Polk, James K.

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{{dablink|This article is about the United States President. For the Ohio Congressman, see [[James G. Polk]].  For the submarine, see [[USS James K. Polk]].}}
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{{epname|Polk, James K.}}
 
{{Infobox_President | name=James Knox Polk
 
{{Infobox_President | name=James Knox Polk
 
| nationality=american
 
| nationality=american
| image=polkpolk.jpg
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| image name=polkpolk.jpg
| wh image=Gw1.gif
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| wh image=Gw1.gif  
| order=11th [[President of the United States]]
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| order=11th President of the United States
| term_start=March 4, 1845
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| date1=March 4, 1845
| term_end=March 3, 1849<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. —>
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| date2=March 3, 1849
| predecessor=[[John Tyler]]
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| preceded=[[John Tyler]]
| successor=[[Zachary Taylor]]
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| succeeded=[[Zachary Taylor]]
| birth_date=November 2, 1795
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| date of birth=November 2, 1795
| birth_place=[[Mecklenburg County, North Carolina]]
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| place of birth=Mecklenburg County, North Carolina
| death_date=June 15, 1849
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| dead=dead
| death_place=[[Nashville, Tennessee]]
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| date of death=June 15, 1849
| spouse=[[Sarah Childress Polk]]
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| place of death=Nashville, Tennessee
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
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| wife=Sarah Childress Polk
| vicepresident=[[George M. Dallas]]
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| party=Democratic
| religion=[[Presbyterian]], [[Methodist]]
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}}
| signature=James K. Polk signature.gif
 
|}}
 
 
 
'''James Knox Polk''' (November 2 1795 &ndash; June 15 1849) was the eleventh [[President of the United States]], serving from March 4, 1845 to March 3, 1849. Polk was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina but mostly lived in and represented the state of Tennessee. A [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democrat]], Polk served as [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] (1835&ndash;1839) and governor of Tennessee (1839&ndash;1841) prior to becoming president. He is noted for his success in winning a war with Mexico and adding vast new territories. He lowered the tariff and established a treasury system that lasted until 1913. A "dark horse" in 1844, he fulfilled his promise to serve only one term, and died three months after his term ended.
 
  
His term is most notable for the largest expansion (in pure land area) of the nation's boundaries (exceeding even the [[Louisiana Purchase]]), through the negotiated establishment of the [[Oregon Territory]] and the purchase of 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million square kilometers) through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] that ended the [[Mexican-American War]]. The expansionism, however, opened a furious debate over slavery in the new territories that was resolved by the [[Compromise of 1850]]. He signed the [[Walker Tariff]] that brought an era of near free trade to the country until 1861. He oversaw the opening of the [[United States Naval Academy|U.S. Naval Academy]] and the [[Washington Monument]], and the issuance of the first [[postage stamp]]s in the United States. [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|Scholars]] rank him about #10-12 on the list of greatest presidents for his ability to set an agenda and achieve all of it.
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'''James Knox Polk''' (November 2, 1795 – June 15, 1849) was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1845, to March 3, 1849. Born in Mecklenburg County, [[North Carolina]], Polk lived most of his life in [[Tennessee]]. The last of the Jacksonian Democrats to achieve high office, Polk served as [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] (1835–1839) and governor of Tennessee (1839–1841) before becoming president. He is noted for his success in winning the war with Mexico and adding vast new territories to the young [[United States]]. He raised tariffs and established a treasury system that lasted until 1913.
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His time as U.S. president is most notable for the largest expansion in total land area of the nation's boundaries exceeding even the [[Louisiana Purchase]], through the negotiated establishment of the Oregon Territory and the purchase of 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million square kilometers) through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the [[Mexican-American War]]. The expansionism, however, opened a furious debate over slavery in the new territories and was in part resolved by the Compromise of 1850. He signed the Walker Tariff that brought an era of near free trade to the country until 1861. He oversaw the opening of the [[United States Naval Academy]] and the [[Washington Monument]], and the issuance of the first [[postage stamp]] in the United States. James Polk came into the presidency amid great turmoil with in his party. He wanted only to be nominated as vice president, but he won his party's nomination on the ninth ballot. As an offering to preserve the stability of the democratic party, Polk vowed to serve only one term. In his view, the presidency of the United States was not an office to be sought, but by the same token, not one to decline.  
  
 
==Early life==  
 
==Early life==  
[[Image:James K. Polk portrait.png|thumb|left|Portrait of Polk before his presidency.]]  
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[[Image:James K. Polk portrait.png|thumb|right|Portrait of Polk before his presidency.]]  
Polk, the first of ten children, was born on his family's 250 acre (100 ha) farm in what is now Pineville, North Carolina in Mecklenburg County. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder farmer, and surveyor of Scots-Irish descent, and related to Scottish nobility; his mother, Jane Polk (née Knox) was a descendant of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox. In 1806, the Polk family moved to Tennessee, settling near Duck River in what is now Maury County. The family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk becoming one of the leading planters of the area.
 
  
During his childhood, Polk suffered from poor health. In 1812, his father took him to Kentucky, where the famous surgeon Dr. Ephraim McDowell conducted an operation to remove urinary stones. The operation may have left him sterile. Polk did enjoy comparatively better health during the rest of his life.  
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James Polk was born Pineville, [[North Carolina]] in 1795. He was the oldest of ten children and suffered from poor health. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder farmer and surveyor. His mother, Jane Knox, was a descendant of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] religious reformer [[John Knox]]. In 1806, the Polk family moved to [[Tennessee]], settling near Duck River in what is now Maury County. The family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk becoming one of the leading planters of the area.  
  
Polk was home schooled; his formal education began at the age of 18, when he studied at Zion Church near his home. He later attended a school in Murfreesboro, where he met his future wife, Sarah Childress. After less than three years of attending the school, Polk left Tennessee to enroll in the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. While there, he practiced his oratorical skills as a member of the the Dialectic Society. He graduated in 1818 and returned to Nashville to study law under Felix Grundy. Polk was admitted to the bar in 1820, and established his own practice in Columbia, Tennessee.
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At age 17, Polk underwent what was then considered experimental [[surgery]] to remove [[gallstone]]s. This was a medically risky procedure in the early nineteenth century. Without the benefit of modern [[sterilization]], or [[anesthesia]], Polk remarkably survived the surgery. Because of his ill health, his education was informal until 1813, when he enrolled in a Presbyterian school in Columbia, Tennessee. Polk soon transferred to a more challenging school and, in 1816, returned to [[North Carolina]] to attend the University at Chapel Hill. The future president excelled, graduating with honors in 1818. He returned to Tennessee in 1819, where he studied law under [[Felix Grundy]], the leading lawyer in Nashville. There, in 1820, Polk began his own law practice.
  
==Career as slaveholder==
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==Political career==
Polk was a slaveholder for almost his entire adult life. His father Samuel left title to over 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) of land and about 53 slaves to his widow and his children; James inherited control over nine of his father's slaves, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending slaves to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Three years later he sold his Sommerville plantation and bought 920 acres (370 ha) of land, together with his brother-in-law, for a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi. He ran this plantation for the rest of his life, eventually taking it over completely from his brother-in-law. He infrequently bought more slaves and sold others, although once he became President and could better afford it, he bought more slaves. Polk's will stipulated that their slaves were to be [[manumission|manumitted]] after both he and his wife Sarah had died. The slaves, however, were freed by the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] before the death of his widow.
 
  
==Political career==
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Polk was brought up as a Jeffersonian Democrat, as his father and grandfather were strong supporters of [[Thomas Jefferson]]. The first public office Polk held was that of chief clerk of the Senate of Tennessee (1821–1823); he resigned the position in order to run his successful campaign for the state legislature. During his first term in the state legislature, he courted Sarah Childress. They married on January 1, 1824.  
Polk was brought up as a [[Jeffersonian democracy|Jeffersonian Democrat]], for his father and grandfather were strong supporters of [[Thomas Jefferson]]. The first public office he held was that of chief clerk of the Senate of Tennessee (1821&ndash;1823); he resigned the position in order to run his successful campaign for the state legislature. Polk's oratory became popular, earning him the nickname "Napoleon of the Stump." He courted [[Sarah Childress]], and they married on January 1, 1824.  
 
