Difference between revisions of "Holy Spirit" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg|thumb|left|The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the ''[[Cathedra|Cathedra Petri]] in [[St Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]].]]
 
The '''Holy Spirit''' is a theological term referring simply to the spirit of God in Judaism and to the Third Person of the Holy Trinity in Christianity. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or [[pneumatology]], was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed. For this reason, there is greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son ([[christology]]) and understandings of the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually refered to as the "Third Person" of the Triune God - with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.
 
The '''Holy Spirit''' is a theological term referring simply to the spirit of God in Judaism and to the Third Person of the Holy Trinity in Christianity. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or [[pneumatology]], was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed. For this reason, there is greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son ([[christology]]) and understandings of the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually refered to as the "Third Person" of the Triune God - with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.
  
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==Second Person of the Trinity==
 
==Second Person of the Trinity==
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[[Image:Treenigheten, fransk miniatyr från 1300-talet.jpg|thumb|200px|The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a French miniature from the fourteenth century]]
 
In orthodox Christianity, the Holy Spirit came to be seen as a distinct person from God the Father and God the Son. Scripturally, clearest basis for this doctrine is seen in the triadic formula for baptism—"in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost"—in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19)
 
In orthodox Christianity, the Holy Spirit came to be seen as a distinct person from God the Father and God the Son. Scripturally, clearest basis for this doctrine is seen in the triadic formula for baptism—"in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost"—in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19)
  
 
This formula can also be seen in second-century Christian writings such as the [[Didache]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[Tertullian]] (c.160-c.225) and third century writers such as [[Hippolytus (c.170-c.236), Cyprian (d.258), and Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270). It apparently became a fixed expression soon.
 
This formula can also be seen in second-century Christian writings such as the [[Didache]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[Tertullian]] (c.160-c.225) and third century writers such as [[Hippolytus (c.170-c.236), Cyprian (d.258), and Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270). It apparently became a fixed expression soon.
  
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The exact nature of Holy Spirit and its relationship to the other components of the Godhead became a matter of significant debate within the Christian community. Many, especially Jews and possibly Jewish Christians, criticized the early trinitarian notion as teaching "three gods" instead of one. In order to safeguard monotheism, a theological movement called "[[Monarchianism]]." Tertullian countered this trend by maintaining that the Father, Son, and Holy spirit are neither one and the same nor separate, but rather merely "distinct" from one another. Tertullian started used the expression of "three persons" (''tres personae'' in Latin). The Latin word ''persona'' in those days meant legal ownership or a mask used at the theater, not necessarily a distinct self-conscious being. Thus three distinct "persons" are still of "one substance" (''una substantia'' in Latin). It was in this context that Tertullian also used the word ''trinitas''.  
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The exact nature of Holy Spirit and its relationship to the other components of the Godhead became a matter of significant debate within the Christian community. Many, especially Jews and possibly Jewish Christians, criticized the early trinitarian notion as teaching "three gods" instead of one. In order to safeguard monotheism, a theological movement called "[[Monarchianism]]." Tertullian countered this trend by maintaining that the Father, Son, and Holy spirit are neither one and the same nor separate, but rather merely "distinct" from one another. [[Image:Tertullian.JPG|thumb|left|Tertullian of Carthage]] Tertullian started used the expression of "three persons" (''tres personae'' in Latin). The Latin word ''persona'' in those days meant legal ownership or a mask used at the theater, not necessarily a distinct self-conscious being. Thus three distinct "persons" are still of "one substance" (''una substantia'' in Latin). It was in this context that Tertullian also used the word ''trinitas''.  
  
 
The terms Tertullian coined, ''una substantia'' and ''tres personae'', considerably influenced the Councils of Nicea (325) and of Constantinople (381). Constantinople established the ''consubstantiality'' (being of one substance) of the Holy Spirit with the Father and Son against the heresy of [[Semi-Arianism]]. Constantinople also mentioned that the Holy Spirit was not "created" but "proceeded" from the Father. Thus, the Holy Spirit was now firmly established as the Third Person of the Trinity.
 
The terms Tertullian coined, ''una substantia'' and ''tres personae'', considerably influenced the Councils of Nicea (325) and of Constantinople (381). Constantinople established the ''consubstantiality'' (being of one substance) of the Holy Spirit with the Father and Son against the heresy of [[Semi-Arianism]]. Constantinople also mentioned that the Holy Spirit was not "created" but "proceeded" from the Father. Thus, the Holy Spirit was now firmly established as the Third Person of the Trinity.
  
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==Various Christian views==
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==Views of the Holy Spirit==
 
A great controversy would later arise between the Catholic and Orthodox churches regarding the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Son. Other denominations hold a variety of views regarding the Holy Spirit.
 
A great controversy would later arise between the Catholic and Orthodox churches regarding the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Son. Other denominations hold a variety of views regarding the Holy Spirit.
 
