Difference between revisions of "Holy Spirit" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(New page: {{Started}} {{Christianity}} In mainstream Christianity, the '''Holy Spirit''' is one of the three divine persons of the Holy Trinity which make up the single [[Ousia|sub...)
 
(47 intermediate revisions by 9 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Started}}
+
{{Ebapproved}}{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
 
{{Christianity}}
 
{{Christianity}}
 +
The '''Holy Spirit''' refers to the third person of the [[Trinity]] in [[Christianity]]. In [[Judaism]] the Holy Spirit refers to the life-giving breath or spirit of [[God]], as the Hebrew word for "spirit" in the [[Hebrew Bible]] is ''ruach'' (breath). The Greek word for "spirit" in the [[New Testament]] is ''pneuma'' (air, wind). The New Testament has a wealth of profound references to the spiritual work of the Holy Spirit among believers and in the Church.
  
In mainstream [[Christianity]], the '''Holy Spirit''' is one of the three divine persons of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] which make up the single  [[Ousia|substance]] of God; that is, the Spirit is considered to act in concert with and share an essential nature with [[God the Father]] and God the Son ([[Jesus]]). The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or [[pneumatology]], was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed.  For this reason, there is greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son ([[christology]]) and understandings of the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually refered to as the "Third Person" of the Triune God - with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.
+
The Trinitarian doctrine of the Holy Spirit as a distinct "person" which shares, from the beginning of existence, the same substance with the Father and the Son was proposed by [[Tertullian]] (c.160-c.225) and established through the Councils of [[Council of Nicea|Nicea]] (325) and [[Constantinople]] (381). Especially the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] were instrumental in helping to establish it. Later a technical disagreement arose about whether the Holy Spirit "proceeds" only from the Father or from both the Father and the Son, eventually occasioning the [[Great Schism]] between [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and [[Roman Catholicism]] in 1054.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
While the work of the Holy Spirit is widely known, we are hard-pressed to arrive at a precise definition. This may be because, compared with the Father and the Son, there is a lack of concrete imagery of the Holy Spirit. One issue is its gender. The Hebrew word for "spirit," ''ruach,'' is of feminine gender, while the Greek word ''pneuma'' is neuter. Despite the Church's official doctrine that the Holy Spirit is masculine, individuals and groups throughout the history of Christianity, including luminaries like [[Saint Jerome|St. Jerome]] (c.342-420) and [[Martin Luther]] (1483-1546), have repeatedly proposed that the Holy Spirit is feminine. In rabbinic Judaism the Holy Spirit is equated with the [[Shekhinah]], the mother aspect of God. In light of the biblical notion of the androgynous image of God who created male and female in his image (Gen. 1:27), it has been suggested that a feminine Holy Spirit would be the appropriate counterpart to the male figure of the Son, who is manifest in [[Jesus Christ]]. The work of the Holy Spirit as comforter, intercessor and source of inspiration could be represented in the ministrations of [[Mary]] and other holy women of God.
 +
[[Image:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the ''[[Cathedra|Cathedra Petri]] in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]], Rome.]]
  
Unlike the second person of the Trinity, it has never been taught that there was a physical manifestation - or [[Incarnation]] - of the Spirit.  Instead, the Spirit is usually described as a comforter or helper.
+
==The Holy Spirit in Judaism==
 +
[[Image:Jonah-Nineveh.jpg|thumb|left|In the Hebrew scriptures, the Holy Spirit enabled the prophets to speak with God's voice.]]
  
==New Testament background==
+
The Holy Spirit in Judaism is not distinguished from God as a "person," but is seen more as an aspect, essence, or attribute of God. The word for spirit in Hebrew is ''ruach,'' and it is closely related to the concept of breath. In the [[Book of Genesis]], God's spirit hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby making the Creation possible (Gen. 1:2). God blew the breath of life into Adam (Gen. 2:7). The [[Book of Job]] affirms that "The Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given me life" (Job 33:4;). God is the God of the spirits of all flesh (Num. 16:22). The breath of animals also is derived from Him (Gen. 6:17; Eccl. 3:19-21; Isa. 42:5).  
Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to lead a [[Christianity#Worship and practices|Christian life]]. The Spirit dwells inside every true Christian, each one's body being His temple ({{nkjv|1Corinthians|3:16|1 Corinthians 3:16}}). The Holy Spirit is depicted as a 'Counselor' or 'Helper' ('''[[Paraclete|paracletus]]''' in [[Latin]], derived from [[Greek language|Greek]]), guiding people in the way of the truth. The Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the [[Fruit of the Holy Spirit|Fruit of the Spirit]]. The Holy Spirit manifests these gifts by enabling a person to access his or her own innate abilities. Through the influence of the Holy Spirit a person sees more clearly the world around him or her and can use his or her mind and body in ways that exceed his or her previous capacity. A list of gifts that may be bestown include the [[charism]]atic gifts of [[prophecy]], [[gift of tongues|tongues]], healing, and knowledge.  These gifts can not be viewed as purely charismatic however.  Christians holding a view known as [[cessationism]] believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain "[[spiritual gifts]]" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g. {{nkjv|Romans|12:6-8|Romans 12:6-8}}). The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being [[anoint]]ed.
 
  
Jesus describes the Holy Spirit as the promised "Advocate" (i.e. "strengthener," "fortifier") in {{kjv|John|14:26|John 14:26}}. After His [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], Christ told His disciples that they would be "[[baptism|baptized]] with the Holy Ghost," and would receive power from this event ({{nkjv|Acts|1:4-8|Acts 1:4-8}}), a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first [[Pentecost]], Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]] when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads.  A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native [[language]].
+
Thus, all creatures live only through the spirit given by God. However, the terms "spirit of God" and "spirit of the Lord" are not limited to the sense of God as a life-giving spirit. He "pours out" His spirit upon those whom He has chosen to execute His will. This spirit imbues them with spiritual power or wisdom, making them capable of heroic speech and action (Gen. 41:38; Ex. 31:3; Num. 24:2; Judges 3:10; II Sam. 23:2). The spirit of God rests upon man (Isa. 6:2); it surrounds him like a garment (Judges 6:34); it falls upon him and holds him like a hand (Ezek. 6:5, 37:1). It may also be taken away from the chosen one and transferred to some one else (Num. 6:17). It may enter into man and speak with his voice (II Sam. 23:2; Ezek. ii. 2). The [[prophet]] sees and hears by means of the spirit (Num. I Sam. 10:6; II Sam. 23:2, etc). The prophet [[Joel]] predicted (2: 28-29) that in the [[Day of the Lord]] "I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions: And also upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those days will I pour out my Spirit."
  
In John's Gospel, emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the Spirit to His disciples. This "Higher" [[Christology]] sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among mankind in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.
+
What the Bible calls "Spirit of [[Yahweh]] (the Lord)" and "Spirit of [[Elohim]] (God)" is called in the [[Talmud]] and [[Midrash]] "Holy Spirit" ("Ruach ha-Kodesh"). The specific expression "Holy Spirit" also occurs in Ps. 52:11 and in Isa. 63:10-11.
  
Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to His followers, uniting them with Himself, and in Himself also uniting them with the Father. (See Raymond Brown, "The Gospel According to John," chapter on [[Pneumatology]]). In John, the gift of the Spirit is equivalent to eternal life, knowledge of God, power to obey, and communion with one another and with the Father.
+
In rabbinical literature, the ''[[Shekhinah]]'' is often referred to instead of the Holy Spirit. It is said of the Shekhinah, as of the Holy Spirit, that it rests upon a person, inspires the righteous, and dwells among the congregation as the Queen of the Sabbath. Like ''ruach,'' Shekhinah is a feminine noun, and its function among the congregation and with regard to certain especially holy [[rabbi]]s, is specifically bride-like.
  
Another view on the language used to describe the Holy Spirit is seen in James Scott Trimm's introduction to the Hebraic Roots Version of the Bible:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isr-messianic.org/downloads/hrv_intro.pdf|title=The Hebraic-Roots Version Scriptures|author=Trimm, James Scott|publisher=Institute for Scripture Research|year=2005|accessdate=2007-06-07|pages=pp. lv-lvi}}</ref>
+
==The Holy Spirit in the New Testament==
 +
[[Image:Gagarin KreschenieHristovo.jpg|thumb|right|The baptism of Jesus]]
  
<blockquote> Now the Hebrew word RUACH (Aramaic RUCHA) is grammatically feminine as is the phrase Ruach HaKodesh. This is matched by the role of the Ruach HaKodesh as "comforter" (John 14-16) and the identification of the "comforter" with YHWH acting as a "mother" ([[Isaiah]] 66:13)… Moreover there are many passages in which the Peshitta itself pairs the Ruach HaKodesh with feminine verbs and/or feminine modifiers… In fact the Peshitta Aramaic of Romans 8:16 opens with 'And SHE the Ruach gives testimony…'
+
Many passages in the [[New Testament]] speak of the Holy Spirit. The word for spirit in New Testament Greek is ''pneuma,'' which means air or wind. Unlike the Hebrew ''ruach,'' it is a neuter noun, and the masculine pronoun is used for it.
</blockquote>
 
  
==Christian views==
+
The Holy Spirit made a first appearance, coming upon Jesus in the form of a dove at the beginning of his ministry when he was [[baptism|baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]] in the [[Jordan River]] (Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-22, John 1:31-33). But the real appearance of the Holy Spirit is said to have been recognized in the words of Jesus, speaking to his disciples sometime near his death (John 14:15-18). Jesus reportedly described the Holy Spirit as the promised "Advocate" (John 14:26, New American Bible). In the [[Great Commission]], he instructs his disciples to baptize all men in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to his followers, uniting them with himself, and in himself also uniting them with the Father. After his [[resurrection]], Jesus is said to have told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Spirit," and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of the [[Book of Acts]]. On the first [[Pentecost]], Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]] when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native [[language]].
===Roman Catholicism===
 
The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the [[Apostles Creed]]'s article ''I believe in the Holy Spirit.'' "No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God." Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who "unveils" Christ to us "will not speak on his own." Such properly divine self-effacement explains why "the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him," while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them."
 