  
Polk became a supporter and close friend of [[Andrew Jackson]], then the leading politician of Tennessee. In 1824, Jackson [[U.S. presidential election, 1824|ran for President]], while Polk campaigned for the [[United States House election, 1824|House of Representatives]]. Polk succeeded, but Jackson was defeated. Though Jackson had won the [[popular vote]], neither he nor any of the other candidates ([[John Quincy Adams]], [[Henry Clay]], and [[William H. Crawford]]) had obtained a majority of the electoral vote, allowing the House of Representatives to select the victor. In his first speech, Polk expressed his belief that the House's decision to choose Adams was a violation of the will of the people; he even proposed (unsuccessfully) that the [[Electoral College]] be abolished.  
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Polk became a supporter and close friend of [[Andrew Jackson]], then the leading politician of Tennessee. In 1824, Jackson ran for President, and Polk campaigned for a seat in the House of Representatives. Polk succeeded, but Jackson was defeated. Though Jackson had won the popular vote, neither he nor any of the other candidates [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Henry Clay]], or William H. Crawford had obtained a majority of the electoral vote, allowing the [[House of Representatives]] to select the victor. In his first speech, Polk expressed his belief that the House's decision to choose Adams was a violation of the will of the people; he even proposed that the Electoral College be abolished.  
  
In [[History of the United States House of Representatives|Congress]], Polk was a firm supporter of [[Jacksonian democracy]]; he opposed the [[Second Bank of the United States]], favored gold and silver over paper money; distrusted banks; and preferred agricultural interests over industrial ones. This behavior earned him the nickname "Young Hickory," an allusion to Andrew Jackson's sobriquet, "Old Hickory." After Jackson defeated Adams in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1828|presidential election of 1828]], Polk rose in prominence, becoming the leader of the pro-Administration faction in Congress. As chairman of the powerful [[U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means|Ways and Means Committee]], he lent his support to the President in the conflict over the National Bank.  
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As a Congressman, Polk was a firm supporter of Jacksonian democracy. He opposed the Second Bank of the United States, favored [[gold]] and [[silver]] over paper money; expressly distrusted banks; and preferred [[agriculture|agricultural]] interests over [[industry]]. This behavior earned him the nickname "Young Hickory," an allusion to Andrew Jackson's sobriquet, "Old Hickory." After Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams in the presidential election of 1828, Polk rose in prominence, becoming the leader of the pro-Administration faction in Congress. As chairman of the powerful U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means, he lent his support to the President in the conflict over the National Bank.  
  
Soon after Polk became speaker in 1835, Jackson left office, to be succeeded by fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]]. Van Buren's term was a period of heated political rivalry between the Democrats and the [[United States Whig Party|Whigs]], with the latter often subjecting Polk to insults, invectives, and challenges to duels.
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Soon after Polk became speaker in 1835, Jackson left office, to be succeeded by fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]]. Van Buren's term was a period of heated political rivalry between the [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] and the [[United States Whig Party|Whigs]], with the latter often subjecting Polk to insults, invectives, and challenges to duels.
  
In 1838, the political situation in Tennessee&mdash;where, in 1835, Democrats had lost the governorship for the first time in their party's history&mdash;convinced Polk to return to help the party at home. Leaving Congress in 1839, Polk became a candidate in the Tennessee gubernatorial election, defeating fellow Democrat [[Newton Cannon]] by about 2,500 votes. Though he revitalized Democrats in Tennessee, his victory could not put a stop to the political decline of the Democratic Party elsewhere in the nation. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1840|presidential election of 1840]], Van Buren was overwhelmingly defeated by a popular Whig, [[William Henry Harrison]]. Polk lost his own gubernatorial re-election bid to a Whig, [[James C. Jones]], in 1841. He challenged Jones in 1843 but was defeated once again.
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In 1838, the political situation in Tennessee had changed. The Democratic Party lost the governorship three years earlier for the first time in the state's history. The Democrats were able to convince Polk to return to Tennessee. Leaving Congress in 1839, Polk became a candidate in the Tennessee gubernatorial election, narrowly defeating fellow Democrat Newton Cannon by 2,500 votes. Though he revitalized the party's standing in Tennessee, his victory could not put a stop to the decline of the Democratic Party elsewhere in the nation. In the presidential election of 1840, [[Martin Van Buren]] was overwhelmingly defeated by a popular Whig, [[William Henry Harrison]]. Polk lost his re-election bid to a Whig, James C. Jones. He challenged Jones in 1843, but was defeated once again.
  
 
==Election of 1844==
 
==Election of 1844==
 
[[image:ElectoralCollege1844-Large.png|thumb|300px|Presidential electoral votes by state.]]
 
[[image:ElectoralCollege1844-Large.png|thumb|300px|Presidential electoral votes by state.]]
  
{{main|United States presidential election, 1844}}
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Polk modestly had pinned his hopes on being nominated for vice-president at the Democratic National Convention, which began on May 27, 1844. The leading contender for the presidential nomination was former President [[Martin Van Buren]]; other candidates included Lewis Cass and [[James Buchanan]]. The primary point of political contention involved the Republic of Texas, which, after declaring independence from [[Mexico]] in 1836, had asked to join the [[United States]]. Van Buren opposed the annexation but in doing so lost the support of many Democrats, including former President [[Andrew Jackson]], who was still wielding great influence. On the convention's first ballot, Van Buren won a simple majority, but did not attain the two-thirds superiority required for nomination. After six more ballots were cast, it became clear that Van Buren would not win the required majority. Polk was put forth as a "dark horse" candidate. The eighth ballot was also indecisive, but on the ninth, the convention unanimously nominated Polk, who had by then garnered Jackson's support. Despite having served as speaker of the House of Representatives, he was largely unknown.
  
Polk initially hoped to be nominated for vice-president at the [[Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]], which began on May 27, 1844. The leading contender for the presidential nomination was former President Van Buren; other candidates included [[Lewis Cass]] and [[James Buchanan]]. The primary point of political contention involved the [[Republic of Texas]], which, after declaring independence from [[Mexico]] in 1836, had asked to join the United States. Van Buren opposed the annexation but in doing so lost the support of many Democrats, including former President [[Andrew Jackson]], who still had much influence. Van Buren won a simple majority on the convention's first ballot but did not attain the two-thirds [[supermajority]] required for nomination. After six more ballots, when it became clear that Van Buren would not win the required majority, Polk was put forth as a "[[dark horse]]" candidate. The eighth ballot was also indecisive, but on the ninth, the convention unanimously nominated Polk, who had Jackson's support. Despite having served as speaker of the House of Representatives, he was relatively unknown, leading many Whigs to snipe, "Who is James K. Polk?"
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When advised of his nomination, Polk replied: "It has been well observed that the office of President of the United States should neither be sought nor declined. I have never sought it, nor should I feel at liberty to decline it, if conferred upon me by the voluntary suffrages of my fellow citizens." Because the Democratic Party was splintered into bitter factions, Polk promised to serve only one term if elected, hoping that his disappointed rival Democrats would unite behind him with the knowledge that another candidate would be chosen in four years.
 
 
When advised of his nomination, Polk replied: "It has been well observed that the office of President of the United States should neither be sought nor declined. I have never sought it, nor should I feel at liberty to decline it, if conferred upon me by the voluntary [[suffrage]]s of my fellow citizens." Because the Democratic Party was splintered into bitter factions, Polk promised to serve only one term if elected, hoping that his disappointed rival Democrats would unite behind him with the knowledge that another candidate would be chosen in four years.<!--Haynes p.61-2—>
 
  
 
[[Image:Polk Dallas campaign banner.jpg|thumb|1844 campaign banner]]
 
[[Image:Polk Dallas campaign banner.jpg|thumb|1844 campaign banner]]
Polk's Whig opponent in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1844|1844 presidential election]] was [[Henry Clay]] of [[Kentucky]]. (Incumbent Whig President [[John Tyler]]&mdash;a former Democrat&mdash;had become estranged from the Whigs and was not nominated for a second term.) The question of the [[Texas Annexation|annexation of Texas]], which was at the forefront during the Democratic Convention, once again dominated the campaign. Polk was a strong proponent of immediate annexation, while Clay seemed more equivocal and vacillating.   
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Polk's Whig opponent in the U.S. presidential election, 1844 was Henry Clay of [[Kentucky]]. Incumbent Whig President [[John Tyler]]; a former Democrat; had become estranged from the Whigs and was not nominated for a second term. The question of the Texas Annexation, which was at the forefront during the Democratic Convention, once again dominated the campaign. Polk was a strong proponent of immediate annexation, while Clay presented a more equivocal and vacillating position.   
  