===Roman Catholicism===
 
===Roman Catholicism===
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[[Image:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.png|thumb|"Shield Trinity" diagram of the Western, or Roman Catholic, Trinity]]
 
The Roman Catholic version of the Nicene Creed reads:  "We believe in the Holy Spirit ... who proceeds from the Father and the Son." The addition of "and the son" was strongly objected to by the Orthodox Church, which eventually declared it a heresy, leading ultimately to the Great Schism between Catholicism and Orthodox in 1054.
 
The Roman Catholic version of the Nicene Creed reads:  "We believe in the Holy Spirit ... who proceeds from the Father and the Son." The addition of "and the son" was strongly objected to by the Orthodox Church, which eventually declared it a heresy, leading ultimately to the Great Schism between Catholicism and Orthodox in 1054.
  
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Although Protestant churches have diverse views about the Holy Spirit, most are basically trinitarian in nature, affirming the Nicene Creed's belief that the Holy Spirit is a distinct "person" yet sharing the same substance with God the Father and God the Son. Some Protestant churches and movements, however, place unique emphasis on the Holy Spirit or hold particular views about the Holy Spirit that set them apart from the norm.
 
Although Protestant churches have diverse views about the Holy Spirit, most are basically trinitarian in nature, affirming the Nicene Creed's belief that the Holy Spirit is a distinct "person" yet sharing the same substance with God the Father and God the Son. Some Protestant churches and movements, however, place unique emphasis on the Holy Spirit or hold particular views about the Holy Spirit that set them apart from the norm.
  
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====Pentecostalism====
 
 
[[Pentecostalism]] derives its name from the event of [[Pentecost]], the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]]. The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts [[glossolalia|speaking in tongues]]. Many Pentecostals hold that the "[[baptism of the Holy Spirit]]" is distinct the Christian regeneration from the "born-again" experience of conversion or baptism. Some believe that Holy Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation.
 
[[Pentecostalism]] derives its name from the event of [[Pentecost]], the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]]. The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts [[glossolalia|speaking in tongues]]. Many Pentecostals hold that the "[[baptism of the Holy Spirit]]" is distinct the Christian regeneration from the "born-again" experience of conversion or baptism. Some believe that Holy Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation.
  
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====Dispensationalism====
 
 
[[Dispensationalism]] teaches that the current time is the Age of the Spirit, or church age. In this view, the [[Old Testament]] Age was the the Age of the Father; the period of Jesus' ministry was the Age of the Son; and the period from Pentecost until the [[Second Coming]]is the Age of the Spirit, or the church age.
 
[[Dispensationalism]] teaches that the current time is the Age of the Spirit, or church age. In this view, the [[Old Testament]] Age was the the Age of the Father; the period of Jesus' ministry was the Age of the Son; and the period from Pentecost until the [[Second Coming]]is the Age of the Spirit, or the church age.
  
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====Femininity of the Holy Spirit====
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===Non-Trinitarian views===
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There are numerous Jewish and Christian groups consider that the gender of the Holy Spirit is feminine. Some early Christians apparently took this view. For example, in the [[Gospel of Thomas]] speaks of the Holy Spirit as feminine, and the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] refers to "my mother, the Holy Spirit."
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In the belief of many [[nontrinitarian]] religions — [[Christadelphians]], [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] [[Latter Day Saints]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. Some Christadelphians believe that the Holy Spirit / Comforter is in fact an Angel <ref>http://www.aletheiacollege.net/angels/angels13.htm</ref>.
  
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Some groups to the fact that the Hebrew word for Spirit, ''ruach'', is feminine. Among these are the [[Branch Davidian]] Seventh day Adventists.
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[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the name "Holy Spirit" has many references, depending on its usage and the context in which it appears. The term "Holy Spirit" can denote the Holy Ghost, the Spirit of God, Spirit of the Lord, Spirit of Christ, or even Spirit of Truth. Latter-day Saints teach that these terms are distinct from one another, showing the many aspects and/or functions of God. The Holy Spirit has a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone. Although Mormons affirm a belief in the Trinity, in this version of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son—not a distinct "person" with the same "substance."
  
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Several groups groups also see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, Male and Female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. 1:20). The [[Unification Church]] affirms this, and also teaches that if Jesus had not been crucified, he would have take a Bride in whom the Holy Spirit would have incarnated in much the same way that the Christ incarnated in Jesus. However, in this view, the person of Jesus was not constubstantial with the Father, nor was the Holy Spirit. The ideal man could have be realized in Adam, and he and Eve together would have realized a Trinity with God. Moreover, all human beings are potentially capable of realizing this same Trinity; and the church's founder, the Reverend and Mrs. Sun Myung Moon, have succeeded in doing so.
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[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] teach that out<ref>http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm</ref> the Holy Spirit is not a "person" or a divine member of the Godhead. At [[baptism of Jesus|Jesus' baptism]] in (Matthew 3:16), Jesus received God's spirit, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Also Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in (Acts 7:55, 56), where he sees only the Son and God in heaven. The Holy Spirit is thus the spiritual power of God, not a distinct person.
  
