Difference between revisions of "Guarana" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | '''Guarana''' is the common name for a [[South American]] woody [[vine]] or sprawling [[shrub]], '''''Paullinia cupana''''' in the [[Sapindaceae]] family, with large, pinnately compound [[evergreen]] leaves with five leaflets, clusters of | + | '''Guarana''' is the common name for a [[South American]] woody [[vine]] or sprawling [[shrub]], '''''Paullinia cupana''''' in the [[Sapindaceae]] family, with large, pinnately compound [[evergreen]] [[leaf|leaves]] with five leaflets, clusters of small [[flower]]s, and red to brown globular fruits that split open at maturity and have black seeds. Guarana also is the name of a nonalcoholic carbonated beverage produced from the seeds. The Guarana plant is native to the [[Amazon basin]] and especially common in [[Brazil]]. |
| − | + | As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive [[toxin]] that repels [[pathogen]]s from the berry and its seeds.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18068204 Ashihara H, Sano H, Crozier A. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. Phytochemistry. 2008 Feb;69(4):841-56.]</ref> | |
| − | also | + | |
| + | ==Overview and description== | ||
| + | ''Paullinia cupana'', or guarana, is a member of the Sapindaceae, a family of [[flowering plant]]s that also include [[maple]], [[horse chestnut]], and [[lychee]]. In cultivation, guarana is often refered to as ''Paullinia cupana'' variety ''sorbilis' (Erickson et al. 1984). | ||
| + | Guarana grows in the forest primarily as a liana (Erickson et al. 1984). Lianas are long-stemmed, usually woody vines that are rooted in the soil at ground level and use trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in order to get access to well-lit areas of the forest. ''P. cupana'' has woody stems and is supported by large tree trunks, climbing high into the forest canopy. However, when cultivated, it grows in the form of a sprawling shrub, that is perhaps two meters tall and a diameter of about four meters (Erickson et al. 1984). | ||
| − | + | Guarana is an [[evergreen]] tree. It features large leaves that are pinnately compound, with five shiny leaflets. The stems have deep longitudinal furrows. The flowers are small and white, with male and female flowers on the same tree. | |
| − | + | Guarana is best known for its fruit, which is about the size of a [[Coffea|coffee]] berry and with a color that ranges from brown to red. The fruit splits open at maturity. Each fruit harbors one black seed. The black [[seed]]s are partly covered by white [[aril]]s. | |
| − | + | The guarana fruit contains approximately five times as much [[caffeine]] as coffee beans (Weinberg and Bealer 2001). As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive [[toxin]] that repels [[pathogen]]s from the berry and its seeds (Ashihara et al. 2008). | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | |||
==History and culture== | ==History and culture== | ||
The word ''guarana'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''guaraná,'' which has its origins in the [[Sateré-Maué]] word ''warana''.<ref name="etymology">{{cite web | url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/guarana | title=guarana | publisher=Merriam Webster | accessdate=2007-09-18}}</ref> | The word ''guarana'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''guaraná,'' which has its origins in the [[Sateré-Maué]] word ''warana''.<ref name="etymology">{{cite web | url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/guarana | title=guarana | publisher=Merriam Webster | accessdate=2007-09-18}}</ref> | ||
| − | Guarana plays an important role in [[Tupi people|Tupi]] and [[Guaraní]] Brazilian culture. According to a myth dating back to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guarana's domestication originated with a [[deity]] killing a beloved village child. In order to console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guarana. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guarana.<ref name="culthistplants-179">Hans T. Beck, "10 Caffeine, Alcohol, and Sweeteners," Cultural History of Plants, ed. Sir Ghillean Prance and Mark Nesbitt (New York: Routledge, 2004) 179</ref> | + | Guarana plays an important role in [[Tupi people|Tupi]] and [[Guaraní]] Brazilian culture. The color contrast between the seed and the fruit when it has been split open has been likened to eyeballs; this has formed the basis of a myth (Prance and Nesbitt 2004).According to a myth dating back to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guarana's domestication originated with a [[deity]] killing a beloved village child. In order to console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guarana. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guarana.<ref name="culthistplants-179">Hans T. Beck, "10 Caffeine, Alcohol, and Sweeteners," Cultural History of Plants, ed. Sir Ghillean Prance and Mark Nesbitt (New York: Routledge, 2004) 179</ref> |