  
As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit...Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity...Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."
+
The Spirit is said to dwell inside every true Christian, each person's body being God's temple (1 Corinthians 3:16). The Holy Spirit is depicted as a "Counselor" or "Helper" (''Paraclete''), guiding people in the way of the truth. The Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the [[Fruit of the Holy Spirit|Fruit of the Spirit]]. A list of gifts of the Spirit includes the [[charism]]atic gifts of [[prophecy]], [[gift of tongues|tongues]], healing, and knowledge.
  
The Catechism also lists the various symbols of the Holy Spirit in the Bible:
+
==Third Person of the Trinity==
  
*''Water'' - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism.  As "by one Spirit we were all baptized," so we are also "made to drink of one Spirit." ({{nkjv|1Corinthians|12:13|1 Corinthians 12:13}}) Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified ({{nkjv|John|19:34|John 19:34}}; {{nkjv|1John|5:8|1 John 5:8}}) as its source and welling up in us to eternal life. (Cf. {{nkjv|John|4:10-14|John 4:10-14}}; {{nkjv|John|7:38|John 7:38}}; {{nkjv|Exodus|17:1-6|Exodus 17:1-6}}; {{nkjv|Isaiah|55:1|Isaiah 55:1}}; {{nkjv|Zechariah|14:8|Zechariah 14:8}}; {{nkjv|1Corinthians|10:4|1 Corinthians 10:4}}; {{nkjv|Revelation|21:6|Revelation 21:6}}; {{nkjv|Revelation|22:17|22:17}})
+
The New Testament talks about the triadic formula for baptism--"in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost"—in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19). This formula can also be seen in second-century Christian writings such as the [[Didache]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (c.35-107) and [[Tertullian]] (c.160-c.225) and third-century writers such as [[Hippolytus]] (c.170-c.236), [[Cyprian]] (d.258), and Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270). It apparently became a fixed expression.
  
*''Anointing'' - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. (Cf. {{nkjv|1John|2:20;2:27|1 John 2:20,27}}; {{nkjv|2Corinthians|1:21|2 Corinthians 1:21}}) In Christian initiation, anointing is the sacramental sign of Confirmation, called "chrismation" in the Churches of the East. Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew "messiah") means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit.
+
[[Image:Treenigheten, fransk miniatyr från 1300-talet.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a French miniature from the fourteenth century]]
  
*''Fire'' -  symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire," the Holy Spirit rests on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost and fills them with himself.
+
However, the exact nature of the Holy Spirit and its relationship to the other components of the Godhead already became a matter of significant debate within the Christian community by the second century. Many criticized the early triadic formula of teaching "three gods" instead of one. In order to safeguard [[monotheism]], a theological movement called "[[Monarchianism]]" emphasized the oneness of the triad. One form of this movement, Modalistic Monarchianism, expressed the operation of the triad as three modes of God's being and activity. Another form of the movement, Dynamistic Monarchianism, saw God the Father as supreme, with the Son and the Holy Spirit as creatures rather than being ''co-eternal'' with the Father. The influential Church Father Tertullian responded to this situation by maintaining that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are neither merely three modes of one and the same God nor three entirely separate things, but rather "distinct" from one another. Tertullian used the expression of "three persons" (''tres personae''). However, the Latin word ''persona'' in those days meant legal ownership or a character, not necessarily a distinct self-conscious being. Thus three distinct "persons" were still of "one substance" (''una substantia''). It was in this context that Tertullian also used the word Trinity (''trinitas''). The terms that Tertullian coined considerably influenced the later Councils of Nicea (325) and of Constantinople (381).  
  
*''Cloud and light'' - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of Transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" ({{nkjv|Luke|9:34-35|Luke 9:34-35}})
+
In the fourth century, the aftermath of the [[Arianism|Arian controversy]] led to numerous debates about the Holy Spirit. Eunomians, Semi-Arians, Acacians, for example, all admitted the triple personality of the Godhead but denied the doctrine of "consubstantiality" (sharing one substance). The Council of Constantinople established "consubstantiality" of the Holy Spirit with the Father and Son. It also declared that the Holy Spirit was not "created," but that it "proceeded" from the Father. Thus, the Holy Spirit was now firmly established as the Third Person of the Trinity, really distinct from the Father and the Son, but also existing with them from the beginning and sharing the same divine substance.
  
*''The seal'' is a symbol close to that of anointing. "The Father has set his seal" on Christ and also seals us in him. ({{nkjv|John|6:27|John 6:27}}; cf. {{nkjv|2Corinthians|1:22|2 Corinthians 1:22}}; {{nkjv|Ephesians|1:13|Ephesians 1:13}}; {{nkjv|Ephesians|4:3|Ephesians 4:3}}) Because this seal indicates the indelible effect of the anointing with the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders, the image of the seal (sphragis) has been used in some theological traditions to express the indelible "character" imprinted by these three unrepeatable sacraments.
+
==Procession of the Holy Spirit==
 +
The Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father" (John 16:25). The term "procession" regarding the Holy Spirit was made popular by the [[Cappadocian Fathers]]. They even made a distinction between the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit within the Godhead, on the one hand, and the "economic" procession of the same for the providence of salvation in the world, on the other.
  
*''The hand''. It is by the Apostles' imposition of hands that the Holy Spirit is given. The Letter to the Hebrews lists the imposition of hands among the "fundamental elements" of its teaching. The Church has kept this sign of the all-powerful outpouring of the Holy Spirit in its sacramental epicleses.
+
The procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father is similar to the generation of the Son from the Father because neither procession nor generation means creation. Both procession and generation are immanent operations within the Godhead, although they can also occur in the "economic" sense as well. Procession and generation are also similar because generation is a kind of procession. However, both are different from each other because the procession of the Holy Spirit is usually understood to be the activity of the divine will, while the generation of the Son is rather the activity of the divine intelligence.
  
*''The finger.'' "It is by the finger of God that [Jesus] cast out demons." If God's law was written on tablets of stone "by the finger of God," then the "letter from Christ" entrusted to the care of the apostles, is written "with the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone, but on tablets of human hearts." ({{nkjv|Exodus|31:18|Exodus 31:18}}; {{nkjv|2Corinthians|3:3|2 Corinthians 3:3}})
+
There is a controversial technical difference between the views of Eastern and Western Christianity regarding the involvement of the Son in the procession of the Holy Spirit. This is the difference of single vs. double procession. [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds only from the Father, i.e., from the Father through the Son. By contrast, Western Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church and most Protestant denominations, teach that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father ''and the Son''. Hence the Roman Catholic version of the Nicene Creed reads: "We believe in the Holy Spirit … who proceeds from the Father and the Son." Historically, this addition of "and the Son" (''[[filioque]]'') was made in Spain in the sixth century, and it was strongly objected to by the Orthodox Church, which eventually declared it a heresy, leading ultimately to the [[Great Schism]] between Catholicism and Orthodox in 1054.
  
*''The dove.''  When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him. ({{nkjv|Matthew|3:16|Matthew 3:16}})
+
==Additional Interpretations==
  
[[Eastern Catholics|Eastern Catholic]] teaching, on the other hand, coincides with that of the Orthodox Church (in the next section).
+
===Roman Catholicism===
  
===Pentecostalism===
+
The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the [[Apostles Creed]]'s article ''I believe in the Holy Spirit'':
The Christian movement called [[Pentecostalism]] derives its name from the event of [[Pentecost]], the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]].  They also believe that, once received, the Holy Spirit is God working through the recipient to perform the gifts of the Spirit. These gifts are portrayed in [[1 Corinthians]] chapter 12.
 
  
The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Much of Pentecostalism holds that the '[[Baptism with the Holy Spirit]]' is distinct from the salvific [[born again]] experience, as a usually distinct experience in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way, with the result that the Christian can now be more readily used to do signs, [[Gift of miracles|miracles]], and wonders for the sake of evangelism or for [[Religious ministry|ministry]] within the church.  There  are also many Pentecostals who believe that Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation, not a "second blessing." For a more detailed discussion, please see [[Pentecostalism]].
+
<blockquote>"No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God" (152). Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who "unveils" Christ to us "will not speak on his own." Such properly divine self-effacement explains why "the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him," while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them. (687)</blockquote>
  
Many Pentecostals also believe that the normative initial evidence of this infilling (baptism) of the Holy Spirit is the ability to speak in other tongues ([[glossalalia]]).
+
As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states:
  
===Orthodoxy===
+
:The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit. (737)
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the ''[[Filioque clause|Filioque]]'' in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father ''and'' the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith ([[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]). [[Eastern Catholics]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] also coincide with [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] usage and teachings on the matter.
 
  
===Dispensationalism===
+
:Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity. (738)
According to [[dispensationalism]] (a pejorative term applied by many modernist groups within the boundaries of Western Christian orthodoxy), we are now living in the Age of the Spirit, or church age. The [[Old Testament]] period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father, or of the (Mosaic) law; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the [[Second Coming|second advent of Christ]], the Age of the Spirit, or the church age (see also [[Joachim of Fiore]]).
 
  
The Mosaic law was still in effect up to the time when Jesus Christ (the second person of the Trinity) died on a Roman cross, was buried and rose from the dead ({{nkjv|1Corinthians|15:1-5|1 Corinthians 15:1-5}}). The church age was fully established at Pentecost where the disciples' were given the Holy Spirit, and sent out by Him to plant His church in the world.  
+
:Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body. (739)
  
A controversial view holds that at the time of the Rapture, the Holy Spirit will depart the Earth, although it is seldom mentioned today.  However, the Rapture is another disputed point of Christianity. {{nkjv|2Thessalonians|2:7|2 Thessalonians 2:7}}.
+
===Orthodoxy===
 
+
Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the [[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]. [[Eastern Catholics]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] also coincide with [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] usage and teachings on the matter. The Holy Spirit plays a central role in Orthodox worship: the liturgy usually begins with a prayer to the Holy Spirit and invocations made prior to sacraments are addressed to the Spirit. In particular, the ''epiclesis'' prayer which blesses the eucharistic bread and wine is meant to invite the Holy Spirit to descend during the [[holy communion|Holy Communion]].
The church age is said to close with the [[second coming]] of Christ.
 
