advantageous scavengers), as they may carry disease from the carrion they consume; shellfish, which as filter feeders can accumulate harmful parasites or toxins; or pork, which can harbor [[trichinosis]] if not properly cooked. Thus, it was natural for many to assume that all the laws of ''kashrut'' were merely hygienic in intent and origin. One of the rabbinical authorities that mention the hygiene hypothesis is [[Maimonides]] in his [[Guide for the Perplexed]].
+
Most [[vegetable]]s, particularly leafy vegetables ([[lettuce]], [[cabbage]], [[parsley]], [[dill]], etc.), must be thoroughly checked for insect infestation. The consumption of insects involves between three and six violations of Torah law;<ref>Rambam, ''Mishne Torah'', Maacholoth Asuroth, 2:23-24</ref> so, according to Jewish Law, it is a greater sin than the consumption of pork. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning will vary by species, growing conditions, and the views of any particular rabbi.
 
 
For a number of reasons, however, this idea has fallen out of favor among Biblical scholars. Fruits and vegetables may be eaten without prohibition even though there are many poisonous herbs, seeds, berries, and fruits. Additionally, this hypothesis does not explain other parts of the Jewish dietary laws; for instance forbidding the consumption of fish without true scales, such as sharks and swordfish (though see [[kosher foods]] for discussion on kashrut of swordfish), fruit from trees which are less than four years old, or residual blood in meat.
 
 
 
In 1953, [[David Macht|Dr. David I. Macht]], a [[Johns Hopkins University]] researcher,  performed [[experiment]]s on many different kinds of animals and fish, and concluded that the concentration of zoological toxins of the "[[Kosher foods#Mammals: Leviticus 11:3–11:8|unclean]]" animals was higher than that of the "clean" animals, and that the correlation with the description in Leviticus was 100%.<ref name="Macht 1953">{{cite paper|title= An Experimental Pharmalogical Appreciation of Leviticus XI and Deuteronomy XIV |url=http://members.dslextreme.com/users/hollymick/Macht1953.pdf |author=Macht, Dr. David I. |publisher=Bulletin of the History of Medicine 27:444-450|format=pdf}}</ref> His criterion for toxicity was the effect on germination of [[Lupinus albus|lupin]] seedlings. In addition, Dr. Macht's research indicated harmful physiological effects of mixtures of meat and milk, and ritually slaughtered meat appeared to be lower in toxins than meat from other sources<ref name="Macht 1940">David I. Macht, Medical Leaves 1940; 3:174-184</ref> The conclusions of the paper published in Johns Hopkins Bulletin of the History of Medicine were challenged in a paper by biologists written at the request of a [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] publication.<ref name="SDA">[http://members.dslextreme.com/users/hollymick/web/ministry-1954-March-p37.htm Ministry Magazine, March 1953, p37-38 "This Question of Unclean Meats"] Responses to Macht's study from heads of biology depts.</ref>
 
 
 
====Other reasons====
 
Others have hypothesized that there are multiple reasons for the laws of ''kashrut'', with each law serving one or more than one purpose.
 
 
 
Anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]] has proposed that the Jewish prohibition of pork results from the fact that in arid countries such as Israel it is possible to raise pork only by feeding it grains that are also eaten by people, since the pigs cannot forage in nonexistent forests. In bad harvest years there would be a social conflict between those who could afford to raise and eat pork and those who would be at risk of starvation due to the scarcity of edible grains. Thus, in the interest of social survival, the prohibition entered the Jewish religion. Harris in ''Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches'' cites worldwide examples of similar ecologically determined religious practices, including other prohibitions of pork for similar reasons.
 
 
 
According to Harris preserving pork requires too much salt to guarantee the elimination of the carcass liquids, due to high fat content. The reverse process of washing out the preserving salt when it came to eating the meat also made it difficult to justify.  This same reason would apply to many other forbidden foods, either because preservation by salting was impossible or because the salting process was not reversible.
 
 
 
==U.S. laws regarding use of the word 'kosher'==
 
{{main|Civil laws regarding Kashrut}}
 
 
 
==How ''kashrut'' is viewed by contemporary society==
 
===In contemporary Judaism===
 
[[Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Conservative Judaism]] hold that Jews should follow the laws of ''kashrut'' as a matter of religious obligation. [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] hold that these laws are no longer binding. Historically, Reform Judaism actively opposed kashrut as an archaism inhibiting the integration of Jews in the general society. More recently, some parts of the Reform community have begun to explore the option of a more traditional approach.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} This tradition-leaning faction agrees with mainstream Reform that the rules concerning ''kashrut'' are not obligatory, but believe that Jews should consider keeping kosher because it is a valuable way for people to bring holiness into their lives. Thus Jews are encouraged to consider adopting some or all of the rules of ''kashrut'' on a voluntary basis. The Reconstructionist movement advocates that its members accept some of the rules of ''kashrut'', but does so in a non-binding fashion; their stance on ''kashrut'' is the same as the tradition-leaning wing of Reform.
 
