Difference between revisions of "Karst topography" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{dablink|"Karst" redirects here. For the video game character in [[Nintendo]]'s ''[[Golden Sun]] series, see [[Characters of Golden Sun#Karst and Agatio|Characters of Golden Sun]].}}[[Image:Karst minerve.jpg|thumb|350px|A karst landscape]]
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[[image:Burren_karst.jpg|thumb|350px|The karst hills of the [[Burren]] on the west coast of Ireland]]
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[[Image:Karst minerve.jpg|thumb|350px|A karst landscape.]]
  
'''Karst topography''' is a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the [[Solvation|dissolution]] of a soluble layer or layers of [[bedrock]], usually [[carbonate]] rock such as [[limestone]] or [[dolomite]]. These landscapes display distinctive surface features and underground [[drainage]]s, and in some examples there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as southern [[Missouri]] and northern [[Arkansas]] in the [[USA]], are underlain by thousands of [[cave]]s.
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'''Karst topography''' is a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the [[Solvation|dissolution]] of a soluble layer or layers of [[bedrock]], usually [[carbonate]] rock such as [[limestone]] or [[dolomite]]. These landscapes display distinctive surface features and underground [[drainage]]s, and in some cases there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as southern [[Missouri]] and northern [[Arkansas]] in the [[United States]], are underlain by thousands of [[cave]]s.
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{{toc}}
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==Definition==
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[[image:Burren_karst.jpg|thumb|350px|The karst hills of the [[Burren]] on the west coast of [[Ireland]].]]
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Different terms for karst topography exist in other languages—for example, ''yanrong'' in Chinese and ''[[tsingy]]'' in Malagasy—a notable exception being [[English language|English]] (Jennings, Ch.1 p.1). The international community has settled on ''karst'', the [[German language|German]] name for [[Kras]], a region in [[Slovenia]] partially extending into [[Italy]] where it is called Carso and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has [[Paleoeuropean]] origin (''karra'', meaning stone) and in antiquity it was called ''carusardius'' in [[Latin]]. The Slovenian form ''grast'' is attested since 1177, and the Croatian ''kras'' since 1230.
  
Different terms for karst topography exist in other languages - for example, ''yanrong'' in Chinese and ''[[tsingy]]'' in Malagasy - a notable exception being English (Jennings, Ch.1 p.1). The international community has settled on ''karst'', the [[German language|German]] name for [[Kras]], a region in [[Slovenia]] partially extending into [[Italy]] where it is called Carso and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has [[Paleoeuropean]] origin (karra - stone) and in antiquity it was called Carusardius in Latin. The Slovenian form ''grast'' is attested since 1177, and the Croatian ''kras'' since 1230.  
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Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater. The [[Serbia]]n [[geographer]] [[Jovan Cvijić]]'s publication ''Das Karstphänomen'' (1893), based on his studies in the Dinaric Kras region, established that rock dissolution was the key process and that it created most types of [[Sinkhole|dolines]], "the diagnostic karst landforms." The Dinaric Kras thus became the type area for dissolutional landforms and aquifers; the regional name ''kras'', Germanicized as "karst," is now applied to modern and paleo-dissolutional phenomena worldwide. Cvijić related the complex behavior of karst aquifers to development of solutional conduit networks and linked it to a cycle of landform evolution. Cvijić defined two main types of karst area, '''holokarst''', wholly developed, as in the Dinaric region along the eastern Adriatic and deeper inland in the Balkan Peninsula and '''merokarst''', imperfectly developed with some karst forms, as in eastern Serbia.
  