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The B'nai Yashua Synagogues Worldwide<ref>http://yourarmstoisrael.org/BYSW/directory/</ref> headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, also holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. [http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=what_is][http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=Who_RuachHaKadosh2]
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===Femininity of the Holy Spirit===
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[[Image:Koronacja NMP.jpg|thumb|250px|The Holy Spirit, as a dove, and Mary as its particular agent]]
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Numerous Christian or Christian-oriented groups consider that the gender of the Holy Spirit is feminine. Some early Christians apparently took this view. For example, in the [[Gospel of Thomas]] speaks of the Holy Spirit as feminine, and the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] refers to "my mother, the Holy Spirit."
  
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There are also some other independent Messianic groups with similar teachings. Some examples include [http://www.joyintheworld.info Joy In the World][http://www.joyintheworld.info/teachings/ruachkodesh.html]; [http://www.tntrevealed.org/radioshow.cfm?c=27&l=33 The Torah and Testimony Revealed]&nbsp;[http://www.tntrevealed.org/qanda.cfm?c=7]; and [http://www.nazarene.net/html The Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues]&nbsp;[http://www.unjs.org/], who also count as canonical the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' Mother [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Hebrews#Content].
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Historically, Coptic Christianity saw the Holy Spirit as the Mother, while regarding the two persons of the Trinity as the Father and Son. So did Zinzendorf (1700-1760), the founder of Moravianism. More recently, Catholic scholars such as [[Willi Moll]], [[Franz Mayr]], and [[Lena Boff]] have also characterized the Holy Spirit as feminine. Numerous Catholic artworks have made a special connection between the Holy Spirit an the Virgin Mary, implying a feminine aspect to the Holy Spirit.
  
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==Depiction in art==
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The [[Unity Church]]'s co-founder [[Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|Charles Fillmore]] also considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God.
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{{seealso|Language of the birds}}
 
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[[Image:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg|thumb|right|The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the ''[[Cathedra|Cathedra Petri]] in [[St Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]].]]
 
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The Holy Spirit is often [[Icon|depicted]] as a [[dove]], based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when He was baptized in the [[Jordan River|Jordan]].  In many paintings of the [[Annunciation]], the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as  the [[Angel]] [[Gabriel]]'s announces [[Christ]]'s coming to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]].  A dove may also be seen at the ear of [[Saint Gregory the Great]] - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.  
 
  
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The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to [[Noah]] after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the [[presence of God]].
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<blockquote>Holy Spirit is the love of Jehovah taking care of the human family, and love is always feminine. Love is the great harmonizer and healer, and whoever calls upon God as Holy Spirit for healing is calling upon the divine love.  (''Jesus Christ Heals'', pp. 182-183)</blockquote>
  
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The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the [[apostle]]s at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.
+
Some groups point to the fact that the Hebrew word for Spirit, ''ruach'', is feminine. Among these are the [[Branch Davidian]] Seventh day Adventists.
  
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There are also some artworks that have depicted the Holy Spirit in a feminine sense as seen in the [[Sistine Chapel]].<ref>http://www.geocities.com/athens/agora/6776/</ref>{{verify source|date=August 2007}}
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Several groups groups also see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, Male and Female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. 1:20). The [[Unification Church]] affirms this, and also teaches that if Jesus had not been crucified, he would have take a Bride in whom the Holy Spirit would have incarnated in much the same way that the Christ incarnated in Jesus. However, in this view, the person of Jesus was not constubstantial with the Father, nor was the Holy Spirit. The ideal man could have be realized in Adam, and he and Eve together would have realized a Trinity with God. Moreover, all human beings are potentially capable of realizing this same Trinity; and the church's founder, the Reverend and Mrs. Sun Myung Moon, have succeeded in doing so.
  
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==Non-Trinitarian religious views==
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The "Messianic Jewish" Christian movement [[B'nai Yashua Synagogues]] Worldwide<ref>http://yourarmstoisrael.org/BYSW/directory/</ref> headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, also holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. [http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=what_is][http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=Who_RuachHaKadosh2]
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In the belief of many [[nontrinitarian]] religions — [[Christadelphians]], [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. These beliefs may be drawn from passages such as these:
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There are several other Messianic Jewish-Christian groups with similar teachings. Some examples include [http://www.joyintheworld.info Joy In the World][http://www.joyintheworld.info/teachings/ruachkodesh.html]; [http://www.tntrevealed.org/radioshow.cfm?c=27&l=33 The Torah and Testimony Revealed]&nbsp;[http://www.tntrevealed.org/qanda.cfm?c=7]; and [http://www.nazarene.net/html The Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues]&nbsp;[http://www.unjs.org/], who also count as canonical the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' Mother [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Hebrews#Content].
  