 
 
Many Jews who do not meet the complete requirements of ''kashrut'' nevertheless maintain some subset of the laws; for instance, abstaining from pork or shellfish. Many Jews will likewise avoid drinking milk with a meat dish. Similarly, many keep a degree of ''kashrut'' at home while having no problems eating in a non-kosher restaurant, or will follow leniencies when eating out that they would not follow at home.
 
 
 
===In common vernacular===
 
In [[English language|English]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the term ''kosher'' is frequently used in a metaphorical sense to mean "fitting" or "correct". This is also its conventional meaning in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. For example, a ''[[mezuzah]]'', a pair of ''[[tefillin]]'', a [[Torah scroll]] or even an ''[[etrog]]'' can be kosher (if it is fit for ritual use) or non-kosher (if it is unfit for ritual use), but their "kashrut" has nothing to do with food.
 
 
 
It is also part of some common product names. For example, "[[kosher salt]]" (technically "koshering salt") is a form of salt which has irregularly-shaped crystals, making it particularly suitable for preparing meat in accordance with ''kashrut'' law because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively. Likewise, a "kosher" dill [[pickled cucumber|pickle]] is usually not kosher in the sense that it was prepared under rabbinical supervision, which would ensure that no utensil in contact with the pickles had been in contact with food that was not kosher. Rather, it is a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle makers with generous addition of garlic to the brine.<ref>[http://www.nyfoodmuseum.org/_pkwhat.htm Brief note on kosher pickles in "The Pickle Wing" of nyfoodmuseum.org]</ref><ref>[http://www.jewfaq.org/kashrut.htm Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws "Judaism 101"]</ref>  This is the same reason why the usage of the term "kosher-style" became frequently used in the food industry, from delis to restaurants, and even street vendors.
 
 
 
===Protection of the term===
 
Consumer-protection laws in many jurisdictions prohibit use of the term "kosher" unless it is shown to conform to Jewish dietary laws, however this will be defined differently for different jurisdictions and situations. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the ''kashrut'', and in others it is sufficient that the manufacturer believes the product to be kosher. Most packaged food products that are labelled "kosher" will therefore have some level of certification of compliance with the laws of ''kashrut'', though individuals must determine if that level is adequate for themselves.  More detail on the "legal" usage of the term "kosher" can be found in the section above entiled "U.S. Laws regarding use of the word ''Kosher''"
 
 
 
===Israeli usage of the term===
 
A new movement in Israel<ref> ''Chicago Jewish Star'', September 30, 2005, front page. </ref> demands that an establishment — a grocery store or restaurant — will only be considered fully kosher if its employees are paid a decent wage and treated fairly, and there is access for the disabled. This will require a second certificate of ''kashrut'' in addition to the standard one.
 
 
 
==Ethical eating==
 
The translation of the root כ ש ר (K-Sh-R, [[Kaf]]-[[Shin (letter)|Shin]]-[[Resh]]) when used in this context is generally accepted to be about the "fitness" or "kosherness" of the food for consumption.  There are two major strains of thought on alternative ways that "kashrut" should be practiced in order to more broadly categorize food as fit for consumption.  In addition to these two major strains of thought, some, especially in the United Kingdom, have taken the fitness of the food they eat as directly dependent on how ethically it was produced, specifically in relation to its impact on the world and its people.  For instance, only [[Fairtrade]] teas and coffees are served in some synagogues and community centers and eggs used are organic or free range.
 
 
 
===Vegetarianism===
 
Since there are few laws of ''kashrut'' restricting the consumption of plant products, many people assume that a strictly [[vegetarian]] meal would usually be inherently kosher. In practice, however, those who follow the laws of ''kashrut'' do not automatically regard all restaurants or prepared or canned food which claim to be vegetarian as kosher, due to the likelihood that the utensils were used previously with non-kosher products, as well as the concern that there may be non-kosher ingredients mixed in, which, although they may still be considered vegetarian, would make the food not kosher. Additionally, ''kashrut'' does provide special requirements for some vegetarian products, such as wine and bread.
 
 
 
Many vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods do in fact acquire a ''[[hechsher]]'', certifying that a Rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher. In addition to the above concerns, the hechsher will usually certify that certain suspect vegetables have been checked for insect infestation, and that steps have been taken to ensure that any cooked food meets the requirements of ''[[bishul Yisrael]]''.
 