 
==Chemistry of karst landscapes==
 
==Chemistry of karst landscapes==
[[Image:Karst_italy_doberdo_lake.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Karst lake (Doberdo' del Lago, Italy), from underground water springing into a depression. This lake has no surface inlet or outlet.]]
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[[Image:Karst_italy_doberdo_lake.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Karst lake (Doberdo' del Lago, [[Italy]]), from underground water springing into a depression. This lake has no surface inlet or outlet.]]
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{{readout||left|250px|Karst topography is characterized by subterranean [[limestone]] [[cave]]rns, carved by [[groundwater]]}}
 
Karst landforms are generally the result of mildly [[acid]]ic water acting on soluble [[bedrock]] such as [[limestone]] or [[dolostone]]. The [[carbonic acid]] that causes these features is formed as [[rain]] passes through the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] picking up [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub><small>2</small></sub>]], which dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through [[soil]] that may provide further CO<sub><small>2</small></sub> to form a weak carbonic acid solution: H<sub><small>2</small></sub>O + CO<sub><small>2</small></sub> → H<sub><small>2</small></sub>CO<sub><small>3</small></sub>. Recent studies of sulfates in karst waters suggests [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[hydrogen sulfide|hydrosulfuric acids]] may also play an important role in karst formation.
 
Karst landforms are generally the result of mildly [[acid]]ic water acting on soluble [[bedrock]] such as [[limestone]] or [[dolostone]]. The [[carbonic acid]] that causes these features is formed as [[rain]] passes through the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] picking up [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub><small>2</small></sub>]], which dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through [[soil]] that may provide further CO<sub><small>2</small></sub> to form a weak carbonic acid solution: H<sub><small>2</small></sub>O + CO<sub><small>2</small></sub> → H<sub><small>2</small></sub>CO<sub><small>3</small></sub>. Recent studies of sulfates in karst waters suggests [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[hydrogen sulfide|hydrosulfuric acids]] may also play an important role in karst formation.
  
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==Karst formations==
 
==Karst formations==
[[Image:karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Surface karst.]]
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[[Image:karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Surface karst]]
The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large or small scale features both on the surface and beneath.  On exposed surfaces, small features may include flutes, runnels, [[limestone pavement|clints and grikes]], collectively called karren or lapiez.  Medium-sized surface features may include [[sinkhole]]s or [[doline]]s (closed basins), vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and reappearing [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]]s. Large-scale features may include [[limestone pavement]]s, [[polje]]s and blind valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers or haystack/eggbox landscapes.  Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst [[aquifer]]s) and extensive [[cave]]s and cavern systems may form.
 
  
[[Image:Witchs Finger Carlsbad Caverns.jpg|left|thumb|[[The Witch's Finger]] stalagmite in [[Carlsbad Caverns]]]]
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The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large or small scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include flutes, runnels, [[limestone pavement|clints and grikes]], collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include [[sinkhole]]s or [[doline]]s (closed basins), vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and reappearing [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]]s. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, [[polje]]s and blind valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst [[aquifer]]s) and extensive [[cave]]s and cavern systems may form.
Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the [[tropics]], produces karst topography that includes a sharp ''makatea'' surface above the normal reach of the sea and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or [[bioerosion]] at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's [[Phangnga Bay]] and [[Halong Bay]] in Vietnam.
 
  
[[image:Top of the Rock of Gibraltar.jpg|350px|thumb|right|The [[Rock of Gibraltar]] is an example of a [[monolithic]] [[limestone]] [[promontory]]]]
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[[Image:Witchs Finger Carlsbad Caverns.jpg|left|thumb|[[The Witch's Finger]] stalagmite in [[Carlsbad Caverns]].]]
Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce [[tufa]] terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called [[speleothems]] are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.
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Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the [[tropics]], produces karst topography that includes a sharp ''makatea'' surface above the normal reach of the sea and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or [[bioerosion]] at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in [[Thailand]]'s [[Phangnga Bay]] and [[Halong Bay]] in [[Vietnam]].
 +
 
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[[image:Top of the Rock of Gibraltar.jpg|350px|thumb|right|The [[Rock of Gibraltar]] is an example of a [[monolithic]] [[limestone]] [[promontory]].]]
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Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce [[tufa]] terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called [[speleothems]] are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.
  
 
A karst river may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like [[Ljubljanica]], the river of seven names).
 