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"yet for us there is but ''one God, the Father'', from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but ''one Lord, Jesus Christ'', through whom all things came and through whom we live. But not everyone knows this....." - 1 Corinthians 8: 6-7.  
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==Depiction in art==
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The Holy Spirit is often [[Icon|depicted]] as a [[dove]], based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when He was baptized in the [[Jordan River|Jordan]].  In many paintings of the [[Annunciation]], the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as  the [[Angel]] [[Gabriel]]'s announces [[Christ]]'s coming to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]]. A dove may also be seen at the ear of [[Saint Gregory the Great]] - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.  
  
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The above argument is disputed by Trinitarians because the very same chapter, i.e. 1 Corinthians 8, contains verse 5 which says "Indeed, even though there are so-called gods in heaven...." In other words, there's no exclusivity to the title god. Thus, according to Trinitarians, verse 6 is intended to place emphasis not on the word "God," but the entire phrase "God, the Father." Thereby, this verse does not exclude the existence of "God, the Son" (i.e. Jesus Christ) or "God, the Holy Spirit."
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The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to [[Noah]] after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the [[presence of God]].
  
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Some Christadelphians believe that the Holy Spirit / Comforter is in fact an Angel <ref>http://www.aletheiacollege.net/angels/angels13.htm</ref>.
+
The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the [[apostle]]s at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.
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===Latter-day Saint views===
 
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[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the name "Holy Spirit" has many references, depending on its usage and the context in which it appears. The term "Holy Spirit" can denote the Holy Ghost; Spirit; the Spirit of God; Spirit of the Lord; Spirit of Christ (or [[Light of Christ]]) or even Spirit of Truth. Latter-day Saints teach that these terms are distinct from one another, showing the many aspects and/or functions of God. For example, the ''Spirit of God'' has been used as a synonym for the "[[gift of the Holy Ghost|Holy Ghost]]," which is a usage that denotes the nature of the ''Holy Ghost'', a distinct personage of the Spirit and an actual distinct and separate person of the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]]. ''Spirit of God'' has also been used to denote a force or power which is impersonal and fills the immensity of space. This latter use is not the ''Holy Ghost'', but denotes a "non-personage," as the ''Power of God'' or the ''Light of God'' that emanates everywhere.
 
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Examples of these distinctions are shown within the Bible ([[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]]) verses as:
 
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*''Holy Spirit'' - {{nkjv|Psalm|51:11|Psalm 51:11}}; {{nkjv|Luke|11:13|Luke 11:13}}; {{nkjv|Ephesians|1:13|Ephesians 1:13}}
 
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*''Spirit'' - {{nkjv|Romans|8:16|Romans 8:16}}
 
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*''Spirit of God'' - {{nkjv|Genesis|:2|Genesis 1:2}}; {{nkjv|Exodus|31:1|Exodus 31:1}}; {{nkjv|1Samuel|11:6|1 Samuel 11:6}}; {{nkjv|Romans|15:19|Romans 15:19}}
 
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*''Spirit of the Lord'' - {{nkjv|Judges|3:10|Judges 3:10}}; {{nkjv|Isaiah|11:2|Isaiah 11:2}}; {{nkjv|Acts|8:39|Acts 8:39}}
 
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*''Spirit of Christ'' - {{nkjv|Romans|8:9|Romans 8:9}} (notice here how the word "Spirit" is linked to "Spirit of God" and the "Spirit of Christ"); {{nkjv|1Peter|1:11|1 Peter 1:11}}
 
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*''Light of Christ'' - {{nkjv|2Corinthians|4:4|2 Corinthians 4:4}}; {{nkjv|Ephesians|5:14|Ephesians 5:14}}; {{nkjv|1John|1:7|1 John 1:7}}
 
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*''Spirit of Truth'' - {{nkjv|John|14:17|John 14:17}}; {{nkjv|John|16:13|John 16:13}}; {{nkjv|1John|4:6|1 John 4:6}}
 
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There are many other such references within the [[Book of Mormon]], [[Doctrine and Covenants]] and [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]].
 
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In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the Holy Ghost is considered a third and individual member of the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]]; by virtue of their holy nature and the everlasting covenant existent between them, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit operate as 'One God' (united in the attributes of perfection and pursuit of a common, divine goal). The Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone. Though The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is technically "Non-Trinitarian," their belief in the Godhead is often misinterpreted as an endorsement of Trinitarianism.
 
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===Jehovah Witness views===
 
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[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] point out<ref>http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm</ref> that personification in the Bible occurs often, including terms such as ''wisdom'', ''sin and death'', ''water'' and ''blood'', and does not indicate that the subject is a person. The fact that the Holy Spirit is referred to impersonally several times is used to assert that references of this manner would not occur in such frequency if this was a divine member of God, just as it does not occur with the Father or the Son. Additionally, at [[baptism of Jesus|Jesus' baptism]] in {{nkjv|Matthew|3:16|Matthew 3:16}}, Jesus received God's spirit at that time, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in {{nkjv|Acts|7:55-56|Acts 7:55, 56}} where he sees only the Son and God in heaven.
 