Another campaign issue, also relating to westward expansion, involved the [[Oregon Country]], then under the joint occupation of the United States and [[Great Britain]]. The Democrats had championed the cause of expansion, informally linking the controversial Texas annexation issue with a claim to the entire Oregon Country, thus appealing to both Northern and Southern expansionists. (The slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight", often incorrectly attributed to the 1844 election, did not appear until later; see [[Oregon boundary dispute]].) Polk's consistent support for westward expansion&mdash;what Democratic advocate [[John L. O'Sullivan]] would soon call "[[Manifest Destiny]]"&mdash;likely played an important role in his victory, as opponent [[Henry Clay]] hedged his position.
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Another campaign issue, also relating to westward expansion, involved the Oregon Country, then under the joint occupation of the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. The Democrats had championed the cause of expansion, informally linking the controversial Texas annexation issue with a claim to the entire Oregon Country, thus appealing to both Northern and Southern expansionists. Polk's support for westward expansion was consistent, what Democrat advocate John L. O'Sullivan would call "[[Manifest Destiny]]"; and likely played an important role in his victory, as opponent Henry Clay hedged his position on this as well.
  
In the election, Polk won in the [[United States South|South]] and [[United States West|West]], while Clay drew support in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]]. Polk lost both his home state of [[Tennessee]] and his birth state of [[North Carolina]]. Polk won the crucial state of [[New York]], where Clay lost supporters to the third-party candidate [[James G. Birney]]. Polk won the popular vote by a margin of about 38,000 out of 2.6 million, and took the Electoral College with 170 votes to Clay's 105. Polk was the first, and still the only, former Speaker of the House of Representatives to be elected President.
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In the election, Polk won in the South and West, while Clay drew support in the Northeast. Polk lost both his home state of Tennessee and his birth state of North Carolina. Polk won the crucial state of New York, where Clay lost supporters to the third-party candidate James G. Birney. Polk won the popular vote by a margin of about 38,000 out of 2.6 million, and took the Electoral College with 170 votes to Clay's 105. Polk was the first, and as yet the only, former [[Speaker of the House of Representatives]] to be elected President.
  
 
==Presidency 1845-1849==
 
==Presidency 1845-1849==
When he took office on March 4, 1845, Polk, at 49, became the youngest man to assume the presidency up to his time. According to a story told decades later by [[George Bancroft]], Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: the re-establishment of the [[Independent Treasury System]], the reduction of [[Tariff in American history|tariff]]s, acquisition of some or all the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], and the purchase of [[California]] from Mexico. Resolved to serve only one term, he accomplished all these objectives in just four years.  By linking new lands in Oregon (with no slavery) and Texas (with slavery) he hoped to satisfy both North and South.
 
  
===Fiscal policy===
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When he took office on March 4, 1845 as the eleventh president, Polk, at 49, became the youngest man to assume the presidency up to that time. According to a story told decades later by George Bancroft, Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: The re-establishment of the Independent Treasury System, the reduction of [[tariff]]s, acquisition of some or all land involved in the Oregon boundary dispute, and the purchase of California from [[Mexico]]. Resolved to serve only one term, he accomplished all these objectives in just four years.  By linking new lands in the Oregon territories with no slavery and Texas with slavery he hoped to satisfy both North and South.  
In 1846, Congress approved the [[Walker tariff|Walker Tariff]] (named after [[Robert J. Walker]], the [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]), which represented a substantial reduction of the high Whig-backed [[Tariff of 1842]]. The new law abandoned ''[[ad valorem]]'' tariffs; instead, rates were made independent of the monetary value of the product. Polk's actions were popular in the South and West; however, they earned him the contempt of many [[protectionism|protectionists]] in [[Pennsylvania]].  
 
  
In 1846, Polk approved a law restoring the [[Independent Treasury System]], under which government funds were held in the Treasury, rather than in banks or other financial institutions.  
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In 1846, Congress approved the [[Walker tariff]], named after Robert J. Walker, the United States Secretary of the Treasury. The tariff represented a substantial reduction of the Whig-backed Tariff of 1842. The new law abandoned ''ad valorem'' tariffs; instead, rates were made independent of the monetary value of the product. Polk's actions were popular in the South and West; however, they earned him the contempt of many protectionists in [[Pennsylvania]].
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In 1846, Polk approved a law restoring the Independent Treasury System, under which government funds were held in the Treasury, rather than in banks or other financial institutions.  
  
 
===Slavery===
 
===Slavery===
Polk's views on slavery made his presidency bitterly controversial between proponents of slavery, opponents of slavery, and advocates of compromise, and the effect of his own career as a plantation slaveholder on his policymaking has been argued. During his presidency many [[abolitionism|abolitionists]] harshly criticized him as an instrument of the "[[Slave Power]]," and claimed that the expansion of [[slavery]] lay behind his support for [[Texas Annexation|the annexation of Texas]] and later [[Mexican-American War|war with Mexico]]. Polk stated in his diary that he believed slavery could not exist in the territories won from Mexico{{fact}}, but refused to endorse the [[Wilmot Proviso]]. Polk argued instead for extending the [[Missouri Compromise]] line to the [[Pacific Ocean]], which would prohibit the expansion of slavery above 36° 30' west of [[Missouri]], but allow it below that line if approved by eligible voters in the territory.
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Polk's views on slavery made his presidency bitterly controversial among the proponents of slavery, its opponents, and the advocates of compromise. The effect of his own career as a plantation slaveholder on his policymaking has been argued. During his presidency many [[abolitionism|abolitionists]] harshly criticized him as an instrument of the "Slave Power," and claimed that the expansion of [[slavery]] lay behind his support for the annexation of Texas and subsequent [[Mexican-American War]]. Polk's diary reveals that he believed slavery could not exist in the territories won from Mexico, but refused to endorse the [[Wilmot Proviso]]. Polk argued instead for extending the [[Missouri Compromise]] line all the way to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. This would have prohibited the expansion of slavery north of 36° 30' and west of Missouri, but allow it below that latitude if approved by eligible voters in the territory.
  
 
===Foreign policy===
 
===Foreign policy===
Polk was committed to expansion&mdash;Democrats believed that opening up more farms for yeoman farmers was critical for the success of republican virtue. (See [[Manifest Destiny]].) To avoid the sort of sectional battles that had prevented annexation of the Republic of Texas, he sought new territory in the north. That meant a strong demand for all or part of the disputed Oregon territory (comprising present-day Oregon, [[Washington]], and [[British Columbia]]), as well as Texas. He sought to purchase California, which Mexico had neglected.
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Polk was committed to expansion; Democrats believed that opening up more farms for yeoman farmers was critical for the success of republican virtue. To avoid the sort of sectional battles that had prevented annexation of the [[Republic of Texas]], he sought new territory in the north. That meant a strong demand for all or part of the disputed Oregon territory, as well as Texas. Polk then sought to purchase California, which Mexico had neglected.
  
 
====Texas====
 
====Texas====
{{main|Texas Annexation}}
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President Tyler had interpreted Polk's victory as a mandate for the annexation of Republic of Texas. Acting quickly because he feared British designs on Texas, Tyler urged Congress to pass a joint resolution admitting Texas to the [[United States|Union]]; Congress complied on February 28, 1845. Texas promptly accepted the offer and officially became a state on December 29, 1845.  The annexation angered Mexico, however, which had succumbed to heavy British pressure and had offered Texas its semi-independence on the condition that it should not attach itself to any other nation. Mexican politicians had repeatedly warned that annexation meant war.
President Tyler had interpreted Polk's victory as a mandate for the annexation of [[Republic of Texas|Texas]]. Acting quickly because he feared British designs on Texas, Tyler urged Congress to pass a [[joint resolution]] admitting Texas to the [[United States|Union]]; Congress complied on February 28, 1845. Texas promptly accepted the offer and officially became a state on December 29, 1845.  The annexation angered Mexico, however, which had succumbed to heavy British pressure and had offered Texas its semi-independence on the condition that it should not attach itself to any other nation. Mexican politicians had repeatedly warned that annexation meant war.
 