A karst river may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like [[Ljubljanica]], the river of seven names).
  
 
==Water drainage and problems==
 
==Water drainage and problems==
Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. [[Image:SourceDeLaLoue.jpg|thumb|300px|Source of the river [[Loue]], a karst spring.]]
 
  
A [[karst fenster]] is where an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, [[cascade]]s some feet, and then disappears back down, often into a [[sinkhole]]. There is an example of this in [[Lycoming County, Pennsylvania]].
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Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.
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[[Image:SourceDeLaLoue.jpg|thumb|300px|The source of the river [[Loue]] is a karst spring.]]
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A [[karst fenster]] is a place where an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, [[cascade]]s some feet, then disappears back down, often into a [[sinkhole]]. An example of this occurs in [[Lycoming County, Pennsylvania]].
  
 
Water supplies from [[water well|well]]s in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a [[sinkhole]] in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous [[aquifer]]. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered out.
 
Water supplies from [[water well|well]]s in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a [[sinkhole]] in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous [[aquifer]]. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered out.
  
[[Groundwater]] in karst areas is just as easily [[Water pollution|polluted]] as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community [[landfill|trash dumps]]. Overloaded or malfunctioning [[septic tank]]s in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.
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[[Groundwater]] in karst areas is just as easily [[Water pollution|polluted]] as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community [[landfill|trash dumps]]. Overloaded or malfunctioning [[septic tank]]s in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.
  
The karst topography itself also poses some difficuties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but quite often progressive [[erosion]] is unseen and the roof of an underground cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery.
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The karst topography itself also poses some difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but quite often progressive [[erosion]] is unseen and the roof of an underground cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery.
  
 
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The [[Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge]] in [[Iowa]] protects ''[[Discus macclintocki]]'', a species of [[Ice Age]] [[snail]] surviving in air chilled by flowing over buried karst ice formations.
The [[Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge]] in [[Iowa]] protects [[Discus macclintocki]], a species of [[ice age]] [[snail]] surviving in air chilled by flowing over buried karst ice formations.
 
  
 
== Pseudokarst ==
 
== Pseudokarst ==
''Pseudokarst'' refers to landscape features that are similar in form or appearance to karst features, but are created by different mechanisms.  Examples include [[lava]] caves and  [[granite]] [[tor (geography)|tors]] (for example [[Labertouche Cave]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]]), and [[paleocollapse]] features.
 
  
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''Pseudokarst'' refers to landscape features similar in form or appearance to karst features, but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include [[lava]] caves and [[granite]] [[tor (geography)|tors]] (such as [[Labertouche Cave]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]]), and [[paleocollapse]] features.
  
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== Karst areas around the world ==
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A partial list of karst areas around the world is given below.
  
== Partial list of karst areas==
 
 
===Africa===
 
===Africa===
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* [[Anjajavy Forest]], western [[Madagascar]]
 
* [[Anjajavy Forest]], western [[Madagascar]]
 
* [[Ankarana Reserve]], Madagascar
 
* [[Ankarana Reserve]], Madagascar
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===Asia===
 
===Asia===
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* [[The Stone Forest]] (Yunnan Province, China)
 
* [[The Stone Forest]] (Yunnan Province, China)
* Area around [[Guilin]] and [[Yangshuo]] in [[Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region]], China
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* Area around [[Guilin]] and [[Yangshuo]] in [[Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region]], China.
 
* [[Zhangjiajie]] National Forest park, forming part of the [[Wulingyuan]] scenic area (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]), Zhangjiajie Prefecture, [[Hunan]], [[China]].
 
* [[Zhangjiajie]] National Forest park, forming part of the [[Wulingyuan]] scenic area (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]), Zhangjiajie Prefecture, [[Hunan]], [[China]].
 
* [[Ofra]] region, [[Israel]].
 