 
 
Most [[vegetable]]s, particularly [[leafy vegetables]] ([[lettuce]], [[cabbage]], [[parsley]], [[dill]], etc.), must be thoroughly checked for insect infestation (see link below for video instruction on proper checking procedure from the OU). The consumption of insects involves between three and six violations of Torah law;<ref>Rambam, ''Mishne Torah'', Maacholoth Asuroth, 2:23-24</ref> so, according to Jewish Law, it is a greater sin than the consumption of pork. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning will vary by species, growing conditions, and the views of any particular rabbi.
 
 
 
The situation is not always reversible, however; although ''[[Pareve#Pareve|pareve]]'' food can contain neither meat nor dairy, that label on a product cannot be always used by vegetarians as a reliable indication, since ''kashrut'' considers fish to be ''pareve''.  Because of potential issues of mixing meat and fish (see [[Kosher foods#Seafood: 11:9-12|Fish and seafood]]) some ''kashrut'' supervising authorities specifically indicate the presence of fish products when they are found in ''pareve'' foods.
 
 
 
People who have specific dietary needs should be aware that their standards for certain concepts may differ from the halachic standards for similar concepts.
 
* Many coffee creamers currently sold in the United States are labeled as "non-dairy", yet also have a "D" alongside their ''hechsher'', which indicates a dairy status. This is because of an ingredient (usually sodium caseinate) which is derived from milk. The rabbis categorize it as dairy that cannot be mixed with meat, but the US government considers it to lack the nutritional value of milk.  Such products are also unsuitable for [[vegan]]s and other strict dairy abstainers.
 
* On the other hand, ''kashrut'' ''does'' recognize some processes as capable of converting a meat or dairy product into a ''pareve'' one. For example, [[rennet]] is sometimes made from stomach linings, yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese,<ref>''The rennet must be kosher, either microbial or from special productions of animal rennet using kosher calf stomachs.''[http://oukosher.org/index.php/articles/single/2828/] Retrieved August 10, 2005.</ref> but such cheeses might not be acceptable to some vegetarians, who would eat only cheese made from a vegetarian rennet. The same applies to kosher [[gelatin]] which in some cases is an [[animal product]], despite its ''parev'' status.
 
* ''Kashrut'' has procedures by which equipment can be cleaned of its previous non-kosher use, but that might be inadequate for those with allergies, vegetarians, or adherents to other religious statutes. For example, dairy manufacturing equipment can be cleaned well enough that the rabbis will grant ''pareve'' status to products manufactured afterward. Nevertheless, someone with a strong allergic sensitivity to dairy products might still react to the dairy residue, and that is why some products will have a "milk" warning on a product which is legitimately ''pareve''.
 
  
 
===Kashrut and animal welfare===
 
===Kashrut and animal welfare===
 
+
''Kashrut'' prohibits slaughter of an unconscious animal, and the slaughtering is done by cutting the front of the throat first. Some [[animal rights]] groups object to kosher slaughter, claiming that it can take several minutes for the animal to die and can often cause suffering. Since the spinal cord is not severed completely at  the first cut, it is thought that the slaughtered animal's [[nervous system]] continues to function during the initial moments of the slaughter, causing the animal to undergo an agonisingly slow and painful death. In 2003 in the UK, an independent advisory group - the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) - concluded that the way Kosher (and [[Halal]]) meat is produced causes severe suffering to animals and should be banned immediately. Kosher and halal butchers deny their method of killing animals is cruel and expressed anger over the recommendation.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2977086.stm Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end'] ''BBC News'', June 10, 2003, Retrieved September 17, 2008.</ref>.
''Kashrut'' prohibits slaughter of an unconscious animal, and the slaughtering is done by cutting the front of the throat first. Some [[animal rights]] groups object to kosher slaughter, claiming that it can take several minutes for the animal to die and can often cause suffering. Since the spinal cord is not severed completely at  the first cut, it is thought that the slaughtered animal's [[nervous system]] continues to function during the initial moments of the slaughter, causing the animal to undergo an agonisingly slow and painful death. In 2003 in the UK, an independent advosory group - the [[Farm Animal Welfare Council]] (FAWC) - concluded that the way Kosher (and [[Halal]]) meat is produced causes severe suffering to animals and should be banned immediately. Kosher and halal butchers deny their method of killing animals is cruel and expressed anger over the recommendation <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2977086.stm Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end']</ref>.
 
 
 
Jewish groups point to studies showing that the kosher slaughter technique is no more painful than conventional techniques, and in most cases  much quicker and less painful; the idealized emphasis on flawless procedure and tools contrasts with the often real-life sloppy production line methodology of the non-kosher slaughterhouse resulting in failure to stun the animal, as often described by animal rights advocates in other contexts.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
 
 
 
Specific kashrut laws counter some of the rituals of ancient times, such as eating only one leg of a live animal so that people would not have to deal with eating the entire animal at one time (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 56b); this law applies even to non-Jews and is part of the [[Noahide Laws]]. Some authorities have ruled that any unnecessary suffering by the animal can render otherwise kosher meat ''treife''.
 