The Guaranís would make [[tea]] by shelling and washing the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-259"/> | The Guaranís would make [[tea]] by shelling and washing the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-259"/> | ||
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==Footnotes==<!-- Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 28(4): 277 —> | ==Footnotes==<!-- Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 28(4): 277 —> | ||
{{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
| + | |||
| + | <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18068204 Ashihara H, Sano H, Crozier A. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. Phytochemistry. 2008 Feb;69(4):841-56.]</ref> | ||
http://www.springerlink.com/content/f48262127h838476/ | http://www.springerlink.com/content/f48262127h838476/ | ||
| Line 163: | Line 165: | ||
Pages 273-286 | Pages 273-286 | ||
http://www.springerlink.com/content/c45t865ur8827541/ | http://www.springerlink.com/content/c45t865ur8827541/ | ||
| + | |||
| + | .<ref name="culthistplants">{{cite book | author=Sir Ghillean Prance, Mark Nesbitt | title=Cultural History of Plants | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | location=New York | page=179}}</ref> | ||
| + | |||
| + | .<ref name="worldofcaffeine-259">Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K.Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 259-60</ref> | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
Revision as of 02:49, 18 January 2009
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| Paullinia cupana Kunth |
Guarana is the common name for a South American woody vine or sprawling shrub, Paullinia cupana in the Sapindaceae family, with large, pinnately compound evergreen leaves with five leaflets, clusters of small flowers, and red to brown globular fruits that split open at maturity and have black seeds. Guarana also is the name of a nonalcoholic carbonated beverage produced from the seeds. The Guarana plant is native to the Amazon basin and especially common in Brazil.
As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive toxin that repels pathogens from the berry and its seeds.[1]
Overview and description
Paullinia cupana, or guarana, is a member of the Sapindaceae, a family of flowering plants that also include maple, horse chestnut, and lychee. In cultivation, guarana is often refered to as Paullinia cupana variety sorbilis' (Erickson et al. 1984).
Guarana grows in the forest primarily as a liana (Erickson et al. 1984). Lianas are long-stemmed, usually woody vines that are rooted in the soil at ground level and use trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in order to get access to well-lit areas of the forest. P. cupana has woody stems and is supported by large tree trunks, climbing high into the forest canopy. However, when cultivated, it grows in the form of a sprawling shrub, that is perhaps two meters tall and a diameter of about four meters (Erickson et al. 1984).
Guarana is an evergreen tree. It features large leaves that are pinnately compound, with five shiny leaflets. The stems have deep longitudinal furrows. The flowers are small and white, with male and female flowers on the same tree.
Guarana is best known for its fruit, which is about the size of a coffee berry and with a color that ranges from brown to red. The fruit splits open at maturity. Each fruit harbors one black seed. The black seeds are partly covered by white arils.
The guarana fruit contains approximately five times as much caffeine as coffee beans (Weinberg and Bealer 2001). As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive toxin that repels pathogens from the berry and its seeds (Ashihara et al. 2008).