* [[Ofra]] region, [[Israel]].
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===Caribbean===
 
===Caribbean===
* [[Limestone]] eastern foothills of [[Maya Mountains]] including parts of the [[Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary]]
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* [[Limestone]] eastern foothills of [[Maya Mountains]] including parts of the [[Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary]].
 
* [[List of national parks of Dominican Republic|Los Haitises National Park]], [[Dominican Republic]]
 
* [[List of national parks of Dominican Republic|Los Haitises National Park]], [[Dominican Republic]]
* Cockpit Country, a region in [[Geography of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
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* Cockpit Country, a region in [[Geography of Jamaica|Jamaica]].
 
* [[Limestone]] mountains of northwestern [[Geography of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
 
* [[Limestone]] mountains of northwestern [[Geography of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
* [[Viñales Valley]], [[Cuba]]
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* [[Viñales Valley]], [[Cuba]].
  
 
===Europe===
 
===Europe===
* The [[Herzegovina]] region of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
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* The regions of [[Dalmatia]], [[Lika]], [[Gorski kotar]], [[Kvarner]] and the islands in [[Croatia]]
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* The [[Herzegovina]] region of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]].
 +
* The regions of [[Dalmatia]], [[Lika]], [[Gorski kotar]], [[Kvarner]] and the islands in [[Croatia]].
 
* The [[Moravian Karst]]
 
* The [[Moravian Karst]]
* The Central [[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodope]] karst in [[Bulgaria]] ([[Trigrad Gorge]] and caves), the [[Devnya]] Valley (karst springs)
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* The Central [[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodope]] karst in [[Bulgaria]] ([[Trigrad Gorge]] and caves), the [[Devnya]] Valley (karst springs).
 
* The [[Apuseni Mountains]], [[Romania]]
 
* The [[Apuseni Mountains]], [[Romania]]
 
* [[Slovak Paradise]], [[Slovak Karst]] and [[Muránska planina]], [[Slovakia]]
 
* [[Slovak Paradise]], [[Slovak Karst]] and [[Muránska planina]], [[Slovakia]]
* The region of [[Inner Carniola]] in [[Slovenia]]
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* The region of [[Inner Carniola]] in [[Slovenia]].
* [[Kras]], a plateau in southwestern [[Slovenia]] and northeastern [[Italy]]
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* [[Kras]], a plateau in southwestern [[Slovenia]] and northeastern [[Italy]].
* [[Murge]], in [[Apulia]] and [[Basilicata]], southern Italy
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* [[Murge]], in [[Apulia]] and [[Basilicata]], southern Italy.
* The [[Picos de Europa]] and [[Basque mountains]], northern [[Spain]]
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* The [[Picos de Europa]] and [[Basque mountains]], northern [[Spain]].
* The [[Ciudad Encantada]] in the Cuenca province ([[Castilla-La Mancha]])
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* The [[Ciudad Encantada]] in the Cuenca province ([[Castilla-La Mancha]]).
* El [[Torcal de Antequera]] nature preserve, southern [[Spain]]
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* El [[Torcal de Antequera]] nature preserve, southern [[Spain]].
* The [[White Peak]] of the [[Peak District]], UK, around [[Matlock]], [[Castleton]], and [[Thor's Cave]]
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* The [[White Peak]] of the [[Peak District]], UK, around [[Matlock]], [[Castleton]], and [[Thor's Cave]].
* [[Yorkshire Dales]] (including [[Malham Cove]]), [[England]]  
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* [[Yorkshire Dales]] (including [[Malham Cove]]), [[England]].
 