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Also noted, in regards to the mentions of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit together (as in {{nkjv|2Corinthians|13:14|2 Corinthians 13:14}}; {{nkjv|1Corinthians|12:4-6|1 Corinthians 12:4-6}}; {{nkjv|Matthew|28:19|Matthew 28:19}}), nontrinitarians bring out that none of these verses offer any evidence of the equality of nature or authority among them, just as the numerous simultaneous references to "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" or "Peter, James and John" do not infer an equality in any manner. Alvan Lamson says in ''The Church of the First Three Centuries'': "The modern popular doctrine of the Trinity . . . derives no support from the language of [[Justin Martyr]]: and this observation may be extended to all the ante-[[Nicene]] Fathers; that is, to all Christian writers for three centuries after the birth of Christ. It is true, they speak of the Father, Son, and . . . holy Spirit, but not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One, in any sense now admitted by Trinitarians. The very reverse is the fact." In fairness however, it should be noted that while not explicitly expressing the Trinity in words these very Apocrypha writings from Justin Martyr and many others of ante-Nicene Fathers from C.E. 70 on, do refer to the duality of Jesus and the Father, Jesus being worshiped and referred to as their God.<ref> Jehovah is The Almighty Creator. Jesus is the first born of all creation. Holy Spirit is Jehovah God's active force.
 
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http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/</ref>
 
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===Unity Church views===
 
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The [[Unity Church]]'s co-founder [[Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|Charles Fillmore]] considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God.
 
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<blockquote>To the Christian metaphysician the Holy Spirit is just what the name implies, the whole Spirit of God in action. In the Hebrew Jehovah is written Yahweh, Yah being masculine and weh feminine.<br/>
 
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<br/>
 
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In the New Testament Christ stands for Jehovah. Jesus talked a great deal about the Holy Spirit: that it would bear witness of Him, come with Him, and help Him to the end of the age.<br/>
 
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<br/>
 
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Do not be misled by the personality of the Holy Spirit and the reference to it as "he." This was the bias of the Oriental mind, making God and all forms of the Deity masculine.<br/>
 
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<br/>
 
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Holy Spirit is the love of Jehovah taking care of the human family, and love is always feminine. Love is the great harmonizer and healer, and whoever calls upon God as Holy Spirit for healing is calling upon the divine love.  ''Jesus Christ Heals'', pp. 182-183</blockquote>
 
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The view that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person has been considered to be heretical by mainstream Christianity, including Roman Catholicism.  For example, [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] referred to some of those as [[Semi-Arian]]s and ''Pneumatomachi'' ("spirit-fighters") and called them, "A sort of monstrous, half-formed people of two natures … Semi-Arians … hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father...but has been begotten without beginning and not in time … But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son" (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472)
 
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==Other views==
 
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===Rastafarian view===
 
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As a movement that developed out of Christianity, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] has its own unique interpretation of both the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is [[Haile Selassie]] who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "''Hola''") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see '[[Iandi|I and I]]'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true [[church]] is the human body, and that it is this church (or "''structure''") that contains the Holy Spirit.
 
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===Baha'i===
 
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In the [[Baha'i Faith]], the Holy Spirit, also known as the ''Most Great Spirit'', is seen as the bounty of God.<ref name="saq">{{cite book |author = `Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink = `Abdu'l-Bahá |origdate = 1904-06 |year = 1981 |title = Some Answered Questions |publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location = Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id = ISBN 0877431906 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-25.html | chapter = The Holy Spirit | pages = pp. 108-109}}</ref>  It is usually used to to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as [[Manifestations of God]], and include among others [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Bahá'u'lláh]].<ref name="rob1">{{cite book |last = Taherzadeh |first = Adib | year = 1976 |title = The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853-63 |publisher = George Ronald |location = Oxford, UK |id = ISBN 0853982708 | pages = p. 10}}</ref>  In Bahá'í belief  the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with His messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the [[burning bush]] to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, [[Jesus#Baptism and Temptation|the dove]] to Jesus, the angel [[Gabriel]] to Muhammad, and the Holy Maiden to Bahá'u'lláh.<ref name="abdo">{{cite journal | journal = Bahá'í Studies Review | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | year = 1994 | title = Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles | url = http://bahai-library.com/bsr/bsr04/43_abdo_femalespirit.htm | first = Lil | last = Abdo}}</ref> The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes.<ref name="saq2">{{cite book |author = `Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink = `Abdu'l-Bahá |origdate = 1904-06 |year = 1981 |title = Some Answered Questions |publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location = Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id = ISBN 0877431906 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-27.html | chapter = The Trinity | pages = pp. 113-115}}</ref>
 