History and culture
The word guarana comes from the Portuguese guaraná, which has its origins in the Sateré-Maué word warana.[2]
Guarana plays an important role in Tupi and Guaraní Brazilian culture. The color contrast between the seed and the fruit when it has been split open has been likened to eyeballs; this has formed the basis of a myth (Prance and Nesbitt 2004).According to a myth dating back to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guarana's domestication originated with a deity killing a beloved village child. In order to console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guarana. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guarana.[3]
The Guaranís would make tea by shelling and washing the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar.[4]
This plant was introduced to western civilization in the 17th century following its discovery by Father Felip Betendorf. By 1958, guarana was commercialized.[4]
Composition
Below are some of the chemicals found in guarana.[5][6]
| Chemical | Plant part | Parts per million |
|---|---|---|
| Adenine | seed | |
| Ash | seed | < 14,200 |
| Caffeine | seed | 9,100 - 76,000 |
| Catechutannic-acid | seed | |
| Choline | seed | |
| D-catechin | seed | |
| Fat | seed | < 30,000 |
| Guanine | seed | |
| Hypoxanthine | seed | |
| Mucilage | seed | |
| Protein | seed | < 98,600 |
| Resin | seed | < 70,000 |
| Saponin | seed | |
| Starch | seed | 50,000 - 60,000 |
| Tannin | seed | 50,000 - 120,000 |
| Theobromine | seed | 200 - 400 |
| Theophylline | seed | 0 - 2500 |
| Timbonine | seed | |
| Xanthine | seed |
According to the Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, when guaranine is defined as only the caffeine chemical in guarana, it is identical to the caffeine chemical derived from other sources, for example coffee, tea, and mate. Guaranine, theine, and mateine are all synonyms for caffeine when the definitions of those words include none of the properties and chemicals of their host plants except the chemical caffeine.[7] Natural sources of caffeine contain widely varying mixtures of xanthine alkaloids other than caffeine, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine and other substances such as polyphenols which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine.[8]
Uses
Guarana is used in sweetened or carbonated soft drinks and energy shots, an ingredient of herbal tea or contained in capsules. Generally, South America obtains most of its caffeine from guarana.[9]
Beverages
Brazil, which is the third-largest consumer of soft drinks in the world,[10] produces several soft drink brands from guarana extract. Exceeding Brazilian sales of cola drinks,[11] guarana-containing beverages may cause jitters associated with drinking coffee, a perception that could be a placebo effect or result from another substance.[9]
Cognitive effects
As guarana is rich in caffeine, it is of interest for its potential effects on cognition. In rats, guarana increased memory retention and physical endurance when compared with a placebo.[12]
A 2007 human pilot study[13] assessed acute behavioral effects to four doses (37.5 mg, 75 mg, 150 mg and 300 mg) of guarana extract. Memory, alertness and mood were increased by the two lower doses, confirming previous results of cognitive improvement following 75 mg guarana. These studies have not been evaluated by any US government agencies, so within the US there is no medical or regulatory approval for use of guarana to enhance cognition.
Other uses and side-effects
In the United States, guarana has the status of being generally recognized as safe (GRAS).[14]
Preliminary research has shown guarana may have metabolic effects. One study showed an average 11.2 pound (5.1 kilogram) weight loss in a group taking a mixture of yerba mate, guarana, and damiana, compared to an average one pound loss in a placebo group after 45 days.[15] Although inconclusive about specific effects due only to guarana, this study differs from another showing no effect on body weight of a formula containing guarana.[16]
Guarana extract reduced aggregation of rabbit platelets by up to 37 percent below control values and decreased platelet thromboxane formation from arachidonic acid by 78 percent below control values.[17] It is not known if such platelet action has any effect on the risk of heart attack or ischemic stroke.[18]
Other laboratory studies showed antioxidant and antibacterial effects, and also fat cell reduction in mice (when combined with conjugated linoleic acid) from chronic intake of guarana.[19]
From anecdotal evidence of excessive consumption of energy drinks, guarana may contribute (alone or in combination with caffeine and taurine) to onset of seizures in some people.[20]
Footnotes
- ↑ Ashihara H, Sano H, Crozier A. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. Phytochemistry. 2008 Feb;69(4):841-56.
- ↑ guarana. Merriam Webster. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
- ↑ Hans T. Beck, "10 Caffeine, Alcohol, and Sweeteners," Cultural History of Plants, ed. Sir Ghillean Prance and Mark Nesbitt (New York: Routledge, 2004) 179
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedworldofcaffeine-259 - ↑ Guarana. Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases (2007-09-18). Retrieved 2007-09-18.
- ↑ Duke, James A. 1992. Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants. Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press.