* [[The Burren]] (Co.Clare, [[Ireland]])
 
* [[The Burren]] (Co.Clare, [[Ireland]])
 
* [[Assynt]], SE [[Skye]] and near [[Kentallen]] in [[Scotland]]
 
* [[Assynt]], SE [[Skye]] and near [[Kentallen]] in [[Scotland]]
 
* The limestone region of the Southern [[Brecon Beacons National Park]], [[Wales]]
 
* The limestone region of the Southern [[Brecon Beacons National Park]], [[Wales]]
 
* [[Hönne|Hönnetal]] at [[Balve]], [[Germany]]
 
* [[Hönne|Hönnetal]] at [[Balve]], [[Germany]]
* The [[Swabian Alb]] region in the federal state of [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in southern [[Germany]]
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* The [[Swabian Alb]] region in the federal state of [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in southern [[Germany]].
* The "Ares de l'[[Anie]], in the southernmost part of [[Barétous]] valley, South-West of [[France]]
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* The "Ares de l'[[Anie]], in the southernmost part of [[Barétous]] valley, South-West of [[France]].
 
* The [[Rock of Gibraltar]], located at the sothernmost tip of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].  
 
* The [[Rock of Gibraltar]], located at the sothernmost tip of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].  
  
 
===North America===
 
===North America===
* The [[Nahanni National Park Reserve|Nahanni]] region in the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Canada]]
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* [[Monkman Provincial Park]] in the Northern Rockies, [[Canada]]
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* The [[Nahanni National Park Reserve|Nahanni]] region in the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Canada]].
* Portions of the [[Niagara Escarpment]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
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* [[Monkman Provincial Park]] in the Northern Rockies, [[Canada]].
 +
* Portions of the [[Niagara Escarpment]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].
 
* The [[Viñales Valley]] in [[Cuba]]
 
* The [[Viñales Valley]] in [[Cuba]]
* The [[Cenote]]s of the [[Yucatan]] Peninsula, [[Mexico]]  
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* The [[Cenote]]s of the [[Yucatan]] Peninsula, [[Mexico]].
 
* The Mitchell Plain and Uplands of Southern [[Indiana]], [[United States|U.S.A]]
 
* The Mitchell Plain and Uplands of Southern [[Indiana]], [[United States|U.S.A]]
 
* [[Huntsville, Alabama]], and the North Alabama Region, [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* [[Huntsville, Alabama]], and the North Alabama Region, [[United States|U.S.A.]]
* [[Coulee Region]] in the [[United States|American]] [[Midwest]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
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* [[Coulee Region]] in the [[United States|American]] [[Midwest]], U.S.A.
 
* The [[Florida]] peninsula, [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* The [[Florida]] peninsula, [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* [[Mammoth Cave]] area and [[Bluegrass region]] of [[Kentucky]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* [[Mammoth Cave]] area and [[Bluegrass region]] of [[Kentucky]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
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* The Cumberland Plateau in Middle [[Tennessee]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* The Cumberland Plateau in Middle [[Tennessee]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* The [[Texas Hill Country|Hill Country]] of [[Texas]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
 
* The [[Texas Hill Country|Hill Country]] of [[Texas]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
* Central [[Pennsylvania]]
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* Central [[Pennsylvania]].
* [[Presque Isle County]] near and around [[Rogers City]] in northern [[Michigan]]
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* [[Presque Isle County]] near and around [[Rogers City]] in northern [[Michigan]].
* The campus of the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]]
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* The campus of the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]].
* The [[Shenandoah Valley|Shenandoah Valley of Virginia]]
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* The [[Shenandoah Valley|Shenandoah Valley of Virginia]].
  
 
===Oceania===
 
===Oceania===
 +
 
* [[Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park]], South-west [[Western Australia]] (near [[Margaret River]], [[Australia]]
 
* [[Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park]], South-west [[Western Australia]] (near [[Margaret River]], [[Australia]]
 
* Northern [[Swan Coastal Plain]], [[Perth]], [[Western Australia]], [[Australia]]
 
* Northern [[Swan Coastal Plain]], [[Perth]], [[Western Australia]], [[Australia]]
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* The [[Nakanai Mountains]], [[East New Britain]], [[Papua New Guinea]]
 
* The [[Nakanai Mountains]], [[East New Britain]], [[Papua New Guinea]]
  
==See also==
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* [[Karst field]]
 
* [[Glaciokarst]]
 
* [[Speleothem]]
 