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===Judaism===
 
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Judaism as a whole does not have a developed [[pneumatology]]. Most Jews consider the Holy Spirit to be a thoroughly Christian concept. "The designation of the third person of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost, stems from a Hebrew figure of speech, the ''ruah ha-qodesh'' ("holy spirit").  In Jewish usage, however, this concept was never identified with a separate person, but with a Divine power which could fill men, as, for instance, the prophets." - ''The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1943, 1969, see: "Trinity," pp. 308.  See also: ''[[Shekhinah]]''. In Genesis 1:2 there is the reference to "wind of God" (''ruah elohim'') hovering over the face of the waters and intimately involved in Creation; ''ruah'' literally translates as "wind, breeze" but also as "breath, spirit" and, therefore, "soul."
 
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===Islam===
 
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{{main|Holy Spirit (Islam)}}
 
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{{expert-subject|Religion}}
 
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Many [[Islam]]ic interpretations consider the Holy Spirit (Arabic: ruhul qudus) to be another name for the [[archangel]] [[Gabriel]], signifying its role as an Agent of Revelation. In [[Sura]] 2.97, the [[Qur'an]] states that Gabriel delivered the Word of God ([[Allah]]) to the [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. The actual term "Holy Spirit" الروح القدس is used in the following verses in the Qur'an: [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.087 2:87];[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.253 2:253] ;[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/005.qmt.html#005.110 5:110]; and [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/016.qmt.html#016.102 16:102.] In these verses, the Holy Spirit is strongly supportive of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad in their divine missions. The Qur'an also mentions the Holy Spirit in Sura 21:91, yet the term "Our Spirit" is used. The 91st Ayah of Sura Al-Anbiya (21:91) is in clear reference to the Virgin Mary and Jesus, while "Our Spirit" refers to Gabriel. In Islam, angels are genderless and have no will of their own, meaning it is impossible for them to disobey God, (please see: [[Angels in Islam]]).
 
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===Mandaeanism===
 
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{{main|Ruha d-Qudsha}}
 
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===Comparisons in fiction===
 
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In several popular [[role-playing game]]s, the measure of ''Honour'' or ''Grace'' to [[Paladin (gaming)|Paladins]] can be superficially compared to the views towards the Holy Spirit. The Paladin, by doing good deeds and helping others (the [[Non-player character|NPC]]s), is favoured by the [[List of Greyhawk deities|deity]] he serves, which translates into points for experience and honour. These points mark his ability to do Paladin spells like healing, repulsing undead, blessing, giving strength etc. which are usually dependent on his level of [[charisma]]. When doing honourless or evil actions, Paladin is punished by his deity with removal of these abilities.
 
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Another possible parallel is [[Force (Star Wars)|the Force]] of [[Star Wars]] and the [[Jedi]] knights, that has much in common with the concept of Paladins in the role-playing games. The Force resembles some interpretations of the Holy Spirit, in that it flows between living beings and holds the universe together. A Jedi, by having connection to the Force, can use it to obtain abilities that vaguely resemble some of the 'gifts' of the Holy Spirit. However, the Holy Spirit in mainstream Christianity is believed to be a personal being, and one that is served by the believer, whereas the Force is impersonal, and works at the behest of the character who is wielding it. The Force is more usually compared to the [[Qi|Chi]].
 
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[[J.R.R. Tolkien]], Christian fantasy author, in the [[Ainulindalë]] speaks about the [[Secret Fire|Flame Imperishable]] by which the [[Ilúvatar]] the Creator made the [[Ainu (Middle-earth)|Ainur]] and brought Being to the [[Arda|world]] of his mythos. The Flame was not a separate being, but was in the Creator. [[Gandalf]] also mentions the Secret Fire which he claims he serves, before the [[Balrog]] (Gandalf is of the Maiar, beings parallel in Tolkien's mythology to angels). This description is to be understood as a model of the Holy Spirit, which appeared at [[Pentecost]] as "tongues of fire" which descended on the heads of the Apostles.
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==

Revision as of 04:55, 6 October 2007

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File:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg
The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the Cathedra Petri in St Peter's Basilica, Rome.

The Holy Spirit is a theological term referring simply to the spirit of God in Judaism and to the Third Person of the Holy Trinity in Christianity. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or pneumatology, was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed. For this reason, there is greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son (christology) and understandings of the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually refered to as the "Third Person" of the Triune God - with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.

Unlike the second person of the Trinity, it has never been taught that there was a physical manifestation - or Incarnation - of the Spirit. Instead, the Spirit is usually described as a comforter or helper.