 
 
=== Churches of God ===
 
In the Scripture, the word most frequently used for "spirit" is ''ruwakh'', meaning "breath, wind, spirit."  In the Greek Scriptures, the word is ''pneuma'', having a similar meaning.
 
The Churches of God (Anderson, IN)<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_God_%28Anderson%29</ref> believe that the Holy Spirit is one of the three entities within the Holy Trinity. As the promised comforter (John 16:7),<ref>http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2016:7;&version=31;</ref> the Holy Spirit comes into the life not only as a gift but an experience. Through the infilling and work of the Holy Spirit a Christian grows in their relationship with God and there is an instilling of wisdom, understanding, and an increasing of faith and strength.  The Holy Spirit is offered generously through God's love, but given only to those that seek Him.
 
 
 
===Third Wave===
 
The expression [[Third Wave of the Holy Spirit|Third Wave]] was coined by Christian theologian C. Peter Wagner around 1980 to describe what followers believe to be the recent historical work of the Holy Spirit. It is part of a larger movement known as the Neocharismatic movement. The Third Wave involves those Christians who have allegedly received Pentecostal-like experiences, however Third Wavers claim no association with either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements.
 
 
 
===Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists, Some Messianics, and others===
 
There are numerous Jewish and Christian groups who base their thinking in regards to the gender of the Holy Spirit on the fact that the Hebrew word for Spirit, Ruach, is feminine. They give no weight to the facts that the Greek word for Spirit (Pneuma) is neuter, and the Latin one is masculine, because the Logos ("oracles" - words) of God were are said to be given unto the Jews (Rom. 3:1, 2).
 
 
 
Foremost among these groups, and the most vocal on the subject are the [[Branch Davidian]] Seventh day Adventists. In 1977, one of their leaders, [[Lois Roden]], began to formally teach that the feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women. In her many studies and talks she cited numerous scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources.
 
 
 
They see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, Male and Female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. 1:20). They take the Oneness of God to mean the "familial" unity which exists between Them, which unity is not seen in any other depiction of the Godhead by the various non-Hebrew peoples.  
 
  
Thus, having a Father and Mother in heaven, they see that the Bible shows that those Parents had a Son born unto them before the creation of the world, by Whom all things were created. The final element in their belief that mankind is literally made in the image and likeness of Gods is that of a divine Daughter, a feminine counterpart of the Son. They say that the concept has it roots in the Bible and Jewish concept of The Matronit. They see that the King James translators understood the concept of Christ having His own Spirit (feminine counterpart), by using the terms "Holy Spirit" (Mother - Spirit of God), and "Holy Ghost" (Daughter - Spirit of Christ). Here are some example of [[Branch Davidian]] Seventh Day Adventist teachings on the Subject.<ref>http://www.the-branch.org/Spirit_Feminine_Mother_Hebrew_Greek_Jesus_Born_Doug_Mitchell</ref><ref>http://www.the-branch.org/Holy_Ghost_Daughter_Holy_Spirit_Mother_Eloah_Doug_Mitchell</ref><ref>http://www.the-branch.org/She_A_Tree_of_Life_Proverbs_3-18_New_Moons_Doug_Mitchell</ref><ref>http://www.the-branch.org/Shelter_From_Storm_HolyGhost_She_Bob_Dylan_Doug_Mitchell</ref>
+
===Protestantism===
 +
Most Protestant churches are basically trinitarian in nature, affirming the belief that the Holy Spirit is a distinct "person" sharing the same substance with God the Father and God the Son, but some of them place unique emphasis on the Holy Spirit or hold particular views about the Holy Spirit that set them somewhat apart from the norm.
  
These concepts are also taught among other groups, to one degree or another.  
+
[[Image:Acts-2.jpg|thumb|300px|The apostles receive the gift of the Holy Spirit, as described in the [[Book of Acts]].]]
  
The B'nai Yashua Synagogues Worldwide<ref>http://yourarmstoisrael.org/BYSW/directory/</ref> headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. [http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=what_is][http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=Who_RuachHaKadosh2]
+
For example, [[Pentecostalism]] derives its name from the event of [[Pentecost]], the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]]. Pentecostalism also believes that, once received, the Holy Spirit is God working through the recipient to perform the gifts of the Spirit. These gifts are portrayed in 1 Corinthians chapter 12. The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, especially the gift of [[glossolalia|speaking in tongues]]. Many Pentecostals hold that the "[[baptism of the Holy Spirit]]" is a distinct form of the Christian regeneration, separate from the "born-again" experience of [[conversion]] or water [[baptism]]. Many believe that Holy Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation.
  
There are also some other independent Messianic groups with similar teachings.  Some examples include [http://www.joyintheworld.info Joy In the World][http://www.joyintheworld.info/teachings/ruachkodesh.html]; [http://www.tntrevealed.org/radioshow.cfm?c=27&l=33 The Torah and Testimony Revealed]&nbsp;[http://www.tntrevealed.org/qanda.cfm?c=7]; and [http://www.nazarene.net/html The Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues]&nbsp;[http://www.unjs.org/], who also count as canonical the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' Mother [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Hebrews#Content].  
+
[[Dispensationalism]] teaches that the current time is the age of the Holy Spirit, or church age, a teaching that can be found in Medieval writers such as [[Joachim of Fiore]] and [[Bonaventura|St. Bonaventure]]. Late nineteenth-century dispensationalists understood history as a process of seven dispensations, the last dispensation of which would be the thousand-year reign of Christ.  
  
There are also some scholars associated with more "mainstream" denominations, who while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead.  For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the [[Quartz Hill]] School of Theology (associated with the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]) has written on the subject.[http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm][http://www.theology.edu/pneumato.htm][http://www.theology.edu/theology/appen03.htm]  Evan Randolph, associated with the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]], has likewise written on the subject.[http://www.geocities.com/kibotos2002/cfhsquotes.html][http://www.geocities.com/athens/agora/6776/Findings.htm]
+
The expression [[Third Wave of the Holy Spirit|Third Wave]] was coined by Christian theologian C. Peter Wagner around 1980 to describe what followers believe to be the recent historical work of the Holy Spirit. It is part of a larger movement known as the [[Neo-charismatic churches|Neocharismatic movement]]. The Third Wave involves those Christians who have allegedly received Pentecostal-like experiences, however Third Wavers claim no association with either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements.
  
Here are some historical examples:<ref>http://www.geocities.com/kibotos2002/mluther.html</ref><ref>http://www.geocities.com/kibotos2002/cfhsquotes.html</ref>
+
==Nontrinitarian Views==
  
=="Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"==
+
In the belief of many [[nontrinitarian]] denominations—[[Christadelphians]], [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for instance—the Holy Spirit is viewed in ways that do not conform to the traditional formula of the Councils of Nicea and Constantinople. For Christadelphians, Unitarians, and Jehovah's Witnesses, the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person of the Trinity but rather merely God's spiritual power. This is similar to the Jewish view. Some Christadelphians even believe that the Holy Spirit is in fact an angel sent by God.<ref>[http://www.aletheiacollege.net/angels/angels13.htm Angel] ''www.aletheiacollege.net''. Retrieved October 15, 2007.</ref>
'''Holy Ghost''' was the common name for the Holy Spirit in [[English language|English]] prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] and the [[King James Version of the Bible]], and is still used by those who prefer more traditional language, or whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the King James Version. The term is still retained in the traditional-language rites of the [[Anglican]] Church. The original meaning of the English word ''[[ghost]]'' paralleled the words ''spirit'' or ''[[soul]]''; only later did the former word come to acquire the specific sense of "disembodied spirit of the dead" and the associated pejorative connotations.
 
  
In 1901 the [[American Standard Version]] of the Bible translated the name as ''Holy Spirit'', as had the [[English Revised Version]] of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit. Some languages still use a word that overlaps both English words, such as the [[German language|German]] ''Geist''.
+
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] teach that<ref>[http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm Holy Spirit]. ''www.watchtower.org''. Retrieved October 15, 2007.</ref> the Holy Spirit is not a person or a divine member of the Godhead. At his [[baptism]] Jesus received God's spirit (Matthew 3:16), but according to Witnesses it conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Also, regarding Jesus' statement: "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark 13:32), Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing there, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in (Acts 7:55, 56), where he sees only the Son and God in heaven. The Holy Spirit is thus the spiritual power of God, not a distinct person.
  
In the [[United Kingdom]], Religious Education teachers are told to avoid using "Holy Ghost" as it allegedly ''"suggests a trivial and spooky element to the third part in the Trinity"''.<ref>http://education.guardian.co.uk/faithschools/story/0,13882,1457028,00.html</ref>
+
The nontrinitarianism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a little different. It teaches that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are separate from one another, although they are "one God" in the sense that they are one "in purpose." The Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone.
  
==Gifts and fruits==
+
==Femininity of the Holy Spirit==
===Fruit of the Spirit===
 
{{main|Fruits of the Holy Spirit}}
 
Christians believe the "[[Fruits of the holy spirit|Fruit of the Spirit]]" are virtues engendered in an individual by the acceptance of the Spirit and His actions in one's life. They can be found in the [[New Testament]] ({{niv|Galatians|5:22-23|Galatians 5:22-23}}): "But the fruit of the Spirit is [[love]] (Gk: ''[[agape]]''), [[joy]], [[peace]], [[patience]], [[kindness]], [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]], [[faith]]fulness, [[Politeness|gentleness]], [and] [[Anger#Religious perspective on anger|self-control]]." The Tradition of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', Section 1832), lists 12 Fruits of the Holy Spirit: "charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-control, [and] chastity." Many Christians believe that these fruits of the Holy Spirit are enhanced over time by exposure to the [[written word of God]] and by the experience of leading a Christian life. They further believe that the Fruits of the Holy Spirit are products of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit: "wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord."
 