* [[Speleology]]
 
* [[Foiba]]
 
* [[Limestone pavement]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
  
Jennings, J.N. ''Karst Geomorphology'' 2nd ed. Blackwell 1985
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* Ford, Derek, and Paul Williams. 2007. ''Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology''. Chichester, UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-0470849972
Sweeting, M.M. ''Karst Landforms'' Macmillan 1973
+
* Jennings, J.N. 1985. ''Karst Geomorphology''. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 063114031X
 +
* Sweeting, Marjorie Mary. 1973. ''Karst Landforms''. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231036238
  
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes
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==External links==
for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags—>
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All links retrieved October 5, 2022.
<div class="references-small">
 
<references />
 
</div>
 
  
==External links==
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*[http://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/carsologica/ Acta Carsologica] A journal with research papers and reviews in all fields related to karst.  
*[http://www.speleogenesis.info/glossary/index.php Speleogenesis and Karst Aquifers] - a large glossary of Karst related terms.
 
*[http://carsologica.zrc-sazu.si Acta Carsologica] - research papers and reviews in all the fields related to karst.
 
*[http://members.shaw.ca/karst.almighty Karst Almighty] - photos of surface karst.
 
  
[[Category:Karst caves]]
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[[Category:Physical sciences]]
[[Category:Landforms]]
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[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Cave geology]]
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[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Geomorphology]]
 
  
[[bg:Карст]]
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{{credit|138048916}}
[[ca:Relleu càrstic]]
 
[[cs:Kras]]
 
[[de:Karst (Geologie)]]
 
[[et:Karst]]
 
[[es:Karst]]
 
[[fr:Karst]]
 
[[id:Karst]]
 
[[it:Carsismo]]
 
[[he:קארסט]]
 
[[ja:カルスト地形]]
 
[[hu:Karszt]]
 
[[nl:Karst]]
 
[[no:Karst topografi]]
 
[[pl:Kras (geologia)]]
 
[[pt:Carste]]
 
[[ru:Карст]]
 
[[sk:Kras]]
 
[[sl:Kras]]
 
[[sv:Karst]]
 
[[vi:Carxtơ]]
 
[[tr:Karst]]
 
[[zh:喀斯特地形]]
 

Latest revision as of 20:16, 28 February 2023

A karst landscape.

Karst topography is a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the dissolution of a soluble layer or layers of bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. These landscapes display distinctive surface features and underground drainages, and in some cases there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as southern Missouri and northern Arkansas in the United States, are underlain by thousands of caves.

Definition

The karst hills of the Burren on the west coast of Ireland.

Different terms for karst topography exist in other languages—for example, yanrong in Chinese and tsingy in Malagasy—a notable exception being English (Jennings, Ch.1 p.1). The international community has settled on karst, the German name for Kras, a region in Slovenia partially extending into Italy where it is called Carso and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has Paleoeuropean origin (karra, meaning stone) and in antiquity it was called carusardius in Latin. The Slovenian form grast is attested since 1177, and the Croatian kras since 1230.

Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater. The Serbian geographer Jovan Cvijić's publication Das Karstphänomen (1893), based on his studies in the Dinaric Kras region, established that rock dissolution was the key process and that it created most types of dolines, "the diagnostic karst landforms." The Dinaric Kras thus became the type area for dissolutional landforms and aquifers; the regional name kras, Germanicized as "karst," is now applied to modern and paleo-dissolutional phenomena worldwide. Cvijić related the complex behavior of karst aquifers to development of solutional conduit networks and linked it to a cycle of landform evolution. Cvijić defined two main types of karst area, holokarst, wholly developed, as in the Dinaric region along the eastern Adriatic and deeper inland in the Balkan Peninsula and merokarst, imperfectly developed with some karst forms, as in eastern Serbia.