  
====Oregon territory====
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===Oregon territory===
{{main|Oregon boundary dispute}}
 
 
[[Image:Wpdms oregon territory 1848.png|frame|The [[Oregon Territory]], established by the [[Oregon Treaty]].]]
 
[[Image:Wpdms oregon territory 1848.png|frame|The [[Oregon Territory]], established by the [[Oregon Treaty]].]]
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Polk also sought to address the Oregon boundary dispute. Since 1818, the territory had been under the joint occupation and control of [[Great Britain]] and the [[United States]]. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the 49th parallel, which was not acceptable to the British, who had commercial interests along the Columbia River. Although the Democratic platform had asserted a claim to the entire region, Polk was prepared to quietly compromise. When the British again refused to accept the 49th parallel boundary proposal, Polk broke off negotiations and returned to the "All Oregon" position of the Democratic platform, which escalated tensions along the border.
  
Polk also sought to address the [[Oregon boundary dispute]]. Since 1818, the territory had been under the joint occupation and control of Great Britain and the United States. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], which was not acceptable to the British, who had commercial interests along the [[Columbia River]]. Although the Democratic platform had asserted a claim to the entire region, Polk was prepared to quietly compromise. When the British again refused to accept the 49th parallel boundary proposal, Polk broke off negotiations and returned to the "All Oregon" position of the Democratic platform, which escalated tensions along the border.  
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Polk was not prepared to wage war with the British, however, and agreed to compromise with the British Foreign Secretary, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen. The [[Oregon Treaty of 1846]] divided the Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, the original American proposal. Although there were many who still clamored for the whole of the territory, the treaty was approved by the Senate. The portion of Oregon territory acquired by the United States would later form the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, and parts of the states of Montana and Wyoming.
  
Expansionists offered slogans like "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" This slogan, often associated with Polk, was in fact the position of his rivals in the Democratic Party, who wanted Polk to be as uncompromising in acquiring the Oregon territory as he had been in annexing Texas. Polk was not prepared to wage war with the British, however, and agreed to compromise with the British Foreign Secretary, [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]]. The [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846 divided the Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, the original American proposal. Although there were many who still clamored for the whole of the territory, the treaty was approved by the Senate. The portion of Oregon territory acquired by the United States would later form the states of Washington, Oregon, and [[Idaho]], and parts of the states of [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]].
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===War with Mexico===
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After the Texas annexation, Polk turned his attention to California, hoping to acquire the territory from [[Mexico]] before any European nation did so. The main interest was [[San Francisco]] Bay as an access point for trade with Asia. In 1845, he sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California and New Mexico for $30 million. Slidell's arrival caused political turmoil in Mexico after word leaked out that he was there to purchase additional territory and not to offer compensation for the loss of [[Texas]]. The Mexicans refused to receive Slidell, citing a technical problem with his credentials. Meanwhile, to increase pressure on Mexico to negotiate, in January 1846, Polk sent troops under General [[Zachary Taylor]] into the area between the Nueces River and the [[Rio Grande River]]; territory that was claimed by both Texas and Mexico.
  
====War with Mexico====
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Days after Slidell's return, Polk received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed eleven American soldiers. Polk now made this the ''casus belli,'' and in a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, he stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." He did not point out that the territory in question was disputed and did not unequivocally belong to the United States. Several congressmen expressed doubts about Polk's version of events, but Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war, with many Whigs fearing that opposition would cost them politically. In the House, anti-slavery Whigs led by [[John Quincy Adams]] voted against the war. Among Democrats, Senator [[John C. Calhoun]] was the most notable opponent of the declaration.
{{Main|Mexican-American War}}
 
  
After the Texas annexation, Polk turned his attention to [[California]], hoping to acquire the territory from Mexico before any European nation did so. The main interest was [[San Francisco Bay]] as an access point for trade with [[Asia]]. In 1845, he sent diplomat [[John Slidell]] to Mexico to purchase California and [[New Mexico]] for $30 million. Slidell's arrival caused political turmoil in Mexico after word leaked out that he was there to purchase additional territory and not to offer compensation for the loss of Texas. The Mexicans refused to receive Slidell, citing a technical problem with his credentials. Meanwhile, to increase pressure on Mexico to negotiate, in January 1846 Polk sent troops under General [[Zachary Taylor]] into the area between the [[Nueces River]] and the [[Rio Grande]]&mdash;territory that was claimed by both Texas and Mexico.
+
[[Image:Wpdms_mexican_cession.jpg|frame|right|The Mexican Cession (in red), acquired through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]. The [[Gadsden Purchase]] (in yellow) was acquired later in 1853 through purchase.]]
 +
By the summer of 1846, New Mexico had been conquered by American forces under General Stephen W. Kearny. Meanwhile, Army captain John C. Frémont led settlers in northern California to overthrow the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, was having success on the Rio Grande River. The [[United States]] also negotiated a secret arrangement with [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into [[Mexico]], he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to drive the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott destroyed all resistance.
  
Slidell returned to Washington in May 1846, having been rebuffed by the Mexican government. Polk regarded this treatment of his diplomat as an insult and an "ample cause of war",<!--Haynes p. 129 —> and he prepared to ask Congress for a declaration of war. Serendipitously, mere days before he intended to make his request to Congress, Polk received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed eleven American troops. Polk now made this the ''[[casus belli]]'', and in a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, he stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." He did not point out that the territory in question was disputed and did not unequivocally belong to the United States. Several congressmen expressed doubts about Polk's version of events, but Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war, with many Whigs fearing that opposition would cost them politically. In the House, anti-slavery Whigs led by [[John Quincy Adams]] voted against the war; among Democrats, Senator [[John C. Calhoun]] was the most notable opponent of the declaration.
+
Polk sent diplomat Nicholas Trist to negotiate with Mexico. Trist successfully negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3.1  million square kilometers) of territory to the [[United States]]; Mexico's size was halved, the United States increased by a third. California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming were all carved from the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognized the annexation of Texas and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million ($297 million in 2005) for the land, which was half the same offer made by the United States for the land prior to the war. Under great duress, Mexico accepted the offer. The war involved less than 20,000 American casualties but more than 50,000 Mexican casualties. It cost the United States nearly $100 million including the money given Mexico.
 
 
[[Image:Wpdms_mexican_cession.jpg|frame|right|The [[Mexican Cession]] (in red), acquired through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]. The [[Gadsden Purchase]] (in yellow) acquired through purchase.]]
 
 
 
By the summer of 1846, New Mexico had been conquered by American forces under General [[Stephen W. Kearny]]. Meanwhile, Army captain [[John C. Frémont]] led settlers in northern California to overthrow the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, was having success on the Rio Grande. The United States also negotiated a secret arrangement with [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into Mexico, he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to drive the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as generals Zachary Taylor and [[Winfield Scott]] destroyed all resistance.
 
 
 
Polk sent diplomat [[Nicholas Trist]] to negotiate with the Mexicans. Lack of progress prompted the President to order Trist to return to the United States, but the diplomat ignored the instructions and stayed in Mexico to continue bargaining. Trist successfully negotiated the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3.1  million square kilometers) of territory to the United States; Mexico's size was halved, whilst that of the United States increased by a third. California, [[New Mexico]], [[Arizona]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], and parts of [[Colorado]] and Wyoming were all carved from the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognized the annexation of Texas (and so the Mexican Cession includes the land annexed) and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the [[Nueces River]] and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million. The war involved less than 20,000 American casualties but over 50,000 Mexican casualties. It had cost the United States nearly $100 million.
 