  
===Gifts and filling of the Spirit===
+
To begin with, the Hebrew word for "spirit" in the Hebrew Bible is ''ruach,'' meaning breath, and its gender is feminine. Also, in Greek, ''Logos'' is the masculine term for Word, and its feminine counterpart is ''Sophia,'' meaning Wisdom; so, if the Son is the incarnation of the ''Logos,'' the Holy Spirit could be considered to to have something to do with the ''Sophia,'' thus being feminine. For these and other reasons, numerous Christian individuals and groups have considered that the gender of the Holy Spirit is feminine, contrary to the official Church view of the Holy Spirit as masculine. Some early Christians apparently took this view. For example, the [[Gospel of Thomas]] (v. 101) speaks of the Holy Spirit as Jesus' "true mother," and the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] refers to "my mother, the Holy Spirit." Excerpts of the Gospel of the Hebrew on this point survived in the writings of Origen (c.185-c.254) and Saint Jerome (c.342-420) who apparently accepted it.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/kibotos2002/cfhsquotes.html] Retrieved January 9, 2008.</ref>
{{main|Spiritual gift}}
 
Some Christians claim that when they align themselves with God through Jesus Christ that the Holy Spirit dwells inside of them. Some consider conversion to be the point of filling, others hold to a "later filling," "second work of grace," or "baptism of the Spirit" when a believer begins manifesting various gifts and abilities.  
 
  
The Holy Spirit empowers the believer for ministry in the church and world and allows him/her to commune with the Creator.  
+
Syriac documents, which remain in today's Syrian Orthodox Church, refer to the Holy Spirit as feminine because of the feminine gender of the original Aramaic word "spirit." [[Copts|Coptic]] Christianity also saw the Holy Spirit as the Mother, while regarding the two persons of the Trinity as the Father and Son. So did [[Zinzendorf]] (1700-1760), the founder of Moravianism. Even Martin Luther, the driving force of the Protestant [[Reformation]], was reportedly "not ashamed of speaking of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms," but his feminine terminology in German was translated into English masculine terms.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/kibotos2002/mluther.html] Retrieved Janauary 9, 2008.</ref>
  
The Sevenfold or Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism (accordant to Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, died 397) are the:  1. Spirit of Wisdom;  2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel;  4. Spirit of Strength;  5. Spirit of Knowledge;  6. Spirit of Godliness;  7. Spirit of Holy Fear;  (from De Sacramentis 3.8). Ambrose believed that all of these were poured out on the believer at baptism.
+
More recently, Catholic scholars such as Willi Moll, Franz Mayr, and Lena Boff have also characterized the Holy Spirit as feminine. According to Moll, for example, when the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, the Holy Spirit is passive and the other two persons active; so, the Holy Spirit is feminine, while the other two are masculine.<ref>Willi Moll. ''The Christian Image of Women.'' (Notre Dome: Fides, 1967).</ref> Numerous Catholic artworks have made a special connection between the Holy Spirit and the [[Virgin Mary]], implying a feminine aspect to the Holy Spirit.
  
Another understanding of Gifts of the Spirit holds that different gifts are given to different people, perhaps even at different times, according to the needs of the church, to carry out God's work on earth.  [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] believed that all Christians should work together, each with different functions like the parts of a human body.  See 1 Corinthians 12.
+
Interestingly, the "Messianic Jewish" Christian movement [[B'nai Yashua Synagogues]] Worldwide<ref> Messianic Jews/ ''yourarmstoisrael.org''.</ref> headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, also holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. Based in part on the rabbinical teaching of the femininity of the Shekhinah, there are several other Messianic Jewish-Christian groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World, The Torah and Testimony Revealed, and the Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues, which also counts as canonical the fragmentary Gospel of the Hebrews which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' "Mother."
 
From this perspective, the Holy Spirit can manifest gifts of many kinds, giving:
 
  
*Wisdom
+
There are some scholars associated with "mainstream" Protestant denominations, who while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead. For example, R. P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]) has written on the subject.<ref>R.P. Nettelhorst, "More Than Just a Controversy: All About The Holy Spirit".
*Eyes illuminated to the Word of God
+
[http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm].''www.theology.edu''.Retrieved February 18, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.theology.edu/pneumato.htm]."Pneumatology: Doctrine of the Holy Spirit" ''www.theology.edu''.Retrieved February 18, 2008. </ref><ref>"The Holy Spirit in the Old Testament." [http://www.theology.edu/theology/appen03.htm].''www.theology.edu''. Retrieved February 18, 2008.</ref> Evan Randolph, associated with the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]], has likewise written on the subject.<ref>Church Fathers believed Holy Spirit was Feminine[http://www.geocities.com/kibotos2002/cfhsquotes.html] Quotes. Retrieved February 18, 2008.</ref><ref>Evan Randolph[http://www.geocities.com/athens/agora/6776/Findings.htm] Sources for research on the Holy Spirit. Retrieved February 18, 2008.</ref>
*Knowledge revealed to them
 
*Supernatural faith
 
*Power to Perform Miracles
 
*Ability to Heal or Experience Healing
 
  
or causing the believer to:
+
==Depiction in Art==
 +
[[Image:Koronacja NMP.jpg|thumb|250px|The Holy Spirit, as a dove, and Mary as its particular agent]]
  
*Be made an "apostle" (sent one, missionary)
+
The Holy Spirit is often [[Icon|depicted]] as a [[dove]], based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when he was baptized in the [[Jordan River|Jordan]]. In many paintings of the [[Annunciation]], the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down toward Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the [[Angel]] [[Gabriel]]'s announces [[Christ]]'s coming to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]]. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint [[Gregory the Great]] - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.   
*Be called as a Pastor
 
*Have the ability to teach from the Word of God
 
*Be able to lead and administer
 
*Have a knack for seeing needs and extending mercy
 
*Give
 
*Use one's life to help others
 
*Consistently open one's home in hospitality
 
*Love and forgive supernaturally
 
*Evangelize (speak forth Good News)
 
*Engage in [[Glossolalia]], commonly called "speaking in tongues"
 
*Raise the dead
 
*Engage in [[Xenoglossy]] or Religious Xenoglossia, speaking in an unlearned language
 
*Interpretation of tongues
 
*Hear God speak
 
*Exorcise Evil Spirits that possess a person
 
*Have a strong, personal connection to God
 
*Prophecy
 
*Have visions
 
*Discern spiritual, physical and mental conditions
 
*See [[angels]] and [[demons]] at work
 
 
 
There are four listings of gifts of the Spirit.  {{nkjv|Isaiah|11:2-3|Isaiah 11:2-3}}, {{nkjv|1Corinthians|12:8-10|1 Corinthians 12:8-10}}, {{nkjv|Ephesians|4:11-12|Ephesians 4:11-12}}, and {{nkjv|Romans|12:6-8|Romans 12:6-8}}.  In each of these references it is made clear that these gifts are for the building up of the Body of Christ, or the Church. St. Paul is aware of spiritual power that manifests itself in at least these ways and teaches the church of their presence, role and importance.  These are to be distinguished from talents which all people enjoy because they are created in the image of God. Spiritual gifts provide the power and abilities needed to do the work of Christ in the world.
 
 
 
Some Christians, especially of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], believe that early fathers were especially guided by the Holy Spirit, making their writings almost as canonical as the Testaments.
 
 
 
Numerous other supernatural happenings have been linked to the Holy Spirit, and it is often claimed that the power of the Holy Spirit is manifested more in some than it is in others depending on the individual's openness to God using them and the Spirit's sovereign will. 
 
 
 
'''Life in the Spirit'''
 
 
 
The following is an example of what is generally held by evangelical Christians.
 
 
 
Life in the Spirit is spoken of in many places within the Bible. We note this fact from many theological scholars, including Dr. Gilbert Stafford in his book Theology for Disciples, ''"The church was empowered both to increase numerically and to live a quality of life."'' 
 
We should be able to recognize the work of the Holy Spirit in the lives of all Christians. This can be seen as three separate movements, the conviction of [[sin]], the holiness of character, and for power in service.
 
 
 
The Conviction of Sin
 
This is an on going ministry and work of the Holy Spirit. It was first spoken of by Jesus as recorded in John 16:8.<ref>http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2016:8;&version=31</ref> The purpose of this conviction is for Christians to live set apart lives to honor God. It is through the conviction of sin that the Holy Spirit leads into a life that can be described as having a holiness of character.
 
 
 
With the infusion of the Holy Spirit into the lives of Christians so that they can live with a holiness of character. [[Holiness]], and the Holiness movement, at times has been looked upon as legalism, and sometimes went that path. Yet the call to holiness of character should not be perverted by history. One who follows Jesus and is indwelled by the Spirit and submitting to that Spirit will live a life that has the fruit of the Spirit coming out of it, but this is not only for our own benefit, it is to serve God, and others. 
 
 
 
Finally, we realize the movement of the Holy Spirit giving Christians power for service. This is for serving the kingdom of God. This is where the gifts of the Spirit come in. The purpose of service within the Kingdom of God is to glorify God, and to extend the purposes and ministry of the kingdom, as stated in Acts 1:8.<ref>http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%201:8;&version=31</ref>
 
 
 
==Depiction in art==
 
{{seealso|Language of the birds}}
 
[[Image:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg|thumb|right|The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the ''[[Cathedra|Cathedra Petri]] in [[St Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]].]]
 
The Holy Spirit is often [[Icon|depicted]] as a [[dove]], based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when He was baptized in the [[Jordan River|Jordan]]. In many paintings of the [[Annunciation]], the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the [[Angel]] [[Gabriel]]'s announces [[Christ]]'s coming to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]]. A dove may also be seen at the ear of [[Saint Gregory the Great]] - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.   
 
  
 
The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to [[Noah]] after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the [[presence of God]].
 
The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to [[Noah]] after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the [[presence of God]].
  