- ↑ Caffeine. Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
- ↑ Balentine D. A., Harbowy M. E. and Graham H. N. (1998). in G Spiller: Tea: the Plant and its Manufacture; Chemistry and Consumption of the Beverage.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K.Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 230
- ↑ Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K. Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 192-3
- ↑ Matt Moffett and Nikhil Deogun, The Wall Street Journal. Guarana's potent reputation makes consumers drink it up. Standard-Times. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
- ↑ Espinola EB, et al. (1997). Pharmacological activity of Guarana (Paullinia cupana Mart.) in laboratory animals. J Ethnopharmacol 55 (3): 223–9.
- ↑ Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA, Milne AL, Scholey AB. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-dose evaluation of the acute behavioural effects of guarana in humans. J Psychopharmacol. 2007 Jan;21(1):65-70. Abstract.
- ↑ Energy Drinks (PDF). University of California, Davis" (April 2007). Retrieved 2007-09-18.
- ↑ Anderson, T and Foght, J (2001). Weight loss and delayed gastric emptying following a South American herbal preparation in overweight patients. J Hum Nutr Diet 14 (3): 243.
- ↑ Sale C, Harris RC, Delves S, Corbett J. Metabolic and psychological effects of ingesting extracts of bitter orange, green tea and guarana at rest and during treadmill walking in overweight males. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006 May;30(5):764-73. Abstract.
- ↑ Bydlowski SP, et al. (1991). An aqueous extract of guarana (Paullinia cupana) decreases platelet thromboxane synthesis. Braz J Med Biol Res 24 (4): 421–4.
- ↑ Nicolaou, KC et al. (1979). Synthesis and biological properties of pinane-thromboxane A2, a selective inhibitor of coronary artery constriction, platelet aggregation, and thromboxane formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76 (6): 2566–2570.
- ↑ Terpstra, et al. (2002). The Decrease in Body Fat in Mice Fed Conjugated Linoleic Acid Is Due to Increases in Energy Expenditure and Energy Loss in the Excreta. J Nutr 132: 940–945.
- ↑ Iyadurai SJ, Chung SS. New-onset seizures in adults: possible association with consumption of popular energy drinks. Epilepsy Behav. 2007 May;10(3):504-8. Epub 2007 Mar 8. Abstract.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/f48262127h838476/ Paula C. S. Ângelo1, Carlos G. Nunes-Silva2, Marcelo M. Brígido3, Juliana S. N. Azevedo4, Enedina N. Assunção2, Alexandra R. B. Sousa5, Fernando J. B. Patrício6, Mailson M. Rego7, Jean C. C. Peixoto8, Waldesse P. Oliveira Jr.9, Danival V. Freitas2, Elionor R. P. Almeida10, Andréya Márcya H. A. Viana6, Ana Fabíola P. N. Souza5, Edmar V. Andrade2,
Guarana ( Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis ), an anciently consumed stimulant from the Amazon rain forest: the seeded-fruit transcriptome
Journal Plant Cell Reports Publisher Springer Berlin / Heidelberg ISSN 0721-7714 (Print) 1432-203X (Online) Issue Volume 27, Number 1 / January, 2008 Category Genetics and Genomics DOI 10.1007/s00299-007-0456-y Pages 117-124 Subject Collection Biomedical and Life Sciences SpringerLink Date Friday, October 05, 2007
Raintree. 1996. Database File for: Guaraná (Paullinia cupana). Tropical Plant Database
H. T. Erickson, Maria Pinheiro F. Correa2 and José ricardo Escoba
Guaraná ( Paullinia cupana ) as a commercial crop in Brazilian Amazonia
Journal Economic Botany Publisher Springer New York ISSN 0013-0001 (Print) 1874-9364 (Online) Issue Volume 38, Number 3 / July, 1984 DOI 10.1007/BF02859006 Pages 273-286 http://www.springerlink.com/content/c45t865ur8827541/
.[2]
.[3]
External links
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- ↑ Ashihara H, Sano H, Crozier A. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. Phytochemistry. 2008 Feb;69(4):841-56.
- ↑ Sir Ghillean Prance, Mark Nesbitt (2004). Cultural History of Plants. New York: Routledge.
- ↑ Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K.Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 259-60