 
 
===Kashrut and working conditions===
 
[[Heksher Tzedek]], a proposed certification that food was produced under safe and just [[working conditions]], has been endorsed by the [[Rabbinical Assembly]], the national association of Conservative rabbis, but specific requirements for implementation of certification remain under development.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/rabbis-move-ahead-with-new-certification-plan/ "Rabbis Move Ahead With New Certification Plan"] article by Nathaniel Popper in [[The Forward]] May 18, 2007</ref> It would be an additional certification, not a replacement for kosher certification.
 
<br />
 
One counterargument is that an entity certifying Kashrut should remain outside political issues of labor. In particular, the laws of labor, as dictated by Torah, are being addressed by the laws of the United States of America as noted by Rabbi A. Zeilingold in an interview.<ref> [http://www.startribune.com/614/story/1251708.html "Does Kosher Extend beyond the Treatment of Animals"], by Pamela Miller in the ''New York Times'', [[June 18]] [[2007]]</ref> The Government of the United States of America provides many means for individuals to report and prosecute employers that violate the law,<ref>[http://www.counterbias.com/832.html "America's Workers: Paying For Protection"], Counterbias, [[January 22]]</ref> however this information is never made transparent to consumers through certification or product markings, such as Kosher labeling.
 
<br />Some questions posed by critics remain open in the matter of the Tzedek Heksher:
 
<ul>
 
<li>If there is an accident in a meat plant certified by the Heksher Tzedek as safe, will the rabbinical group that certified the plant be liable to a lawsuit?
 
<li>How are the people certifying the Heksher Tzedek going to oversee that a plant is fair to workers or not?
 
<li>How are the people certifying the Heksher Tzedek determine what is fair or not fair in matters of labor?
 
</ul>
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
+
<references/>
  
==Further reading==
+
==References==
<div class="references-small">
+
*Bailey, Stephen.''Kashrut Tefillin Tzitzit: Studies in the Purpose and Meaning of Symbolic Mitzvot Inspired by the Commentaries of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch,'' Jason Aronson, 2000. ISBN 978-0765761064.  
*Yacov Lipschutz, ''Kashruth: A Comprehensive Background and Reference Guide to the Principles of Kahruth''. New York:Mesorah Publications Ltd, 1989
+
*Harris, Marvin. ''Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture.'' New York: Vintage Press, 1989. ISBN 0679724680.
*Binyomen Forst, ''The Laws of Kashrus'', Mozniam, 1999
+
*Posner, Rabbi Zalman. ''Think Jewish, Why Do Mitzvot?'' 1978. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/3249/jewish/Why-Do-Mitzvot.htm].''chabad.org''. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
* James M. Lebeau, ''The Jewish Dietary Laws: Sanctify Life'', [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]], New York, 1983
+
* Safran, Eliyahu. ''Meditations at Sixty: One Person, Under God, Indivisible: Kashrut, Modesty, Mourning, Prayer and Love.'' Ktav Publishing House, 2008. ISBN 978-1602800380
* Mary Douglas, "Purity and Danger: An analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1966
+
*Shea, William. [http://www.adventistbiblicalresearch.org/documents/Clean%20&%20Unclean%20Meats.htm William H. Shea, ''Clean and Unclean Meats, Biblical Research Institute,'' December 1998.] ''Biblical Research Institute''. Retrieved September 18, 2008
* Samuel Dresner, Seymour Siegel and David Pollock ''The Jewish Dietary Laws'', United Synagogue, New York, 1982
+
*''Shulchan Aruch: Code of Jewish Law, Vol. 1, Orach Chaim, Sections 1-24.'' Shnuer Zalman of Liadi et al. (eds.) Kehot Publication Society/Merkos Publications, 2004. ISBN 978-0826605573
* Isidore Grunfeld, ''The Jewish Dietary Laws'', London: Soncino, 1972
+
*Wenham, Gordon J. "The Theology of Unclean Food," The Evangelical Quarterly 53, (January March 1981): 6-15.
* [[Isaac Klein]], ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'', JTSA, 1992
 
* ''Shechita: Religious, Historical and Scientific Perspectives'', Munk, Feldheim Publishers, New York, 1976
 
</div>
 
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
+
[[Category: Judaism]]
  
 
{{Credit|238665667}}
 
{{Credit|238665667}}

Latest revision as of 17:36, 12 November 2008

Traditional arrangement of symbolic foods on a Passover Seder Plate.