 
 
Congressman [[Abraham Lincoln]] challenged the factual claims made by President Polk about the boundary, claiming it was indeterminant and should not have been a cause of war. <ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=020/llcg020.db&recNum=102 Congressional Globe, 30th Session (1848) pp.93-95]</ref> In January 1848, the Whigs won a House vote censuring Polk in an amendment to a resolution praising Major General Zachary for his service in a "war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States".  <ref>http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(hj04321)) House Journal, 30th Session (1848) pp.183-184]</ref>. The resolution, however, died in committee. The Whigs who had been so opposed to Polk's policy in January 1848 suddenly changed position in the summer. Two-thirds of the Whigs in the Senate voted for Polk's treaty that ended the war and acquired vast new lands (most of New Mexico, Arizona and California). Later in 1848, the Whigs nominated [[Zachary Taylor]], the hero of the war, for president. Taylor said there would be no future wars, but he refused to criticize Polk, who kept his promise not to run for reelection. The Whigs therefore dropped their criticism of the war and turned their attention to the issue of slavery in the new territories, which Polk insisted during the war both to other congressmen and in his diary had never been a war goal.
 
  
 
===Administration and Cabinet===
 
===Administration and Cabinet===
 
 
[[Image:Jp11.gif|thumb|right|Official [[White House]] portrait of James K. Polk]]  
 
[[Image:Jp11.gif|thumb|right|Official [[White House]] portrait of James K. Polk]]  
 
 
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
 
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
 
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
 
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
Line 115: Line 99:
 
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
 
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''James K. Polk'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"|President of the United States||align="left" |'''James K. Polk'''||align="left"|1845–1849
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[George M. Dallas]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"|Vice President of the United States||align="left"|'''George M. Dallas'''||align="left"|1845–1849
 
|-
 
|-
 
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
 
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[James Buchanan]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"|United States Secretary of State||align="left"|'''[[James Buchanan]]'''||align="left"|1845–1849
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert J. Walker]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"|United States Secretary of the Treasury||align="left"|'''Robert J. Walker'''||align="left"|1845–1849
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[William L. Marcy]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"|United States Secretary of War||align="left"|'''William L. Marcy'''||align="left"|1845–1849
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[John Y. Mason]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1846
+
|align="left"|Attorney General of the United States||align="left"|'''John Y. Mason'''||align="left"|1845–1846
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Nathan Clifford]]'''||align="left"|1846&ndash;1848
+
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''Nathan Clifford'''||align="left"|1846–1848
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Isaac Toucey]]'''||align="left"|1848&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''Isaac Toucey'''||align="left"|1848–1849
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Cave Johnson]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"|Postmaster General of the United States||align="left"|'''Cave Johnson'''||align="left"|1845–1849
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[George Bancroft]]'''||align="left"|1845&ndash;1846
+
|align="left"|United States Secretary of the Navy||align="left"|'''George Bancroft'''||align="left"|1845–1846
 
|-
 
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John Y. Mason]]'''||align="left"|1846&ndash;1849
+
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''John Y. Mason'''||align="left"|1846–1849
 
|}
 
|}
 
<br clear="all">
 
<br clear="all">
  
 
===Supreme Court appointments===
 
===Supreme Court appointments===
Polk appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]]:
+
Polk appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
  
*'''[[Levi Woodbury]]''' &ndash; 1845
+
*'''Levi Woodbury'''–1845
*'''[[Robert Cooper Grier]]''' &ndash; 1846
+
*'''Robert Cooper Grier'''–1846
  
 
===Congress===
 
===Congress===
'''[[29th Congress]]''' (March 4, 1845 &ndash; March 3, 1847)
+
29th Congress''' (March 4, 1845–March 3, 1847)
  [[U.S. Senate|Senate]]: 31 Democrats, 31 Whigs, 1 Other  
+
U.S. Senate: 31 Democrats, 31 Whigs, 1 Other  
  [[U.S. House of Representatives|House]]: 143 Democrats, 77 Whigs, 6 Others
+
U.S. House of Representatives: 143 Democrats, 77 Whigs, 6 Others
  
'''[[30th Congress]]''' (March 4, 1847 &ndash; March 3, 1849)
+
30th Congress''' (March 4, 1847–March 3, 1849)
  [[U.S. Senate|Senate]]: 36 Democrats, 21 Whigs, 1 Other  
+
U.S. Senate: 36 Democrats, 21 Whigs, 1 Other  
  [[U.S. House of Representatives|House]]: 115 Whigs, 108 Democrats, 4 Others
+
U.S. House of Representatives: 115 Whigs, 108 Democrats, 4 Others
  
 
===States admitted to the Union===  
 
===States admitted to the Union===  
*'''[[Texas]]''' &ndash; 1845  
+
*'''Texas'''–1845  
*'''[[Iowa]]''' &ndash; 1846
+
*'''Iowa'''–1846
*'''[[Wisconsin]]''' &ndash; 1848
+
*'''Wisconsin'''–1848
  
 
==Post-presidency==
 
==Post-presidency==
 +
 
[[Image:James K Polk Tomb.jpg|thumb|150px|right|James K. Polk's tomb lies on the grounds of the state capitol in Nashville, Tennessee.]]
 
[[Image:James K Polk Tomb.jpg|thumb|150px|right|James K. Polk's tomb lies on the grounds of the state capitol in Nashville, Tennessee.]]
Polk's considerable political accomplishments took their toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the White House on March 4, 1849, exhausted by his years of public service. He lost weight and had deep lines and dark circles on his face. He is believed to have contracted cholera in New Orleans, Louisiana on a good will tour of the South. He died at his new home, Polk Place, in Nashville, Tennessee, at 3:15 p.m. on June 15, 1849. Polk's devotion to his wife is illustrated by his last words: "I love you, Sarah. For all eternity, I love you." She lived at Polk Place for over forty years after his passing, a retirement longer than that of any other First Lady of the United States. She died on August 14, 1891.
+
Polk's considerable political accomplishments took their toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the White House on March 4, 1849, exhausted by his years of public service. He lost weight and had deep lines and dark circles on his face. He is believed to have contracted [[cholera]] in New Orleans, [[Louisiana]] on a good will tour of the South. He died at his new home, Polk Place, in Nashville, [[Tennessee]], at 3:15 p.m. on June 15, 1849, with his wife Sarah at his side. She lived at Polk Place for over forty years after his passing, a retirement longer than that of any other First Lady of the United States. She died on August 14, 1891. President and Mrs. Polk are buried in a tomb on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol Building.
  
Polk had the shortest life of all Presidents, except [[James Garfield]] and [[John F. Kennedy]], both of whom were assassinated during their presidencies.  His death, 103 days after leaving the White House, makes him the former president with the shortest period of post-presidency life in U.S. history.
+
==References==
 
 
He and his wife are buried in a tomb on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol Building, in Nashville.
 
 
 
==Legacy==
 
Polk's primary legacy is the huge amount of territory acquired by the United States during his administration. His name is forever associated with [[Manifest Destiny]]&mdash;the idea that it was the United States' divine mission to [[History of United States continental expansion|expand westward]]. Polk was the first president after [[James Monroe]] to significantly apply the [[Monroe Doctrine]], which asserted that the Americas should be free from European colonization or other interference. Polk is sometimes regarded as the first effective wartime president, conducting the Mexican War more capably than [[James Madison]] had done in the [[War of 1812]]. Political partisanship was intense during Polk's administration, however, and he was not a popular president. He has fared better with historical hindsight, and in surveys many [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|historians rate]] Polk as a near-great president. In these surveys, Polk is usually the highest ranked president who served only one full term, and the highest ranked in the era between [[Andrew Jackson]] and [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Despite this, he remains a relatively obscure figure among the U.S. public.
 
 
 
Polk's role in the outbreak of the Mexican-American War has been the subject of much criticism. Some historians have concluded that he deliberately provoked a war of conquest; others suggest that he pursued a policy of [[brinkmanship]] which spiraled out of control. Furthermore, his uncompromising pursuit of Texas and California contributed to the growing mistrust between North and South in the United States, helping pave the way for the [[Origins of the American Civil War|coming of the American Civil War]] in 1861.
 
 
 
Several United States counties are named after Polk. These include Polk County, Iowa, established in 1845, where the state capital, Des Moines, sits. Polk County, Oregon, was originally established in 1845. Polk County in Northwest Georgia, was founded in 1851. Polk County, Florida was founded ten years later in 1861. Polk County, Nebraska was the fourth county founded West of the Missouri River in 1870. Polk County, Missouri, founded in 1835, was originally named in honor of Polk's grandfather, [[Revolutionary War]] hero Ezekiel Polk. When the [[Missouri]] legislature acted to create the county, they chose to honor James K. Polk, then speaker of the House.
 