The Holy Spirit in Judaism

The Holy Spirit in Judaism is not distinguished from God as a "person," but is seen more as an aspect, essence, or attribute of God. The word for spirit in Hebrew is ruach, and it is closely related to the concept of life. In the Book of Genesis, God's spirit hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby making the Creation possible (Gen. 1:2). God blew the breath (ruach) of life into Adam (Gen. 2:7). The Book of Job affirms that "The Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given me life" (Job 33:4;). God is the God of the spirits of all flesh (Num. 16:22). The breath of animals also is derived from Him (Gen. 6:17; Eccl. 3:19-21; Isa. 42:5).

Thus, all creatures live only through the spirit given by God. However, the terms "spirit of God" and "spirit of the Lord" are not limited to the sense of God as a life-giving spirit. He "pours out" His spirit upon those whom He has chosen to execute His will. This spirit imbues them with spiritual power or wisdom, making them capable of heroic speech and action (Gen. 41:38; Ex. 31:3; Num. 24:2; Judges 3:10; II Sam. 23:2). This special spirit of God rests upon man (Isa. 6:2); it surrounds him like a garment (Judges 6:34); it falls upon him and holds him like a hand (Ezek. 6:5, 37:1). It may also be taken away from the chosen one and transferred to some one else (Num. 6:17). It may enter into man and speak with his voice (II Sam. 23:2; Ezek. ii. 2). The prophet sees and hears by means of the spirit (Num. I Sam. 10:6; II Sam. 23:2, etc). The prophet Joel predicted (2: 28-29) that in the Day of the Lord: "I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions: And also upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those days will I pour out my Spirit."

What the Bible calls "Spirit of Yahweh (the Lord)" and "Spirit of Elohim (God)" is called in the Talmud and Midrash "Holy Spirit" ("Ruach ha-Kodesh"). The specific expression "Holy Spirit" also occurs in Ps. 52:11 and in Isa. 63:10-11.

In rabbinical literature, the Shekhinah is often referred to instead of the Holy Spirit. It is said of the Shekhinah, as of the Holy Spirit, that it rests upon a person, inspires the righteous, and dwells among the the congregation as the Queen of the Sabbath. Unlike ruach Shekhinah is a feminine noun, and its function among the congregation and with regard to certain especially holy rabbis, is specifically bride-like.

New Testament

The Christian doctrine of the Holy Spirit is derived from several New Testament sources.

John's Gospel describes the Holy Spirit as descending upon Jesus in the form of a dove at the time of his baptism by John the Baptist. Jesus reportedly described the Holy Spirit as the promised "Advocate" in (John 14:26). After his resurrection, Christ is said to have told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Ghost," and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Book of Acts. On the first Pentecost, Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language.

The Spirit is said to dwell inside every true Christian, each person's body being God's temple (1 Corinthians 3:16}}). The Holy Spirit is depicted as a 'Counselor' or 'Helper' (Paraclete), guiding people in the way of the truth. The Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Spirit. A list of gifts of the Spirit includes the charismatic gifts of prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge.

Second Person of the Trinity

The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a French miniature from the fourteenth century

In orthodox Christianity, the Holy Spirit came to be seen as a distinct person from God the Father and God the Son. Scripturally, clearest basis for this doctrine is seen in the triadic formula for baptism—"in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost"—in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19)

This formula can also be seen in second-century Christian writings such as the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch and Tertullian (c.160-c.225) and third century writers such as [[Hippolytus (c.170-c.236), Cyprian (d.258), and Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270). It apparently became a fixed expression soon.

The exact nature of Holy Spirit and its relationship to the other components of the Godhead became a matter of significant debate within the Christian community. Many, especially Jews and possibly Jewish Christians, criticized the early trinitarian notion as teaching "three gods" instead of one. In order to safeguard monotheism, a theological movement called "Monarchianism." Tertullian countered this trend by maintaining that the Father, Son, and Holy spirit are neither one and the same nor separate, but rather merely "distinct" from one another.

Tertullian of Carthage

Tertullian started used the expression of "three persons" (tres personae in Latin). The Latin word persona in those days meant legal ownership or a mask used at the theater, not necessarily a distinct self-conscious being. Thus three distinct "persons" are still of "one substance" (una substantia in Latin). It was in this context that Tertullian also used the word trinitas.

The terms Tertullian coined, una substantia and tres personae, considerably influenced the Councils of Nicea (325) and of Constantinople (381). Constantinople established the consubstantiality (being of one substance) of the Holy Spirit with the Father and Son against the heresy of Semi-Arianism. Constantinople also mentioned that the Holy Spirit was not "created" but "proceeded" from the Father. Thus, the Holy Spirit was now firmly established as the Third Person of the Trinity.

Views of the Holy Spirit

A great controversy would later arise between the Catholic and Orthodox churches regarding the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Son. Other denominations hold a variety of views regarding the Holy Spirit.