Kashrut (from Hebrew כַּשְרוּת meaning "fit" or "proper") refers to Jewish dietary laws that are in accord with halakha (Jewish law). Popularly known as kosher (meaning "fit" for consumption), Jewish dietary laws derive from the Torah's Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, and are further elucidated in the oral law (the Mishnah and the Talmud), and codified by later rabbinical authorities. The Torah does not explicitly state the reason for most kashrut laws but many justifications have been offered in subsequent reflection including philosophical, ritualistic, practical and hygienic reasons. For example, it has been said that Kashrut serves as a daily exercise in self-discipline and self-control, strengthening the practitioner's ability to cultivate ritual purity and holiness. Additionally, Jews consider the need to avoid unnecessary suffering of the animal[1] a reminder to the believer that having the power of life and death is a serious responsibility.

In addition to Judaism, many other religions contain specific dietary regulations to encourage their followers to purify themselves, to avoid "unclean" foods, and to foster a distinct identity. Some have also suggested that science supports many of the intuitions found in Kashrut, albeit not in all specific kosher laws.

The religion of Islam has a related but different system of dietary laws, named halal, and both systems have a comparable form of ritual slaughter (shechita in Judaism and Ḏabīḥah in Islam). Many religions follow dietary guidelines to encourage purity, discipline and symbolic remembrance in the practice of their community.

Rationale

There continues to be a debate among various theories about the purposes and meaning of the laws regarding kashrut. Historically, the Jewish kashrut laws are counter some of the rituals of ancient times, such as eating only one leg of a live animal so that people would not have to deal with eating the entire animal at one time (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 56b); this law applies even to non-Jews and is part of the Noahide Laws. Some authorities have ruled that any unnecessary suffering by the animal can render otherwise kosher meat treife. Food that is not in accord with Jewish law is called treif (Yiddish: טרייף or //treyf,// derived from Hebrew: טְרֵפָה trēfáh). In the technical sense, treif means "torn" and refers to meat which comes from an animal containing a defect that renders it unfit for slaughter. An animal that died through means other than ritual slaughter (or by a botched slaughter) is called a neveila which literally means "an unclean thing."

Traditional Jewish philosophy divides the 613 mitzvot into mishpatim (laws which can be explained rationally) and chukim (laws which cannot be explained rationally). Those categorized as chukim include such laws as the Red Heifer (Numbers 19). There are three basic points of view regarding these laws:

  1. These laws were ordained for the protection and health of God's people in a time where basic hygiene was not yet understood. For example, carrion was against Jewish law; modern sanitary rules also exclude carrion, which may be from diseased animals or contain toxins of decomposition. Shellfish, also forbidden by Jewish law, can be toxic unless harvested and stored in known conditions. Hygiene-based explanations cannot be found to support every law.
  2. These laws do have a reason which cannot be understood by humans because the ultimate explanation for mitzvot is beyond the human intellect;[2] and
  3. These laws have no meaning other than to instill obedience. Related to this is the idea that the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God's authority and that man should obey without asking for a reason.[3] However, this last view has been rejected by most classical and modern Jewish authorities, including Maimonides who holds that a Jew is permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah.[4]

Conservative Judaism follows a number of leniencies, including:

  1. Permitting kashering with less than boiling water under certain circumstances (which permits a dishwasher to be used for meat and dairy dishes, although not at the same time, provided the dishwasher will not absorb particles of the food)
  2. Classifying various chemical additives derived from non-kosher meat products as nonfood and permissible (for example, permitting rennet from cow's stomachs to be used in cheese and horse-hoof gelatin in foods).

Although Reconstructionist Judaism and some perspectives within Reform Judaism encourage individuals to follow some or all aspects of the kashrut rules required by the more traditional branches, these branches do not require their observance and do not maintain their own sets of required rules.

Kashrut Laws

One of the Kosher requirements is having cloven hooves such as goats (upper left), pigs (lower left) and cows (lower right). Pigs, in spite of their cloven hooves, remain non-kosher because they lack the other kosher sign, cud-chewing. Horses (upper right) are entirely uncloven.