 
 
Polk is the subject of a song, "James K. Polk," by American rock group [[They Might Be Giants]]. It originally appeared on their 1990 [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Istanbul (Not Constantinople) (EP)|Istanbul (Not Constantinople)]]'' as a [[B-side]], and later appeared with the same lyrics but a different musical arrangement on their 1996 album ''[[Factory Showroom]]''. The song is a mostly accurate account of his presidential nomination and subsequent career, ending with a lament of his continued obscurity.
 
 
 
==See also==
 
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1844]]
 
* [[List of places named for James K. Polk]]
 
 
 
==Footnotes==
 
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
 
  
==References==
+
* Bergeron, Paul H. ''The Presidency of James K. Polk.'' Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1987. ISBN 0700603190   
* Bergeron, Paul H. ''The Presidency of James K. Polk'' Lawrence, Kan. : University Press of Kansas, c1987 ISBN 0700603190   
+
* Dusinberre, William. ''Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195157354   
* Dusinberre, William ''Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk'' New York : Oxford University Press, 2003 ISBN 0195157354   
+
* Dusinberre, William. "President Polk and the Politics of Slavery," ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 2002 3(1): pp.1-16.
* Dusinberre, William "President Polk and the Politics of Slavery", ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 2002 3(1): pp.1-16. ISSN 1466-4658. Argues Polk misrepresented the strength of abolitionism, grossly exaggerated the likelihood of slaves' massacring white families, and seemed to condone secession.
+
* Eisenhower, John S. D. "The Election of James K. Polk, 1844," ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' 1994 53(2): pp.74-87.
* Eisenhower, John S. D. "The Election of James K. Polk, 1844", ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' 1994 53(2): pp.74-87. ISSN 0040-3261
+
* Haynes, Sam W. ''James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse.'' New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. ISBN 0321370740  
* Haynes, Sam W. ''James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse'' New York : Pearson Longman, c2006 ISBN 0321370740  
+
* Kornblith, Gary J. "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise," ''Journal of American History'' 2003 90(1): pp.76-105. ISSN 0021-8723  
* Kornblith, Gary J. "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise", ''Journal of American History'' 2003 90(1): pp.76-105. ISSN 0021-8723 Asks what if Polk had not gone to war?
+
* Leonard, Thomas M. ''James K. Polk: A Clear and Unquestionable Destiny.'' Wilmington, Del.: S.R. Books, 2001. ISBN 0842026479   
* Leonard, Thomas M. ''James K. Polk: A Clear and Unquestionable Destiny'' Wilmington, Del. : S.R. Books, c2001 ISBN 0842026479   
+
* McCormac, Eugene Irving. ''James K. Polk: A Political Biography.'' 2 v., Newton, CT: American Political Biography Press, 1995.  
* McCormac, Eugene Irving ''James K. Polk: A Political Biography'' 2 v., Newton, CT : American Political Biography Press, 1995  
+
* McCoy, Charles A. ''Polk and the Presidency.'' New York: Haskell House Publishers, 1973. ISBN 0838316867  
** "To the prelude of war, 1795-1845" ISBN 0945707096 (v. 1)
+
* Seigenthaler, John. ''James K. Polk.'' New York: Times Books, 2004. ISBN 0805069429  
** "To the end of a career, 1845-1849" ISBN 094570710X (v. 2)
+
* Morrison, Michael A. "Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of Texas Annexation," ''Journal of Southern History'' 1995 61(4): pp.695-724.  
* McCoy, Charles A. ''Polk and the Presidency'' New York, Haskell House Publishers, 1973 ISBN 0838316867  
+
* Sellers, Charles. ''James K. Polk, Jacksonian, 1795-1843.'' (v.1) and ''James K. Polk, Continentalist, 1843-1846.'' (v.2) Norwalk, Conn.: Easton Press, 1987.
*[[John Seigenthaler Sr.|Seigenthaler, John]]. ''James K. Polk'' New York : Times Books, 2004 ISBN 0805069429  
 
* Morrison, Michael A. "Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of Texas Annexation", ''Journal of Southern History'' 1995 61(4): pp.695-724. ISSN 0022-4642 on election of 1844
 
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC15799162&id=Ff2XRHSDkA4C&pg=PR14&dq=schouler+history Schouler, James. '' History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 4. 1831-1847. Democrats and Whigs'' (1917) online]
 
* Sellers, Charles. ''James K. Polk, Jacksonian, 1795-1843'' (v.1) and ''James K. Polk, Continentalist, 1843-1846'' (v.2) Norwalk, Conn. : Easton Press, c1987
 
  
 
===Primary sources===
 
===Primary sources===
* Polk, James K. ''The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845-1849'' edited by Milo Milton Quaife, 4 vols. Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1910,
+
* Polk, James K. ''The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845-1849'' edited by Milo Milton Quaife, 4 vols. Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1910.
** ''Polk; the diary of a president, 1845-1849, covering the Mexican War, the acquisition of Oregon, and the conquest of California and the Southwest'' London, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1929 abridged edition by Allan Nevins  
+
* ''Polk; the diary of a president, 1845-1849, covering the Mexican War, the acquisition of Oregon, and the conquest of California and the Southwest'' London, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1929 abridged edition by Allan Nevins.
* Cutler, Wayne, et. al. ''Correspondence of James K. Polk'' 10 vol., Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1969-<2004>; University of Tennessee Press, 2004 ISBN 1572333049 scholarly edition of the complete correspondence to and from Polk.
+
* Cutler, Wayne, et. al. ''Correspondence of James K. Polk'' 10 vol., Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1969, 2004; University of Tennessee Press, 2004. ISBN 1572333049
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
{{Commons}}
+
All links retrieved March 18, 2018.
{{wikiquote}}
+
*[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/polk.asp Inaugural Address of James K. Polk.]  
{{wikisource author}}
+
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-1.html First State of the Union Address (1845).]  
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/polk.htm Inaugural Address of James K. Polk.]
+
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-2.html Second State of the Union Address (1846).]  
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jp11.html Biography of James K. Polk. The White House (Official Site).]
+
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-3.html Third State of the Union Address (1847).]  
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-1.html First State of the Union Address (1845).]
+
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-4.html Fourth State of the Union Address (1848).]  
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-2.html Second State of the Union Address (1846).]
+
* [http://fair-use.org/the-liberator/1849/06/22/the-death-of-president-polk Obituary of President Polk in ''The Liberator'' (June 22, 1849).]  
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-3.html Third State of the Union Address (1847).]
 
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/polk-4.html Fourth State of the Union Address (1848).]
 
* {{gutenberg author| id=James+K.+Polk | name=James K. Polk}}
 
* [http://fair-use.org/the-liberator/1849/06/22/the-death-of-president-polk Obituary of President Polk in ''The Liberator'' (June 22, 1849)]
 
*[http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/lesson_plans/borders/start.html Smithsonian's "Establishing Borders: The Expansion of the United States, 1846-48" with essay and lesson plans]  
 
  
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| after=Balie Peyton
 
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| before=William Fitzgerald
 
| after=Harvey Magee Watterson
 
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| title= Chairman of the United States House Committee on Ways and Means
 
| before=Gulian Verplanck
 
| after=Churchill Cambreleng
 
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| title=Speaker of the United States House of Representatives
 
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| after=Robert M.T. Hunter
 
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| title=Governor of Tennessee
 
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| title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominees]]
 
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| title=[[President of the United States]]
 
| before=[[John Tyler]]
 
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| years=March 4, 1845 &ndash; March 3, 1849
 
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[[Category:History and biography]]
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[[Category:Politicians and reformers]]
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Revision as of 20:49, 18 March 2018

James Knox Polk
James Knox Polk
11th President of the United States
Term of office March 4, 1845 – March 3, 1849
Preceded by John Tyler
Succeeded by Zachary Taylor
Date of birth November 2, 1795
Place of birth Mecklenburg County, North Carolina
Date of death June 15, 1849
Place of death Nashville, Tennessee
Spouse Sarah Childress Polk
Political party Democratic

James Knox Polk (November 2, 1795 – June 15, 1849) was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1845, to March 3, 1849. Born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, Polk lived most of his life in Tennessee. The last of the Jacksonian Democrats to achieve high office, Polk served as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (1835–1839) and governor of Tennessee (1839–1841) before becoming president. He is noted for his success in winning the war with Mexico and adding vast new territories to the young United States. He raised tariffs and established a treasury system that lasted until 1913.