The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the [[apostle]]s at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.
+
The Book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the [[apostle]]s at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.
 
 
There are also some artworks that have depicted the Holy Spirit in a feminine sense as seen in the [[Sistine Chapel]].<ref>http://www.geocities.com/athens/agora/6776/</ref>{{verify source|date=August 2007}}
 
 
 
==Non-Trinitarian religious views==
 
In the belief of many [[nontrinitarian]] religions — [[Christadelphians]], [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. These beliefs may be drawn from passages such as these:
 
 
 
"yet for us there is but ''one God, the Father'', from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but ''one Lord, Jesus Christ'', through whom all things came and through whom we live. But not everyone knows this....." - 1 Corinthians 8: 6-7.
 
 
 
The above argument is disputed by Trinitarians because the very same chapter, i.e. 1 Corinthians 8, contains verse 5 which says "Indeed, even though there are so-called gods in heaven...." In other words, there's no exclusivity to the title god. Thus, according to Trinitarians, verse 6 is intended to place emphasis not on the word "God," but the entire phrase "God, the Father." Thereby, this verse does not exclude the existence of "God, the Son" (i.e. Jesus Christ) or "God, the Holy Spirit."
 
 
 
Some Christadelphians believe that the Holy Spirit / Comforter is in fact an Angel <ref>http://www.aletheiacollege.net/angels/angels13.htm</ref>.
 
 
 
===Latter-day Saint views===
 
[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the name "Holy Spirit" has many references, depending on its usage and the context in which it appears. The term "Holy Spirit" can denote the Holy Ghost; Spirit; the Spirit of God; Spirit of the Lord; Spirit of Christ (or [[Light of Christ]]) or even Spirit of Truth. Latter-day Saints teach that these terms are distinct from one another, showing the many aspects and/or functions of God. For example, the ''Spirit of God'' has been used as a synonym for the "[[gift of the Holy Ghost|Holy Ghost]]," which is a usage that denotes the nature of the ''Holy Ghost'', a distinct personage of the Spirit and an actual distinct and separate person of the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]]. ''Spirit of God'' has also been used to denote a force or power which is impersonal and fills the immensity of space. This latter use is not the ''Holy Ghost'', but denotes a "non-personage," as the ''Power of God'' or the ''Light of God'' that emanates everywhere.
 
 
 
Examples of these distinctions are shown within the Bible ([[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]]) verses as:
 
 
 
*''Holy Spirit'' - {{nkjv|Psalm|51:11|Psalm 51:11}}; {{nkjv|Luke|11:13|Luke 11:13}}; {{nkjv|Ephesians|1:13|Ephesians 1:13}}
 
*''Spirit'' - {{nkjv|Romans|8:16|Romans 8:16}}
 
*''Spirit of God'' - {{nkjv|Genesis|:2|Genesis 1:2}}; {{nkjv|Exodus|31:1|Exodus 31:1}}; {{nkjv|1Samuel|11:6|1 Samuel 11:6}}; {{nkjv|Romans|15:19|Romans 15:19}}
 
*''Spirit of the Lord'' - {{nkjv|Judges|3:10|Judges 3:10}}; {{nkjv|Isaiah|11:2|Isaiah 11:2}}; {{nkjv|Acts|8:39|Acts 8:39}}
 
*''Spirit of Christ'' - {{nkjv|Romans|8:9|Romans 8:9}} (notice here how the word "Spirit" is linked to "Spirit of God" and the "Spirit of Christ"); {{nkjv|1Peter|1:11|1 Peter 1:11}}
 
*''Light of Christ'' - {{nkjv|2Corinthians|4:4|2 Corinthians 4:4}}; {{nkjv|Ephesians|5:14|Ephesians 5:14}}; {{nkjv|1John|1:7|1 John 1:7}}
 
*''Spirit of Truth'' - {{nkjv|John|14:17|John 14:17}}; {{nkjv|John|16:13|John 16:13}}; {{nkjv|1John|4:6|1 John 4:6}}
 
 
 
There are many other such references within the [[Book of Mormon]], [[Doctrine and Covenants]] and [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]].
 
 
 
In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the Holy Ghost is considered a third and individual member of the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]]; by virtue of their holy nature and the everlasting covenant existent between them, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit operate as 'One God' (united in the attributes of perfection and pursuit of a common, divine goal). The Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone. Though The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is technically "Non-Trinitarian," their belief in the Godhead is often misinterpreted as an endorsement of Trinitarianism.
 
 
 
===Jehovah Witness views===
 
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] point out<ref>http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm</ref> that personification in the Bible occurs often, including terms such as ''wisdom'', ''sin and death'', ''water'' and ''blood'', and does not indicate that the subject is a person. The fact that the Holy Spirit is referred to impersonally several times is used to assert that references of this manner would not occur in such frequency if this was a divine member of God, just as it does not occur with the Father or the Son. Additionally, at [[baptism of Jesus|Jesus' baptism]] in {{nkjv|Matthew|3:16|Matthew 3:16}}, Jesus received God's spirit at that time, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in {{nkjv|Acts|7:55-56|Acts 7:55, 56}} where he sees only the Son and God in heaven.
 
 
 
Also noted, in regards to the mentions of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit together (as in {{nkjv|2Corinthians|13:14|2 Corinthians 13:14}}; {{nkjv|1Corinthians|12:4-6|1 Corinthians 12:4-6}}; {{nkjv|Matthew|28:19|Matthew 28:19}}), nontrinitarians bring out that none of these verses offer any evidence of the equality of nature or authority among them, just as the numerous simultaneous references to "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" or "Peter, James and John" do not infer an equality in any manner. Alvan Lamson says in ''The Church of the First Three Centuries'': "The modern popular doctrine of the Trinity . . . derives no support from the language of [[Justin Martyr]]: and this observation may be extended to all the ante-[[Nicene]] Fathers; that is, to all Christian writers for three centuries after the birth of Christ. It is true, they speak of the Father, Son, and . . . holy Spirit, but not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One, in any sense now admitted by Trinitarians. The very reverse is the fact." In fairness however, it should be noted that while not explicitly expressing the Trinity in words these very Apocrypha writings from Justin Martyr and many others of ante-Nicene Fathers from C.E. 70 on, do refer to the duality of Jesus and the Father, Jesus being worshiped and referred to as their God.<ref> Jehovah is The Almighty Creator. Jesus is the first born of all creation. Holy Spirit is Jehovah God's active force.
 
http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/</ref>
 
 
 
===Unity Church views===
 
The [[Unity Church]]'s co-founder [[Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|Charles Fillmore]] considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God.
 
 
 
<blockquote>To the Christian metaphysician the Holy Spirit is just what the name implies, the whole Spirit of God in action. In the Hebrew Jehovah is written Yahweh, Yah being masculine and weh feminine.<br/>
 
<br/>
 
In the New Testament Christ stands for Jehovah. Jesus talked a great deal about the Holy Spirit: that it would bear witness of Him, come with Him, and help Him to the end of the age.<br/>
 
<br/>
 
Do not be misled by the personality of the Holy Spirit and the reference to it as "he." This was the bias of the Oriental mind, making God and all forms of the Deity masculine.<br/>
 
<br/>
 
Holy Spirit is the love of Jehovah taking care of the human family, and love is always feminine. Love is the great harmonizer and healer, and whoever calls upon God as Holy Spirit for healing is calling upon the divine love.  ''Jesus Christ Heals'', pp. 182-183</blockquote>
 
 
 
===Roman Catholic views on unitarianism===
 
There are many Roman Catholic writings that attempt to explain how the Holy Spirit, prior to Pentecost, might have been mistaken as not being a Person of the Trinity. One, the ''[[New Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' states: "The O[ld] T[estament] clearly does not envisage God's spirit as a person … God's spirit is simply God's power. If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of [[Yahweh]] acts exteriorly. … The majority of N[ew] T[estament] texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God." (''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1967, Vol. 14, pp. 574, 575).
 
 
 
If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of [[Yahweh]] acts exteriorly (Isa. 48:16; 63:11; 32:15). Very rarely do the OT writers attribute to God's spirit emotions or intellectual activity (Isa. 63:10; [[Wisdom of Solomon]] 1:3-7). When such expressions are used, ''they are mere figures of speech'' that are explained by the fact that the [[RUAH]] was regarded also as the seat of intellectual acts and feeling (Gen. 41:8).
 
 
 
Neither is there found in the OT or in [[rabbinical]] [[literature]] the notion that God's spirit is an intermediary being between God and the world. This activity is proper to the angels, although to them is ascribed some of the activity that elsewhere is ascribed to the spirit of God"
 
  
This encyclopedia further states:
+
==Constructive Assessment==
 
+
The doctrine of the Holy Spirit is rather enigmatic because, as compared with the Father and the Son, of whom we can have concrete human images, the Holy Spirit lacks concrete imagery except non-human images such as dove and wind. Furthermore, whereas the Son can refer to Jesus in history, the Holy Spirit normally cannot refer to any agent in the realm of creation. These can perhaps explain the diversity of views on the Holy Spirit. But, amidst the diversity of views, whether they are trinitarian or nontrinitarian, or whether they are Eastern or Western, there seems to be one trend which has incessantly popped up in spite of the Church's official rejection of it. It is to understand the Holy Spirit in feminine terms. It cannot be entirely rejected if [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:27 is meant to say that the image of God is both male and female. Also, if it is true that men and women were created in this androgynous image of God, we can surmise that just as the Son is manifested by a man—Jesus, the feminine Holy Spirit is linked to, or can be represented by, a woman. Spiritually, then, the Holy Spirit would represent the Bride of Christ. Perhaps this can help to address the enigmatic nature of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit.
"… the NT (New Testament) concepts of the Spirit of God are largely a continuation of those of the OT. … The majority of NT texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God.
 
 
 
When a quasi-personal activity is ascribed to God's spirit, e.g., speaking, hindering, desiring, dwelling (Acts 8:29; 16:7; Rom.8:9), one is not justified in concluding immediately that in these passages God's spirit is regarded as a [[Person]]; the same expressions are used in regard to rhetorically personified things or abstract ideas (see Rom.6:6; 7:17).
 