Roman Catholicism

"Shield Trinity" diagram of the Western, or Roman Catholic, Trinity

The Roman Catholic version of the Nicene Creed reads: "We believe in the Holy Spirit ... who proceeds from the Father and the Son." The addition of "and the son" was strongly objected to by the Orthodox Church, which eventually declared it a heresy, leading ultimately to the Great Schism between Catholicism and Orthodox in 1054.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the Apostles Creed's article I believe in the Holy Spirit.:

"No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God." Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself...

As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states:

"The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit...Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament... Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."

Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Thus, unlike the Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the Filioque clause—"and the Son—in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to proceed eternally from the Father only, not from the Father and the Son.

Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. Eastern Catholics and Oriental Orthodox also coincide with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter.

Protestantism

Although Protestant churches have diverse views about the Holy Spirit, most are basically trinitarian in nature, affirming the Nicene Creed's belief that the Holy Spirit is a distinct "person" yet sharing the same substance with God the Father and God the Son. Some Protestant churches and movements, however, place unique emphasis on the Holy Spirit or hold particular views about the Holy Spirit that set them apart from the norm.

Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem. The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts speaking in tongues. Many Pentecostals hold that the "baptism of the Holy Spirit" is distinct the Christian regeneration from the "born-again" experience of conversion or baptism. Some believe that Holy Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation.

Dispensationalism teaches that the current time is the Age of the Spirit, or church age. In this view, the Old Testament Age was the the Age of the Father; the period of Jesus' ministry was the Age of the Son; and the period from Pentecost until the Second Comingis the Age of the Spirit, or the church age.

Non-Trinitarian views

In the belief of many nontrinitarian religions — Christadelphians, Unitarians Latter Day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses, for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. Some Christadelphians believe that the Holy Spirit / Comforter is in fact an Angel [1].

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the name "Holy Spirit" has many references, depending on its usage and the context in which it appears. The term "Holy Spirit" can denote the Holy Ghost, the Spirit of God, Spirit of the Lord, Spirit of Christ, or even Spirit of Truth. Latter-day Saints teach that these terms are distinct from one another, showing the many aspects and/or functions of God. The Holy Spirit has a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone. Although Mormons affirm a belief in the Trinity, in this version of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son—not a distinct "person" with the same "substance."

Jehovah's Witnesses teach that out[2] the Holy Spirit is not a "person" or a divine member of the Godhead. At Jesus' baptism in (Matthew 3:16), Jesus received God's spirit, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Also Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in (Acts 7:55, 56), where he sees only the Son and God in heaven. The Holy Spirit is thus the spiritual power of God, not a distinct person.

Femininity of the Holy Spirit

The Holy Spirit, as a dove, and Mary as its particular agent

Numerous Christian or Christian-oriented groups consider that the gender of the Holy Spirit is feminine. Some early Christians apparently took this view. For example, in the Gospel of Thomas speaks of the Holy Spirit as feminine, and the Gospel of the Hebrews refers to "my mother, the Holy Spirit."

Historically, Coptic Christianity saw the Holy Spirit as the Mother, while regarding the two persons of the Trinity as the Father and Son. So did Zinzendorf (1700-1760), the founder of Moravianism. More recently, Catholic scholars such as Willi Moll, Franz Mayr, and Lena Boff have also characterized the Holy Spirit as feminine. Numerous Catholic artworks have made a special connection between the Holy Spirit an the Virgin Mary, implying a feminine aspect to the Holy Spirit.

The Unity Church's co-founder Charles Fillmore also considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God.

Holy Spirit is the love of Jehovah taking care of the human family, and love is always feminine. Love is the great harmonizer and healer, and whoever calls upon God as Holy Spirit for healing is calling upon the divine love. (Jesus Christ Heals, pp. 182-183)

Some groups point to the fact that the Hebrew word for Spirit, ruach, is feminine. Among these are the Branch Davidian Seventh day Adventists.

Several groups groups also see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, Male and Female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. 1:20). The Unification Church affirms this, and also teaches that if Jesus had not been crucified, he would have take a Bride in whom the Holy Spirit would have incarnated in much the same way that the Christ incarnated in Jesus. However, in this view, the person of Jesus was not constubstantial with the Father, nor was the Holy Spirit. The ideal man could have be realized in Adam, and he and Eve together would have realized a Trinity with God. Moreover, all human beings are potentially capable of realizing this same Trinity; and the church's founder, the Reverend and Mrs. Sun Myung Moon, have succeeded in doing so.

The "Messianic Jewish" Christian movement B'nai Yashua Synagogues Worldwide[3] headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, also holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. [1][2] There are several other Messianic Jewish-Christian groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World[3]; The Torah and Testimony Revealed [4]; and The Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues [5], who also count as canonical the Gospel of the Hebrews which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' Mother [6].

Depiction in art

The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when He was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the Angel Gabriel's announces Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.

The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God.

The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ http://www.aletheiacollege.net/angels/angels13.htm
  2. ↑ http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm
  3. ↑ http://yourarmstoisrael.org/BYSW/directory/

External links

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