His time as U.S. president is most notable for the largest expansion in total land area of the nation's boundaries exceeding even the Louisiana Purchase, through the negotiated establishment of the Oregon Territory and the purchase of 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million square kilometers) through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War. The expansionism, however, opened a furious debate over slavery in the new territories and was in part resolved by the Compromise of 1850. He signed the Walker Tariff that brought an era of near free trade to the country until 1861. He oversaw the opening of the United States Naval Academy and the Washington Monument, and the issuance of the first postage stamp in the United States. James Polk came into the presidency amid great turmoil with in his party. He wanted only to be nominated as vice president, but he won his party's nomination on the ninth ballot. As an offering to preserve the stability of the democratic party, Polk vowed to serve only one term. In his view, the presidency of the United States was not an office to be sought, but by the same token, not one to decline.

Early life

Portrait of Polk before his presidency.

James Polk was born Pineville, North Carolina in 1795. He was the oldest of ten children and suffered from poor health. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder farmer and surveyor. His mother, Jane Knox, was a descendant of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox. In 1806, the Polk family moved to Tennessee, settling near Duck River in what is now Maury County. The family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk becoming one of the leading planters of the area.

At age 17, Polk underwent what was then considered experimental surgery to remove gallstones. This was a medically risky procedure in the early nineteenth century. Without the benefit of modern sterilization, or anesthesia, Polk remarkably survived the surgery. Because of his ill health, his education was informal until 1813, when he enrolled in a Presbyterian school in Columbia, Tennessee. Polk soon transferred to a more challenging school and, in 1816, returned to North Carolina to attend the University at Chapel Hill. The future president excelled, graduating with honors in 1818. He returned to Tennessee in 1819, where he studied law under Felix Grundy, the leading lawyer in Nashville. There, in 1820, Polk began his own law practice.

Political career

Polk was brought up as a Jeffersonian Democrat, as his father and grandfather were strong supporters of Thomas Jefferson. The first public office Polk held was that of chief clerk of the Senate of Tennessee (1821–1823); he resigned the position in order to run his successful campaign for the state legislature. During his first term in the state legislature, he courted Sarah Childress. They married on January 1, 1824.

Polk became a supporter and close friend of Andrew Jackson, then the leading politician of Tennessee. In 1824, Jackson ran for President, and Polk campaigned for a seat in the House of Representatives. Polk succeeded, but Jackson was defeated. Though Jackson had won the popular vote, neither he nor any of the other candidates John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, or William H. Crawford had obtained a majority of the electoral vote, allowing the House of Representatives to select the victor. In his first speech, Polk expressed his belief that the House's decision to choose Adams was a violation of the will of the people; he even proposed that the Electoral College be abolished.

As a Congressman, Polk was a firm supporter of Jacksonian democracy. He opposed the Second Bank of the United States, favored gold and silver over paper money; expressly distrusted banks; and preferred agricultural interests over industry. This behavior earned him the nickname "Young Hickory," an allusion to Andrew Jackson's sobriquet, "Old Hickory." After Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams in the presidential election of 1828, Polk rose in prominence, becoming the leader of the pro-Administration faction in Congress. As chairman of the powerful U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means, he lent his support to the President in the conflict over the National Bank.

Soon after Polk became speaker in 1835, Jackson left office, to be succeeded by fellow Democrat Martin Van Buren. Van Buren's term was a period of heated political rivalry between the Democrats and the Whigs, with the latter often subjecting Polk to insults, invectives, and challenges to duels.

In 1838, the political situation in Tennessee had changed. The Democratic Party lost the governorship three years earlier for the first time in the state's history. The Democrats were able to convince Polk to return to Tennessee. Leaving Congress in 1839, Polk became a candidate in the Tennessee gubernatorial election, narrowly defeating fellow Democrat Newton Cannon by 2,500 votes. Though he revitalized the party's standing in Tennessee, his victory could not put a stop to the decline of the Democratic Party elsewhere in the nation. In the presidential election of 1840, Martin Van Buren was overwhelmingly defeated by a popular Whig, William Henry Harrison. Polk lost his re-election bid to a Whig, James C. Jones. He challenged Jones in 1843, but was defeated once again.

Election of 1844

Presidential electoral votes by state.

Polk modestly had pinned his hopes on being nominated for vice-president at the Democratic National Convention, which began on May 27, 1844. The leading contender for the presidential nomination was former President Martin Van Buren; other candidates included Lewis Cass and James Buchanan. The primary point of political contention involved the Republic of Texas, which, after declaring independence from Mexico in 1836, had asked to join the United States. Van Buren opposed the annexation but in doing so lost the support of many Democrats, including former President Andrew Jackson, who was still wielding great influence. On the convention's first ballot, Van Buren won a simple majority, but did not attain the two-thirds superiority required for nomination. After six more ballots were cast, it became clear that Van Buren would not win the required majority. Polk was put forth as a "dark horse" candidate. The eighth ballot was also indecisive, but on the ninth, the convention unanimously nominated Polk, who had by then garnered Jackson's support. Despite having served as speaker of the House of Representatives, he was largely unknown.

When advised of his nomination, Polk replied: "It has been well observed that the office of President of the United States should neither be sought nor declined. I have never sought it, nor should I feel at liberty to decline it, if conferred upon me by the voluntary suffrages of my fellow citizens." Because the Democratic Party was splintered into bitter factions, Polk promised to serve only one term if elected, hoping that his disappointed rival Democrats would unite behind him with the knowledge that another candidate would be chosen in four years.

1844 campaign banner

Polk's Whig opponent in the U.S. presidential election, 1844 was Henry Clay of Kentucky. Incumbent Whig President John Tyler; a former Democrat; had become estranged from the Whigs and was not nominated for a second term. The question of the Texas Annexation, which was at the forefront during the Democratic Convention, once again dominated the campaign. Polk was a strong proponent of immediate annexation, while Clay presented a more equivocal and vacillating position.

Another campaign issue, also relating to westward expansion, involved the Oregon Country, then under the joint occupation of the United States and Great Britain. The Democrats had championed the cause of expansion, informally linking the controversial Texas annexation issue with a claim to the entire Oregon Country, thus appealing to both Northern and Southern expansionists. Polk's support for westward expansion was consistent, what Democrat advocate John L. O'Sullivan would call "Manifest Destiny"; and likely played an important role in his victory, as opponent Henry Clay hedged his position on this as well.

In the election, Polk won in the South and West, while Clay drew support in the Northeast. Polk lost both his home state of Tennessee and his birth state of North Carolina. Polk won the crucial state of New York, where Clay lost supporters to the third-party candidate James G. Birney. Polk won the popular vote by a margin of about 38,000 out of 2.6 million, and took the Electoral College with 170 votes to Clay's 105. Polk was the first, and as yet the only, former Speaker of the House of Representatives to be elected President.

Presidency 1845-1849

When he took office on March 4, 1845 as the eleventh president, Polk, at 49, became the youngest man to assume the presidency up to that time. According to a story told decades later by George Bancroft, Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: The re-establishment of the Independent Treasury System, the reduction of tariffs, acquisition of some or all land involved in the Oregon boundary dispute, and the purchase of California from Mexico. Resolved to serve only one term, he accomplished all these objectives in just four years. By linking new lands in the Oregon territories with no slavery and Texas with slavery he hoped to satisfy both North and South.

In 1846, Congress approved the Walker tariff, named after Robert J. Walker, the United States Secretary of the Treasury. The tariff represented a substantial reduction of the Whig-backed Tariff of 1842. The new law abandoned ad valorem tariffs; instead, rates were made independent of the monetary value of the product. Polk's actions were popular in the South and West; however, they earned him the contempt of many protectionists in Pennsylvania.

In 1846, Polk approved a law restoring the Independent Treasury System, under which government funds were held in the Treasury, rather than in banks or other financial institutions.