 
 
Thus the context of the phrase 'blasphemy against the spirit' (Mat.12:31; cf. Mat.12:28; Luke 11:20) shows that reference is being made to the power of God."
 
 
 
Thus, it must be noted that Roman Catholic teaching has always held the Holy Spirit, however depicted, to be a distinct Person of the Trinity, not just an aspect or manifestation of some attribute of the Father or the Son.
 
 
 
According to those who hold the minority (and, for Catholics, heretical) view of [[Binitarianism]], the Holy Spirit is not a separate being, but the Father and the Son are.  One such group, the [[Living Church of God]] teaches this about the Holy Spirit, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe ({{nkjv|1Kings|8:27|1 Kings 8:27}}; {{nkjv|Psalm|139:7|Psalm 139:7}}; {{nkjv|Jeremiah|23:24|Jeremiah 23:24}}). It was through the Spirit that God created all things ({{nkjv|Genesis|1:1-2|Genesis 1:1-2}}; {{nkjv|Revelation|4:11|Revelation 4:11}}). It is the power by which Christ maintains the universe ({{nkjv|Hebrews|1:2-3|Hebrews 1:2-3}}). It is given to all who repent of their sins and are baptized ({{nkjv|Acts|2:38-39|Acts 2:38-39}}) and is the power ({{nkjv|Acts|1:8|Acts 1:8}}; {{nkjv|2Timothy|1:6-7|2 Timothy 1:6-7}}) by which all believers may be "overcomers" ({{nkjv|Romans|8:37|Romans 8:37}}; {{nkjv|Revelation|2:26-27|Revelation 2:26-27}}) and will be led to eternal life" (Official Statement of Fundamental Beliefs).
 
 
 
The view that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person has been considered to be heretical by mainstream Christianity, including Roman Catholicism.  For example, [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] referred to some of those as [[Semi-Arian]]s and ''Pneumatomachi'' ("spirit-fighters") and called them, "A sort of monstrous, half-formed people of two natures … Semi-Arians … hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father...but has been begotten without beginning and not in time … But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son" (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472)
 
 
 
==Other views==
 
===Rastafarian view===
 
As a movement that developed out of Christianity, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] has its own unique interpretation of both the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is [[Haile Selassie]] who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "''Hola''") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see '[[Iandi|I and I]]'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true [[church]] is the human body, and that it is this church (or "''structure''") that contains the Holy Spirit.
 
 
 
===Baha'i===
 
In the [[Baha'i Faith]], the Holy Spirit, also known as the ''Most Great Spirit'', is seen as the bounty of God.<ref name="saq">{{cite book |author = `Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink = `Abdu'l-Bahá |origdate = 1904-06 |year = 1981 |title = Some Answered Questions |publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location = Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id = ISBN 0877431906 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-25.html | chapter = The Holy Spirit | pages = pp. 108-109}}</ref>  It is usually used to to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as [[Manifestations of God]], and include among others [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Bahá'u'lláh]].<ref name="rob1">{{cite book |last = Taherzadeh |first = Adib | year = 1976 |title = The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853-63 |publisher = George Ronald |location = Oxford, UK |id = ISBN 0853982708 | pages = p. 10}}</ref>  In Bahá'í belief  the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with His messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the [[burning bush]] to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, [[Jesus#Baptism and Temptation|the dove]] to Jesus, the angel [[Gabriel]] to Muhammad, and the Holy Maiden to Bahá'u'lláh.<ref name="abdo">{{cite journal | journal = Bahá'í Studies Review | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | year = 1994 | title = Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles | url = http://bahai-library.com/bsr/bsr04/43_abdo_femalespirit.htm | first = Lil | last = Abdo}}</ref> The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes.<ref name="saq2">{{cite book |author = `Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink = `Abdu'l-Bahá |origdate = 1904-06 |year = 1981 |title = Some Answered Questions |publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location = Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id = ISBN 0877431906 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-27.html | chapter = The Trinity | pages = pp. 113-115}}</ref>
 
 
 
===Judaism===
 
Judaism as a whole does not have a developed [[pneumatology]]. Most Jews consider the Holy Spirit to be a thoroughly Christian concept. "The designation of the third person of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost, stems from a Hebrew figure of speech, the ''ruah ha-qodesh'' ("holy spirit").  In Jewish usage, however, this concept was never identified with a separate person, but with a Divine power which could fill men, as, for instance, the prophets." - ''The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1943, 1969, see: "Trinity," pp. 308.  See also: ''[[Shekhinah]]''. In Genesis 1:2 there is the reference to "wind of God" (''ruah elohim'') hovering over the face of the waters and intimately involved in Creation; ''ruah'' literally translates as "wind, breeze" but also as "breath, spirit" and, therefore, "soul."
 
 
 
===Islam===
 
{{main|Holy Spirit (Islam)}}
 
{{expert-subject|Religion}}
 
Many [[Islam]]ic interpretations consider the Holy Spirit (Arabic: ruhul qudus) to be another name for the [[archangel]] [[Gabriel]], signifying its role as an Agent of Revelation. In [[Sura]] 2.97, the [[Qur'an]] states that Gabriel delivered the Word of God ([[Allah]]) to the [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. The actual term "Holy Spirit" الروح القدس is used in the following verses in the Qur'an: [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.087 2:87];[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.253 2:253] ;[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/005.qmt.html#005.110 5:110]; and [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/016.qmt.html#016.102 16:102.] In these verses, the Holy Spirit is strongly supportive of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad in their divine missions. The Qur'an also mentions the Holy Spirit in Sura 21:91, yet the term "Our Spirit" is used. The 91st Ayah of Sura Al-Anbiya (21:91) is in clear reference to the Virgin Mary and Jesus, while "Our Spirit" refers to Gabriel. In Islam, angels are genderless and have no will of their own, meaning it is impossible for them to disobey God, (please see: [[Angels in Islam]]).
 
 
 
===Mandaeanism===
 
{{main|Ruha d-Qudsha}}
 
 
 
===Comparisons in fiction===
 
In several popular [[role-playing game]]s, the measure of ''Honour'' or ''Grace'' to [[Paladin (gaming)|Paladins]] can be superficially compared to the views towards the Holy Spirit. The Paladin, by doing good deeds and helping others (the [[Non-player character|NPC]]s), is favoured by the [[List of Greyhawk deities|deity]] he serves, which translates into points for experience and honour. These points mark his ability to do Paladin spells like healing, repulsing undead, blessing, giving strength etc. which are usually dependent on his level of [[charisma]]. When doing honourless or evil actions, Paladin is punished by his deity with removal of these abilities.
 
 
 
Another possible parallel is [[Force (Star Wars)|the Force]] of [[Star Wars]] and the [[Jedi]] knights, that has much in common with the concept of Paladins in the role-playing games. The Force resembles some interpretations of the Holy Spirit, in that it flows between living beings and holds the universe together. A Jedi, by having connection to the Force, can use it to obtain abilities that vaguely resemble some of the 'gifts' of the Holy Spirit. However, the Holy Spirit in mainstream Christianity is believed to be a personal being, and one that is served by the believer, whereas the Force is impersonal, and works at the behest of the character who is wielding it. The Force is more usually compared to the [[Qi|Chi]].
 
 
 
[[J.R.R. Tolkien]], Christian fantasy author, in the [[Ainulindalë]] speaks about the [[Secret Fire|Flame Imperishable]] by which the [[Ilúvatar]] the Creator made the [[Ainu (Middle-earth)|Ainur]] and brought Being to the [[Arda|world]] of his mythos. The Flame was not a separate being, but was in the Creator. [[Gandalf]] also mentions the Secret Fire which he claims he serves, before the [[Balrog]] (Gandalf is of the Maiar, beings parallel in Tolkien's mythology to angels). This description is to be understood as a model of the Holy Spirit, which appeared at [[Pentecost]] as "tongues of fire" which descended on the heads of the Apostles.
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
Line 271: Line 113:
 
*[[Jesus]]
 
*[[Jesus]]
 
*[[Trinity]]
 
*[[Trinity]]
*[[Fleur de lys]]
+
*[[Virgin Mary]]
*[[God the Father]]
 
*[[The Virgin Mary]]
 
*[[Prevenient Grace]]
 
 
*[[Agape]]
 
*[[Agape]]
 
*[[Pneumatology]]
 
*[[Pneumatology]]
 
*[[Revelation]]
 
*[[Revelation]]
*[[Slain in the Spirit]]
 
*[[Christian anarchism]]
 
 
*[[Athanasian Creed]]
 
*[[Athanasian Creed]]
 
*[[A Course in Miracles]]
 
*[[A Course in Miracles]]
*[[Prana]]
+
 
 +
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>
+
 
 +
* Burgess, Stanley M. ''The Holy Spirit: Eastern Christian Traditions.'' Hendrickson Publishers, 1989. ISBN 9780913573815
 +
* Küng, Hans, and Jürgen Moltmann. ''Conflicts About the Holy Spirit.'' Seabury Press, 1980. ISBN 978-0816420353
 +
* Schandorff, Esther Dech. ''The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit: A Bibliography Showing Its Chronological Development.'' ATLA bibliography series, no. 28. Scarecrow Press, 1995. ISBN 9780810825239
 +
* Schaupp, Joan P. ''Woman: Image of the Holy Spirit.'' International Scholars Publications, 1996. ISBN 9781573091152
 +
* Stanton, Graham, et al. ''The Holy Spirit and Christian Origins: Essays in Honor of James D.G. Dunn.'' Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 2004. ISBN 9780802828224
 +
* Stephens, Bruce M. ''The Holy Spirit in American Protestant Thought, 1750-1850.'' Studies in American religion, v. 59. E. Mellen Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0773491939
 +
* Wright, Christopher J. H. ''Knowing the Holy Spirit Through the Old Testament.'' IVP Academic, 2006. ISBN 9780830825912
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://www.holyspiritinteractive.com Holy Spirit Interactive]
+
All links retrieved January 13, 2018.
*[http://thegoodseed.com/spirit.htm Who or What is the Holy Spirit?] Christian page that discusses that Holy Spirit is not a person, and idenitifes the origins of trinity with pagan triune gods
+
 