The most important Jewish laws of kashrut laws are as follows:

  1. Meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes, and sometimes different kitchens, for meat and milk, and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products.[5]
  2. Mammals and fowl must be slaughtered in a specific fashion: slaughter is done by a trained individual (a shochet) using a special method of slaughter, shechita (Deuteronomy 12:21). Among other features, shechita slaughter severs the jugular vein, carotid artery, esophagus and trachea in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated, sharp knife, avoiding unnecessary pain to the animal. Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable. The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year, which would make the meat unsuitable.[6]
  3. As much blood as possible must be removed (Leviticus 17:10) through the kashering process; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat, but organs rich in blood (the liver) are grilled over an open flame.[7]
  4. The prohibition against eating the fruits of a tree for the first three years also represents a capacity for self-discipline and self-denial, as well as a lengthy period of appreciation for the bounty of God, prior to losing oneself in its enjoyment. Similarly, the requirement to tithe one's harvest, aside from the social justice aspect, serves as a reminder that this material wealth is not purely the result of one's own efforts, but represents a gift from God; and as such, to share the gift with one's fellows does not represent a real loss to anyone, even oneself.
  5. Passover has special dietary rules, the most important of which is the prohibition on eating leavened bread or derivatives of this (chametz, Exodus 12:15). Utensils used in preparing and serving chametz are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been cleansed (kashering).[8] Observant Jews often have separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only.
  6. Certain foods must have been prepared in whole or in part by Jews, including Wine[9], Certain cooked foods (bishul akum)[10], Cheese (gvinat akum) and according to some also butter (chem'at akum)[11]
  7. Only meat from mammals that both chew their cud and have cloven hooves are kosher (permissible to eat). Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded (Leviticus 11:3-8).[12]
  8. Birds must fit certain criteria; birds of prey are not kosher. There must be an established tradition that a bird is kosher or similar to one that is before it can be consumed.[13] The turkey, for example is native to the New World and would therefore not be found under tradition. However, it is similar to a known bird, the "fowl of India" and is therefore acceptable.
  9. Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher (Leviticus 11:9-12). Shellfish and non-fish water fauna are not kosher.[14]
  10. Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of kosher locust (unrecognized in almost all communities).[15]
  11. According to many: certain dairy products (Hebrew: חלב ישראל chalav Yisrael "milk of Israel")[11][16]
  12. According to some: bread (under certain circumstances) (Pat Yisrael)[17]
  13. Biblical rules control the use of agriculture produce: for produce grown in the Land of Israel a modified version of the Biblical tithes must be applied, including Terumat HaMaaser, Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani (untithed produce is called tevel); the fruit of the first three years of a tree’s growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as orlah [3]; produce grown in the Land of Israel on the seventh year is Shviis, and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the Shmita] (Sabbatical Year).

Application in Daily Life

The circled U indicates that this product is certified as kosher.

Store-bought foods can be identified as kosher by the presence of a hechsher (plural hechsherim), a graphical symbol that indicates that the food has been certified as kosher by a rabbinical authority. (This might be an individual rabbi, but is more often a rabbinic organization.) One of the most common symbols in the United States is the "OU," a U inside a circle, standing for the Union of Orthodox Congregations (or "Orthodox Union"). Many rabbis and organizations, however, have their own certification mark, and the other symbols are too numerous to list.

Many kashrut certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the food. In common usage is "D" for Dairy, "M" for Meat or poultry, "Pareve" for food that is neither meat nor dairy, "Fish" for foods containing such, and "P" for Passover (not to be confused with Pareve). Note that many foods meet the U.S. FDA standard for "Non-Dairy" while they do not meet the Jewish standard for "Pareve" and are labeled with the "D" next to the kosher symbol.

A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for kosher, but as a letter cannot be trademarked (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse) in many countries, it only indicates that the company producing the food claims it is kosher.

The hechsheirim of certain authorities are sometimes considered invalid by certain other authorities.

Before there were certification agencies, kosher consumers would read the list of ingredients to determine if a product was acceptable to eat. Today, however, this is considered insufficient as many things are not included in this list, such as pan lubricants and release agents (which may be derived from lard), flavorings ("natural flavorings" which are more likely to be derived from non-kosher substances than others), etc. Reading the label can, however, identify obviously unkosher ingredients.

Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish authorities to have their products certified as kosher: a committee will visit their facilities to inspect production methods and contents, and issue a certificate if everything is in order. In many cases constant supervision is required.

For various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products which were kosher may cease to be so; for example, a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing tallow. Such changes are often coordinated with the supervising rabbi or organization to ensure that new packaging, which will not suggest any hechsher or kashrut, is used for the new formulation. But in some cases existing stocks of preprinted labels with the hechsher may continue to be used on the now non-kosher product; for such reasons, there is an active "grapevine," among the Jewish community, as well as newspapers and periodicals, identifying which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the hechsher.