Slavery

Polk's views on slavery made his presidency bitterly controversial among the proponents of slavery, its opponents, and the advocates of compromise. The effect of his own career as a plantation slaveholder on his policymaking has been argued. During his presidency many abolitionists harshly criticized him as an instrument of the "Slave Power," and claimed that the expansion of slavery lay behind his support for the annexation of Texas and subsequent Mexican-American War. Polk's diary reveals that he believed slavery could not exist in the territories won from Mexico, but refused to endorse the Wilmot Proviso. Polk argued instead for extending the Missouri Compromise line all the way to the Pacific Ocean. This would have prohibited the expansion of slavery north of 36° 30' and west of Missouri, but allow it below that latitude if approved by eligible voters in the territory.

Foreign policy

Polk was committed to expansion; Democrats believed that opening up more farms for yeoman farmers was critical for the success of republican virtue. To avoid the sort of sectional battles that had prevented annexation of the Republic of Texas, he sought new territory in the north. That meant a strong demand for all or part of the disputed Oregon territory, as well as Texas. Polk then sought to purchase California, which Mexico had neglected.

Texas

President Tyler had interpreted Polk's victory as a mandate for the annexation of Republic of Texas. Acting quickly because he feared British designs on Texas, Tyler urged Congress to pass a joint resolution admitting Texas to the Union; Congress complied on February 28, 1845. Texas promptly accepted the offer and officially became a state on December 29, 1845. The annexation angered Mexico, however, which had succumbed to heavy British pressure and had offered Texas its semi-independence on the condition that it should not attach itself to any other nation. Mexican politicians had repeatedly warned that annexation meant war.

Oregon territory

The Oregon Territory, established by the Oregon Treaty.

Polk also sought to address the Oregon boundary dispute. Since 1818, the territory had been under the joint occupation and control of Great Britain and the United States. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the 49th parallel, which was not acceptable to the British, who had commercial interests along the Columbia River. Although the Democratic platform had asserted a claim to the entire region, Polk was prepared to quietly compromise. When the British again refused to accept the 49th parallel boundary proposal, Polk broke off negotiations and returned to the "All Oregon" position of the Democratic platform, which escalated tensions along the border.

Polk was not prepared to wage war with the British, however, and agreed to compromise with the British Foreign Secretary, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 divided the Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, the original American proposal. Although there were many who still clamored for the whole of the territory, the treaty was approved by the Senate. The portion of Oregon territory acquired by the United States would later form the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, and parts of the states of Montana and Wyoming.

War with Mexico

After the Texas annexation, Polk turned his attention to California, hoping to acquire the territory from Mexico before any European nation did so. The main interest was San Francisco Bay as an access point for trade with Asia. In 1845, he sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California and New Mexico for $30 million. Slidell's arrival caused political turmoil in Mexico after word leaked out that he was there to purchase additional territory and not to offer compensation for the loss of Texas. The Mexicans refused to receive Slidell, citing a technical problem with his credentials. Meanwhile, to increase pressure on Mexico to negotiate, in January 1846, Polk sent troops under General Zachary Taylor into the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande River; territory that was claimed by both Texas and Mexico.

Days after Slidell's return, Polk received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed eleven American soldiers. Polk now made this the casus belli, and in a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, he stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." He did not point out that the territory in question was disputed and did not unequivocally belong to the United States. Several congressmen expressed doubts about Polk's version of events, but Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war, with many Whigs fearing that opposition would cost them politically. In the House, anti-slavery Whigs led by John Quincy Adams voted against the war. Among Democrats, Senator John C. Calhoun was the most notable opponent of the declaration.

The Mexican Cession (in red), acquired through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Gadsden Purchase (in yellow) was acquired later in 1853 through purchase.

By the summer of 1846, New Mexico had been conquered by American forces under General Stephen W. Kearny. Meanwhile, Army captain John C. Frémont led settlers in northern California to overthrow the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, was having success on the Rio Grande River. The United States also negotiated a secret arrangement with Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into Mexico, he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to drive the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott destroyed all resistance.

Polk sent diplomat Nicholas Trist to negotiate with Mexico. Trist successfully negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million square kilometers) of territory to the United States; Mexico's size was halved, the United States increased by a third. California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming were all carved from the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognized the annexation of Texas and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million ($297 million in 2005) for the land, which was half the same offer made by the United States for the land prior to the war. Under great duress, Mexico accepted the offer. The war involved less than 20,000 American casualties but more than 50,000 Mexican casualties. It cost the United States nearly $100 million including the money given Mexico.

Administration and Cabinet

File:Jp11.gif
Official White House portrait of James K. Polk
OFFICE NAME TERM
President of the United States James K. Polk 1845–1849
Vice President of the United States George M. Dallas 1845–1849
United States Secretary of State James Buchanan 1845–1849
United States Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker 1845–1849
United States Secretary of War William L. Marcy 1845–1849
Attorney General of the United States John Y. Mason 1845–1846
Nathan Clifford 1846–1848
Isaac Toucey 1848–1849
Postmaster General of the United States Cave Johnson 1845–1849
United States Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft 1845–1846
John Y. Mason 1846–1849


Supreme Court appointments

Polk appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

  • Levi Woodbury–1845
  • Robert Cooper Grier–1846

Congress

29th Congress (March 4, 1845–March 3, 1847) U.S. Senate: 31 Democrats, 31 Whigs, 1 Other U.S. House of Representatives: 143 Democrats, 77 Whigs, 6 Others

30th Congress (March 4, 1847–March 3, 1849) U.S. Senate: 36 Democrats, 21 Whigs, 1 Other U.S. House of Representatives: 115 Whigs, 108 Democrats, 4 Others

States admitted to the Union

  • Texas–1845
  • Iowa–1846
  • Wisconsin–1848

Post-presidency

James K. Polk's tomb lies on the grounds of the state capitol in Nashville, Tennessee.

Polk's considerable political accomplishments took their toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the White House on March 4, 1849, exhausted by his years of public service. He lost weight and had deep lines and dark circles on his face. He is believed to have contracted cholera in New Orleans, Louisiana on a good will tour of the South. He died at his new home, Polk Place, in Nashville, Tennessee, at 3:15 p.m. on June 15, 1849, with his wife Sarah at his side. She lived at Polk Place for over forty years after his passing, a retirement longer than that of any other First Lady of the United States. She died on August 14, 1891. President and Mrs. Polk are buried in a tomb on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol Building.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bergeron, Paul H. The Presidency of James K. Polk. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1987. ISBN 0700603190
  • Dusinberre, William. Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195157354
  • Dusinberre, William. "President Polk and the Politics of Slavery," American Nineteenth Century History 2002 3(1): pp.1-16.
  • Eisenhower, John S. D. "The Election of James K. Polk, 1844," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 1994 53(2): pp.74-87.
  • Haynes, Sam W. James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse. New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. ISBN 0321370740
  • Kornblith, Gary J. "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise," Journal of American History 2003 90(1): pp.76-105. ISSN 0021-8723
  • Leonard, Thomas M. James K. Polk: A Clear and Unquestionable Destiny. Wilmington, Del.: S.R. Books, 2001. ISBN 0842026479
  • McCormac, Eugene Irving. James K. Polk: A Political Biography. 2 v., Newton, CT: American Political Biography Press, 1995.
  • McCoy, Charles A. Polk and the Presidency. New York: Haskell House Publishers, 1973. ISBN 0838316867
  • Seigenthaler, John. James K. Polk. New York: Times Books, 2004. ISBN 0805069429
  • Morrison, Michael A. "Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of Texas Annexation," Journal of Southern History 1995 61(4): pp.695-724.
  • Sellers, Charles. James K. Polk, Jacksonian, 1795-1843. (v.1) and James K. Polk, Continentalist, 1843-1846. (v.2) Norwalk, Conn.: Easton Press, 1987.

Primary sources

  • Polk, James K. The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845-1849 edited by Milo Milton Quaife, 4 vols. Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1910.
  • Polk; the diary of a president, 1845-1849, covering the Mexican War, the acquisition of Oregon, and the conquest of California and the Southwest London, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1929 abridged edition by Allan Nevins.
  • Cutler, Wayne, et. al. Correspondence of James K. Polk 10 vol., Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1969, 2004; University of Tennessee Press, 2004. ISBN 1572333049

External links

All links retrieved March 18, 2018.

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