*[http://www.blessedlady.com/holyguide.htm Holy Spirit: Scripture Reference Guide]
+
* [http://www.spirithome.com/spirwork.html The Work Of the Holy Spirit]. ''www.spirithome.com''.
*[http://www.spirithome.com/spirwork.html a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does]
+
* [http://www.new-testament-christian.com/HolySpirit.html How To Live By The Power Of The Holy Spirit] Protestant-Christian.'' www.new-testament-christian.com''.
*[http://www.the-branch.org/God's_Wife_Holy_Spirit_Mother_Shekinah_Lois_Roden Lois Roden's studies on the Feminine aspect of the Godhead]
 
*[http://www.new-testament-christian.com/HolySpirit.html How To Live By The Power Of The Holy Spirit] (Protestant Christian)
 
  
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
{{Credit|148730146}}
 
{{Credit|148730146}}

Revision as of 16:11, 25 January 2023

Part of a series of articles on
Christianity
Christianity

Foundations
Jesus Christ
Church · Theology
New Covenant · Supersessionism
Dispensationalism
Apostles · Kingdom · Gospel
History of Christianity · Timeline

Bible
Old Testament · New Testament
Books · Canon · Apocrypha
Septuagint · Decalogue
Birth · Resurrection
Sermon on the Mount
Great Commission
Translations · English
Inspiration · Hermeneutics

Christian theology
Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit)
History of · Theology · Apologetics
Creation · Fall of Man · Covenant · Law
Grace · Faith · Justification · Salvation
Sanctification · Theosis · Worship
Church · Sacraments · Eschatology

History and traditions
Early · Councils
Creeds · Missions
Great Schism · Crusades · Reformation
Great Awakenings · Great Apostasy
Restorationism · Nontrinitarianism
Thomism · Arminianism
Congregationalism

Topics in Christianity
Movements · Denominations
Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer
Music · Liturgy · Calendar
Symbols · Art · Criticism

Important figures
Apostle Paul · Church Fathers
Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine
Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe
Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley
Arius · Marcion of Sinope
Pope · Patriarch of Constantinople

Christianity Portal

The Holy Spirit refers to the third person of the Trinity in Christianity. In Judaism the Holy Spirit refers to the life-giving breath or spirit of God, as the Hebrew word for "spirit" in the Hebrew Bible is ruach (breath). The Greek word for "spirit" in the New Testament is pneuma (air, wind). The New Testament has a wealth of profound references to the spiritual work of the Holy Spirit among believers and in the Church.

The Trinitarian doctrine of the Holy Spirit as a distinct "person" which shares, from the beginning of existence, the same substance with the Father and the Son was proposed by Tertullian (c.160-c.225) and established through the Councils of Nicea (325) and Constantinople (381). Especially the Cappadocian Fathers were instrumental in helping to establish it. Later a technical disagreement arose about whether the Holy Spirit "proceeds" only from the Father or from both the Father and the Son, eventually occasioning the Great Schism between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism in 1054.

While the work of the Holy Spirit is widely known, we are hard-pressed to arrive at a precise definition. This may be because, compared with the Father and the Son, there is a lack of concrete imagery of the Holy Spirit. One issue is its gender. The Hebrew word for "spirit," ruach, is of feminine gender, while the Greek word pneuma is neuter. Despite the Church's official doctrine that the Holy Spirit is masculine, individuals and groups throughout the history of Christianity, including luminaries like St. Jerome (c.342-420) and Martin Luther (1483-1546), have repeatedly proposed that the Holy Spirit is feminine. In rabbinic Judaism the Holy Spirit is equated with the Shekhinah, the mother aspect of God. In light of the biblical notion of the androgynous image of God who created male and female in his image (Gen. 1:27), it has been suggested that a feminine Holy Spirit would be the appropriate counterpart to the male figure of the Son, who is manifest in Jesus Christ. The work of the Holy Spirit as comforter, intercessor and source of inspiration could be represented in the ministrations of Mary and other holy women of God.

File:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg
The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the Cathedra Petri in Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome.

The Holy Spirit in Judaism

In the Hebrew scriptures, the Holy Spirit enabled the prophets to speak with God's voice.

The Holy Spirit in Judaism is not distinguished from God as a "person," but is seen more as an aspect, essence, or attribute of God. The word for spirit in Hebrew is ruach, and it is closely related to the concept of breath. In the Book of Genesis, God's spirit hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby making the Creation possible (Gen. 1:2). God blew the breath of life into Adam (Gen. 2:7). The Book of Job affirms that "The Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given me life" (Job 33:4;). God is the God of the spirits of all flesh (Num. 16:22). The breath of animals also is derived from Him (Gen. 6:17; Eccl. 3:19-21; Isa. 42:5).

Thus, all creatures live only through the spirit given by God. However, the terms "spirit of God" and "spirit of the Lord" are not limited to the sense of God as a life-giving spirit. He "pours out" His spirit upon those whom He has chosen to execute His will. This spirit imbues them with spiritual power or wisdom, making them capable of heroic speech and action (Gen. 41:38; Ex. 31:3; Num. 24:2; Judges 3:10; II Sam. 23:2). The spirit of God rests upon man (Isa. 6:2); it surrounds him like a garment (Judges 6:34); it falls upon him and holds him like a hand (Ezek. 6:5, 37:1). It may also be taken away from the chosen one and transferred to some one else (Num. 6:17). It may enter into man and speak with his voice (II Sam. 23:2; Ezek. ii. 2). The prophet sees and hears by means of the spirit (Num. I Sam. 10:6; II Sam. 23:2, etc). The prophet Joel predicted (2: 28-29) that in the Day of the Lord "I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions: And also upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those days will I pour out my Spirit."

What the Bible calls "Spirit of Yahweh (the Lord)" and "Spirit of Elohim (God)" is called in the Talmud and Midrash "Holy Spirit" ("Ruach ha-Kodesh"). The specific expression "Holy Spirit" also occurs in Ps. 52:11 and in Isa. 63:10-11.

In rabbinical literature, the Shekhinah is often referred to instead of the Holy Spirit. It is said of the Shekhinah, as of the Holy Spirit, that it rests upon a person, inspires the righteous, and dwells among the congregation as the Queen of the Sabbath. Like ruach, Shekhinah is a feminine noun, and its function among the congregation and with regard to certain especially holy rabbis, is specifically bride-like.

The Holy Spirit in the New Testament

The baptism of Jesus

Many passages in the New Testament speak of the Holy Spirit. The word for spirit in New Testament Greek is pneuma, which means air or wind. Unlike the Hebrew ruach, it is a neuter noun, and the masculine pronoun is used for it.

The Holy Spirit made a first appearance, coming upon Jesus in the form of a dove at the beginning of his ministry when he was baptized by John the Baptist in the Jordan River (Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-22, John 1:31-33). But the real appearance of the Holy Spirit is said to have been recognized in the words of Jesus, speaking to his disciples sometime near his death (John 14:15-18). Jesus reportedly described the Holy Spirit as the promised "Advocate" (John 14:26, New American Bible). In the Great Commission, he instructs his disciples to baptize all men in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to his followers, uniting them with himself, and in himself also uniting them with the Father. After his resurrection, Jesus is said to have told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Spirit," and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of the Book of Acts. On the first Pentecost, Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language.

The Spirit is said to dwell inside every true Christian, each person's body being God's temple (1 Corinthians 3:16). The Holy Spirit is depicted as a "Counselor" or "Helper" (Paraclete), guiding people in the way of the truth. The Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Spirit. A list of gifts of the Spirit includes the charismatic gifts of prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge.

Third Person of the Trinity

The New Testament talks about the triadic formula for baptism—"in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost"—in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19). This formula can also be seen in second-century Christian writings such as the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch (c.35-107) and Tertullian (c.160-c.225) and third-century writers such as Hippolytus (c.170-c.236), Cyprian (d.258), and Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270). It apparently became a fixed expression.

The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a French miniature from the fourteenth century

However, the exact nature of the Holy Spirit and its relationship to the other components of the Godhead already became a matter of significant debate within the Christian community by the second century. Many criticized the early triadic formula of teaching "three gods" instead of one. In order to safeguard monotheism, a theological movement called "Monarchianism" emphasized the oneness of the triad. One form of this movement, Modalistic Monarchianism, expressed the operation of the triad as three modes of God's being and activity. Another form of the movement, Dynamistic Monarchianism, saw God the Father as supreme, with the Son and the Holy Spirit as creatures rather than being co-eternal with the Father. The influential Church Father Tertullian responded to this situation by maintaining that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are neither merely three modes of one and the same God nor three entirely separate things, but rather "distinct" from one another. Tertullian used the expression of "three persons" (tres personae). However, the Latin word persona in those days meant legal ownership or a character, not necessarily a distinct self-conscious being. Thus three distinct "persons" were still of "one substance" (una substantia). It was in this context that Tertullian also used the word Trinity (trinitas). The terms that Tertullian coined considerably influenced the later Councils of Nicea (325) and of Constantinople (381).

In the fourth century, the aftermath of the Arian controversy led to numerous debates about the Holy Spirit. Eunomians, Semi-Arians, Acacians, for example, all admitted the triple personality of the Godhead but denied the doctrine of "consubstantiality" (sharing one substance). The Council of Constantinople established "consubstantiality" of the Holy Spirit with the Father and Son. It also declared that the Holy Spirit was not "created," but that it "proceeded" from the Father. Thus, the Holy Spirit was now firmly established as the Third Person of the Trinity, really distinct from the Father and the Son, but also existing with them from the beginning and sharing the same divine substance.