Interpretations

Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism hold that Jews should follow the laws of kashrut as a matter of religious obligation. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that these laws are no longer binding. Historically, Reform Judaism actively opposed kashrut as an archaism inhibiting the integration of Jews in the general society. More recently, some parts of the Reform community have begun to explore the option of a more traditional approach. This tradition-leaning faction agrees with mainstream Reform that the rules concerning kashrut are not obligatory, but believe that Jews should consider keeping kosher because it is a valuable way for people to bring holiness into their lives. Thus Jews are encouraged to consider adopting some or all of the rules of kashrut on a voluntary basis. The Reconstructionist movement advocates that its members accept some of the rules of kashrut, but does so in a non-binding fashion; their stance on kashrut is the same as the tradition-leaning wing of Reform.

Many Jews who do not meet the complete requirements of kashrut nevertheless maintain some subset of the laws; for instance, abstaining from pork or shellfish. Many Jews will likewise avoid drinking milk with a meat dish. Similarly, many keep a degree of kashrut at home while having no problems eating in a non-kosher restaurant, or will follow leniencies when eating out that they would not follow at home.

Prevention of socialization

According to Gordon J. Wenham, the purpose of kashrut is to help maintain Jews as a separate people. The laws of kashrut had the effect of preventing socialization and intermarriage with non-Jews, helping the Jewish community maintain its identity. Wenham writes that "circumcision was a private matter, but the food laws made one's Jewish faith a public affair. Observance of the food laws was one of the outward marks of a practicing Jew, and this in turn enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of their special status."[18]

Hygienic benefits

There have been attempts to provide empirical support for the view that kashrut laws have hygienic benefits.

Another theory is that kosher animals were healthier to eat than non-kosher animals. It was also noted that the laws of purity (Leviticus 11–15) not only describe the difference between clean and unclean animals, but also describe other phenomena that appear to be related to health. Such a rationale seems reasonable when considering the laws prohibiting the consumption of carrion birds or birds of prey (which are advantageous scavengers), as they may carry disease from the carrion they consume; shellfish, which as filter feeders can accumulate harmful parasites or toxins; or pork, which can harbor trichinosis if not properly cooked. Thus, it was natural for many to assume that all the laws of kashrut were merely hygienic in intent and origin. One of the rabbinical authorities that mention the hygiene hypothesis is Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed.

In 1953, Dr. David I. Macht, a Johns Hopkins University researcher, performed experiments on many different kinds of animals and fish, and concluded that the concentration of zoological toxins of the "unclean" animals was higher than that of the "clean" animals, and that the correlation with the description in Leviticus was 100%.[19] His criterion for toxicity was the effect on germination of lupin seedlings. In addition, Dr. Macht's research indicated harmful physiological effects of mixtures of meat and milk, and ritually slaughtered meat appeared to be lower in toxins than meat from other sources[20] The conclusions of the paper published in Johns Hopkins Bulletin of the History of Medicine were challenged in a paper by biologists written at the request of a Seventh-day Adventist Church publication.[21]

For a number of reasons, however, this idea has fallen out of favor among Biblical scholars. Fruits and vegetables may be eaten without prohibition even though there are many poisonous herbs, seeds, berries, and fruits. Additionally, this hypothesis does not explain other parts of the Jewish dietary laws; for instance forbidding the consumption of fish without true scales, such as sharks and swordfish, or fruit from trees which are less than four years old, or residual blood in meat.

Survival

Anthropologist Marvin Harris has proposed that the Jewish prohibition of pork results from the fact that in arid countries such as Israel it is possible to raise pork only by feeding it grains that are also eaten by people, since the pigs cannot forage in nonexistent forests. In bad harvest years there would be a social conflict between those who could afford to raise and eat pork and those who would be at risk of starvation due to the scarcity of edible grains. Thus, in the interest of social survival, the prohibition entered the Jewish religion. Harris in Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches cites worldwide examples of similar ecologically determined religious practices, including other prohibitions of pork for similar reasons.

According to Harris preserving pork requires too much salt to guarantee the elimination of the carcass liquids, due to high fat content. The reverse process of washing out the preserving salt when it came to eating the meat also made it difficult to justify. This same reason would apply to many other forbidden foods, either because preservation by salting was impossible or because the salting process was not reversible.

Symbolic values

During the first few centuries of the Common Era, some philosophers held that the laws of kashrut were symbolic in character. In this view, kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The first indication of this view can be found in the second century B.C.E. Letter of Aristeas (par. 145-148, 153). It later reappears in the writings of Philo of Alexandria, and in the writings of some of the early Church Fathers. This hypothesis has long since been rejected by most Jewish and Christian scholars. Modern Biblical criticism also has found nothing to support this hypothesis, although the concept of the pig as a particularly 'unclean' animal persists among Jews.

Although the symbolic explanation for kashrut has been largely rejected, a number of authorities maintain that the laws are intended to promote ethical and moral behavior. A recent authority who has reexamined the symbolic/ethical meaning of kashrut is Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (Germany, nineteenth century).