Chemistry of karst landscapes

Karst lake (Doberdo' del Lago, Italy), from underground water springing into a depression. This lake has no surface inlet or outlet.
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Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater

Karst landforms are generally the result of mildly acidic water acting on soluble bedrock such as limestone or dolostone. The carbonic acid that causes these features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up CO2, which dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that may provide further CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution: H2O + CO2 → H2CO3. Recent studies of sulfates in karst waters suggests sulfuric and hydrosulfuric acids may also play an important role in karst formation.

This mildly acidic water begins to dissolve the surface and any fractures or bedding planes in the limestone bedrock. Over time these fractures enlarge as the bedrock continues to dissolve. Openings in the rock increase in size, and an underground drainage system begins to develop, allowing more water to pass through and accelerating the formation of underground karst features.

Somewhat less common than this limestone karst is gypsum karst, where the solubility of the mineral gypsum provides many similar structures to the dissolution and redeposition of calcium carbonate.

Karst formations

Surface karst

The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large or small scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include flutes, runnels, clints and grikes, collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or dolines (closed basins), vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes and blind valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form.

The Witch's Finger stalagmite in Carlsbad Caverns.

Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's Phangnga Bay and Halong Bay in Vietnam.

The Rock of Gibraltar is an example of a monolithic limestone promontory.

Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.

A karst river may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like Ljubljanica, the river of seven names).

Water drainage and problems

Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.

The source of the river Loue is a karst spring.

A karst fenster is a place where an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, cascades some feet, then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. An example of this occurs in Lycoming County, Pennsylvania.

Water supplies from wells in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered out.

Groundwater in karst areas is just as easily polluted as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps. Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.

The karst topography itself also poses some difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but quite often progressive erosion is unseen and the roof of an underground cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery.

The Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge in Iowa protects Discus macclintocki, a species of Ice Age snail surviving in air chilled by flowing over buried karst ice formations.

Pseudokarst

Pseudokarst refers to landscape features similar in form or appearance to karst features, but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors (such as Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia), and paleocollapse features.

Karst areas around the world

A partial list of karst areas around the world is given below.

Africa

  • Anjajavy Forest, western Madagascar
  • Ankarana Reserve, Madagascar
  • Madagascar dry deciduous forests, western Madagascar
  • Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar

Asia

Caribbean

Europe

  • The Herzegovina region of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
  • The regions of Dalmatia, Lika, Gorski kotar, Kvarner and the islands in Croatia.
  • The Moravian Karst
  • The Central Rhodope karst in Bulgaria (Trigrad Gorge and caves), the Devnya Valley (karst springs).
  • The Apuseni Mountains, Romania
  • Slovak Paradise, Slovak Karst and Muránska planina, Slovakia
  • The region of Inner Carniola in Slovenia.
  • Kras, a plateau in southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy.
  • Murge, in Apulia and Basilicata, southern Italy.
  • The Picos de Europa and Basque mountains, northern Spain.
  • The Ciudad Encantada in the Cuenca province (Castilla-La Mancha).
  • El Torcal de Antequera nature preserve, southern Spain.
  • The White Peak of the Peak District, UK, around Matlock, Castleton, and Thor's Cave.
  • Yorkshire Dales (including Malham Cove), England.
  • The Burren (Co.Clare, Ireland)
  • Assynt, SE Skye and near Kentallen in Scotland
  • The limestone region of the Southern Brecon Beacons National Park, Wales
  • Hönnetal at Balve, Germany
  • The Swabian Alb region in the federal state of Baden-Wuerttemberg in southern Germany.
  • The "Ares de l'Anie, in the southernmost part of Barétous valley, South-West of France.
  • The Rock of Gibraltar, located at the sothernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula.

North America

Oceania


References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ford, Derek, and Paul Williams. 2007. Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology. Chichester, UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-0470849972
  • Jennings, J.N. 1985. Karst Geomorphology. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 063114031X
  • Sweeting, Marjorie Mary. 1973. Karst Landforms. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231036238

External links

All links retrieved October 5, 2022.

  • Acta Carsologica A journal with research papers and reviews in all fields related to karst.

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