Procession of the Holy Spirit

The Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father" (John 16:25). The term "procession" regarding the Holy Spirit was made popular by the Cappadocian Fathers. They even made a distinction between the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit within the Godhead, on the one hand, and the "economic" procession of the same for the providence of salvation in the world, on the other.

The procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father is similar to the generation of the Son from the Father because neither procession nor generation means creation. Both procession and generation are immanent operations within the Godhead, although they can also occur in the "economic" sense as well. Procession and generation are also similar because generation is a kind of procession. However, both are different from each other because the procession of the Holy Spirit is usually understood to be the activity of the divine will, while the generation of the Son is rather the activity of the divine intelligence.

There is a controversial technical difference between the views of Eastern and Western Christianity regarding the involvement of the Son in the procession of the Holy Spirit. This is the difference of single vs. double procession. Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds only from the Father, i.e., from the Father through the Son. By contrast, Western Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church and most Protestant denominations, teach that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. Hence the Roman Catholic version of the Nicene Creed reads: "We believe in the Holy Spirit … who proceeds from the Father and the Son." Historically, this addition of "and the Son" (filioque) was made in Spain in the sixth century, and it was strongly objected to by the Orthodox Church, which eventually declared it a heresy, leading ultimately to the Great Schism between Catholicism and Orthodox in 1054.

Additional Interpretations

Roman Catholicism

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the Apostles Creed's article I believe in the Holy Spirit:

"No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God" (152). Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who "unveils" Christ to us "will not speak on his own." Such properly divine self-effacement explains why "the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him," while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them. (687)

As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states:

The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit. (737)
Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity. (738)
Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body. (739)

Orthodoxy

Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. Eastern Catholics and Oriental Orthodox also coincide with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter. The Holy Spirit plays a central role in Orthodox worship: the liturgy usually begins with a prayer to the Holy Spirit and invocations made prior to sacraments are addressed to the Spirit. In particular, the epiclesis prayer which blesses the eucharistic bread and wine is meant to invite the Holy Spirit to descend during the Holy Communion.

Protestantism

Most Protestant churches are basically trinitarian in nature, affirming the belief that the Holy Spirit is a distinct "person" sharing the same substance with God the Father and God the Son, but some of them place unique emphasis on the Holy Spirit or hold particular views about the Holy Spirit that set them somewhat apart from the norm.

The apostles receive the gift of the Holy Spirit, as described in the Book of Acts.

For example, Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem. Pentecostalism also believes that, once received, the Holy Spirit is God working through the recipient to perform the gifts of the Spirit. These gifts are portrayed in 1 Corinthians chapter 12. The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, especially the gift of speaking in tongues. Many Pentecostals hold that the "baptism of the Holy Spirit" is a distinct form of the Christian regeneration, separate from the "born-again" experience of conversion or water baptism. Many believe that Holy Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation.

Dispensationalism teaches that the current time is the age of the Holy Spirit, or church age, a teaching that can be found in Medieval writers such as Joachim of Fiore and St. Bonaventure. Late nineteenth-century dispensationalists understood history as a process of seven dispensations, the last dispensation of which would be the thousand-year reign of Christ.

The expression Third Wave was coined by Christian theologian C. Peter Wagner around 1980 to describe what followers believe to be the recent historical work of the Holy Spirit. It is part of a larger movement known as the Neocharismatic movement. The Third Wave involves those Christians who have allegedly received Pentecostal-like experiences, however Third Wavers claim no association with either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements.

Nontrinitarian Views

In the belief of many nontrinitarian denominations—Christadelphians, Unitarians, The Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses, for instance—the Holy Spirit is viewed in ways that do not conform to the traditional formula of the Councils of Nicea and Constantinople. For Christadelphians, Unitarians, and Jehovah's Witnesses, the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person of the Trinity but rather merely God's spiritual power. This is similar to the Jewish view. Some Christadelphians even believe that the Holy Spirit is in fact an angel sent by God.[1]

Jehovah's Witnesses teach that[2] the Holy Spirit is not a person or a divine member of the Godhead. At his baptism Jesus received God's spirit (Matthew 3:16), but according to Witnesses it conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Also, regarding Jesus' statement: "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark 13:32), Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing there, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in (Acts 7:55, 56), where he sees only the Son and God in heaven. The Holy Spirit is thus the spiritual power of God, not a distinct person.

The nontrinitarianism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a little different. It teaches that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are separate from one another, although they are "one God" in the sense that they are one "in purpose." The Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone.

Femininity of the Holy Spirit

To begin with, the Hebrew word for "spirit" in the Hebrew Bible is ruach, meaning breath, and its gender is feminine. Also, in Greek, Logos is the masculine term for Word, and its feminine counterpart is Sophia, meaning Wisdom; so, if the Son is the incarnation of the Logos, the Holy Spirit could be considered to to have something to do with the Sophia, thus being feminine. For these and other reasons, numerous Christian individuals and groups have considered that the gender of the Holy Spirit is feminine, contrary to the official Church view of the Holy Spirit as masculine. Some early Christians apparently took this view. For example, the Gospel of Thomas (v. 101) speaks of the Holy Spirit as Jesus' "true mother," and the Gospel of the Hebrews refers to "my mother, the Holy Spirit." Excerpts of the Gospel of the Hebrew on this point survived in the writings of Origen (c.185-c.254) and Saint Jerome (c.342-420) who apparently accepted it.[3]

Syriac documents, which remain in today's Syrian Orthodox Church, refer to the Holy Spirit as feminine because of the feminine gender of the original Aramaic word "spirit." Coptic Christianity also saw the Holy Spirit as the Mother, while regarding the two persons of the Trinity as the Father and Son. So did Zinzendorf (1700-1760), the founder of Moravianism. Even Martin Luther, the driving force of the Protestant Reformation, was reportedly "not ashamed of speaking of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms," but his feminine terminology in German was translated into English masculine terms.[4]

More recently, Catholic scholars such as Willi Moll, Franz Mayr, and Lena Boff have also characterized the Holy Spirit as feminine. According to Moll, for example, when the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, the Holy Spirit is passive and the other two persons active; so, the Holy Spirit is feminine, while the other two are masculine.[5] Numerous Catholic artworks have made a special connection between the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, implying a feminine aspect to the Holy Spirit.

Interestingly, the "Messianic Jewish" Christian movement B'nai Yashua Synagogues Worldwide[6] headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, also holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. Based in part on the rabbinical teaching of the femininity of the Shekhinah, there are several other Messianic Jewish-Christian groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World, The Torah and Testimony Revealed, and the Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues, which also counts as canonical the fragmentary Gospel of the Hebrews which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' "Mother."

There are some scholars associated with "mainstream" Protestant denominations, who while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead. For example, R. P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the Southern Baptist Convention) has written on the subject.[7][8][9] Evan Randolph, associated with the Episcopal Church, has likewise written on the subject.[10][11]

Depiction in Art

The Holy Spirit, as a dove, and Mary as its particular agent

The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down toward Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the Angel Gabriel's announces Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.

The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God.

The Book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.

Constructive Assessment

The doctrine of the Holy Spirit is rather enigmatic because, as compared with the Father and the Son, of whom we can have concrete human images, the Holy Spirit lacks concrete imagery except non-human images such as dove and wind. Furthermore, whereas the Son can refer to Jesus in history, the Holy Spirit normally cannot refer to any agent in the realm of creation. These can perhaps explain the diversity of views on the Holy Spirit. But, amidst the diversity of views, whether they are trinitarian or nontrinitarian, or whether they are Eastern or Western, there seems to be one trend which has incessantly popped up in spite of the Church's official rejection of it. It is to understand the Holy Spirit in feminine terms. It cannot be entirely rejected if Genesis 1:27 is meant to say that the image of God is both male and female. Also, if it is true that men and women were created in this androgynous image of God, we can surmise that just as the Son is manifested by a man—Jesus, the feminine Holy Spirit is linked to, or can be represented by, a woman. Spiritually, then, the Holy Spirit would represent the Bride of Christ. Perhaps this can help to address the enigmatic nature of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit.

See also

Notes

  1. Angel www.aletheiacollege.net. Retrieved October 15, 2007.
  2. Holy Spirit. www.watchtower.org. Retrieved October 15, 2007.
  3. [1] Retrieved January 9, 2008.
  4. [2] Retrieved Janauary 9, 2008.
  5. Willi Moll. The Christian Image of Women. (Notre Dome: Fides, 1967).
  6. Messianic Jews/ yourarmstoisrael.org.
  7. R.P. Nettelhorst, "More Than Just a Controversy: All About The Holy Spirit". [3].www.theology.edu.Retrieved February 18, 2008.
  8. [4]."Pneumatology: Doctrine of the Holy Spirit" www.theology.edu.Retrieved February 18, 2008.
  9. "The Holy Spirit in the Old Testament." [5].www.theology.edu. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
  10. Church Fathers believed Holy Spirit was Feminine[6] Quotes. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
  11. Evan Randolph[7] Sources for research on the Holy Spirit. Retrieved February 18, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Burgess, Stanley M. The Holy Spirit: Eastern Christian Traditions. Hendrickson Publishers, 1989. ISBN 9780913573815
  • Küng, Hans, and Jürgen Moltmann. Conflicts About the Holy Spirit. Seabury Press, 1980. ISBN 978-0816420353
  • Schandorff, Esther Dech. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit: A Bibliography Showing Its Chronological Development. ATLA bibliography series, no. 28. Scarecrow Press, 1995. ISBN 9780810825239
  • Schaupp, Joan P. Woman: Image of the Holy Spirit. International Scholars Publications, 1996. ISBN 9781573091152
  • Stanton, Graham, et al. The Holy Spirit and Christian Origins: Essays in Honor of James D.G. Dunn. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 2004. ISBN 9780802828224
  • Stephens, Bruce M. The Holy Spirit in American Protestant Thought, 1750-1850. Studies in American religion, v. 59. E. Mellen Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0773491939
  • Wright, Christopher J. H. Knowing the Holy Spirit Through the Old Testament. IVP Academic, 2006. ISBN 9780830825912

External links

All links retrieved January 13, 2018.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.