To some degree, the prohibition on combining milk with meat represents a symbolic separation between death, represented by the flesh of a dead animal, and life, represented by the milk required to sustain a newborn creature. The often-quoted humane component to this law is also of symbolic value; the Torah prohibits 'seething the kid (goat, sheep, calf) in its mother's milk', a practice cruel only in concept, which would not be understood as cruelty by either the kid or its mother and would not cause them additional suffering; but which could still potentially inflame a human's taste for ultimate power over those creatures who are weaker. Thus, kashrut prohibits the practice itself, even if the resulting mixture is to be discarded.

Connection to Vegetarianism

Since there are few laws of kashrut restricting the consumption of plant products, many people assume that a strictly vegetarian meal would usually be inherently kosher. In practice, however, those who follow the laws of kashrut do not automatically regard all restaurants or prepared or canned food which claim to be vegetarian as kosher, due to the likelihood that the utensils were used previously with non-kosher products, as well as the concern that there may be non-kosher ingredients mixed in, which, although they may still be considered vegetarian, would make the food not kosher. Additionally, kashrut does provide special requirements for some vegetarian products, such as wine and bread.

Most vegetables, particularly leafy vegetables (lettuce, cabbage, parsley, dill, etc.), must be thoroughly checked for insect infestation. The consumption of insects involves between three and six violations of Torah law;[22] so, according to Jewish Law, it is a greater sin than the consumption of pork. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning will vary by species, growing conditions, and the views of any particular rabbi.

Kashrut and animal welfare

Kashrut prohibits slaughter of an unconscious animal, and the slaughtering is done by cutting the front of the throat first. Some animal rights groups object to kosher slaughter, claiming that it can take several minutes for the animal to die and can often cause suffering. Since the spinal cord is not severed completely at the first cut, it is thought that the slaughtered animal's nervous system continues to function during the initial moments of the slaughter, causing the animal to undergo an agonisingly slow and painful death. In 2003 in the UK, an independent advisory group - the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) - concluded that the way Kosher (and Halal) meat is produced causes severe suffering to animals and should be banned immediately. Kosher and halal butchers deny their method of killing animals is cruel and expressed anger over the recommendation.[23].

Notes

  1. e.g. Exodus 23:19 among other places, a "kid may not be boiled in its mother's milk."
  2. Rabbi Zalman Posner, Think Jewish, Why Do Mitzvot? (1978) [1]. chabad.org. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
  3. William H. Shea, Clean and Unclean Meats, Biblical Research Institute, December 1998. Biblical Research Institute. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
  4. Mishneh Torah Korbanot, Temurah 4:13 (in eds. Frankel; "Rambam L'Am")
  5. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 87, et seq
  6. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 1-65
  7. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 66-78
  8. Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 431-452
  9. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah, 114
  10. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah, 113
  11. 11.0 11.1 Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 115
  12. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 79
  13. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 82:1-5
  14. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 83 and 84
  15. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 85
  16. Many rely on lenient rulings by Rabbi Moshe Feinstein in Teshuvot Igrot Moshe. Yoreh De'ah 1:47 and other twentieth century rabbinic authorities who rule that strict government supervision prevents the admixture of non-kosher milk, making supervision unnecessary. See also Rabbi Chaim Jachter, Chalav Yisrael - Part I: Rav Soloveitchik's View. Torah Academy of Bergen County. accessdate 2007-12-02
  17. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 112, Orach Chayim 603
  18. Gordon J. Wenham, "The Theology of Unclean Food," The Evangelical Quarterly 53, (January March 1981): 6-15
  19. Dr. David I. Macht, "An Experimental Pharmalogical Appreciation of Leviticus XI and Deuteronomy XIV." [2]. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 27:444-450. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
  20. David I. Macht, Medical Leaves (1940) 3:174-184
  21. Ministry Magazine, March 1953, p37-38 "This Question of Unclean Meats" Responses to Macht's study from heads of biology depts. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
  22. Rambam, Mishne Torah, Maacholoth Asuroth, 2:23-24
  23. Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end' BBC News, June 10, 2003, Retrieved September 17, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bailey, Stephen.Kashrut Tefillin Tzitzit: Studies in the Purpose and Meaning of Symbolic Mitzvot Inspired by the Commentaries of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Jason Aronson, 2000. ISBN 978-0765761064.
  • Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture. New York: Vintage Press, 1989. ISBN 0679724680.
  • Posner, Rabbi Zalman. Think Jewish, Why Do Mitzvot? 1978. [4].chabad.org. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
  • Safran, Eliyahu. Meditations at Sixty: One Person, Under God, Indivisible: Kashrut, Modesty, Mourning, Prayer and Love. Ktav Publishing House, 2008. ISBN 978-1602800380
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