Difference between revisions of "Guarana" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Guarana''' from the [[Portuguese :|Portuguese]] '''guaraná''' ({{IPA2|ɡu̯a.ra.'na}}, {{IPA|[ɡu̯a.ɾa.'na]}} or {{IPA|[ɡu̯a.'ɹa.na]}}), ''Paullinia cupana'' ([[synonymy|syn.]] ''P. crysan, P. sorbilis''), is a [[climbing plant]] in the [[Sapindaceae]] family, native to the [[Amazon basin]] and especially common in [[Brazil]]. Guarana features large leaves and clusters of flowers, and is best known for its fruit, which is about the size of a [[Coffea|coffee]] berry.  Each fruit harbors one seed which contains approximately five times as much [[caffeine]] as coffee beans.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-259">Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K.Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 259-60</ref>
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'''Guarana''' is the common name for a [[South America]]n woody [[vine]] or sprawling [[shrub]], '''''Paullinia cupana''''' in the [[Sapindaceae]] family, with large, pinnately compound [[evergreen]] [[leaf|leaves]] with five leaflets, clusters of small [[flower]]s, and red to brown globular [[fruit]]s that split open at maturity and have black seeds (one per fruit). Guarana also is the name of a nonalcoholic carbonated beverage produced from the seeds. The Guarana plant is native to the [[Amazon basin]] and especially common in [[Brazil]].  
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The high concentration of [[caffeine]] in the seeds, which is more concentrated than even in [[coffee]] beans, provides for the plants a defense mechanism, helping to repel plant [[pathogen]]s of the fruit and its seeds. For human beings, the caffeine is one of the active ingredients that has made guarana commercially popular in Brazil, with increasing importance as a trade commodity to Europe, North America, and Asia.
  
As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive [[toxin]] that repels [[pathogen]]s from the berry and its seeds.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18068204 Ashihara H, Sano H, Crozier A. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. Phytochemistry. 2008 Feb;69(4):841-56.]</ref>
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==Overview and description==
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''Paullinia cupana,'' or guarana, is a member of the Sapindaceae, a family of [[flowering plant]]s that also include [[maple]], [[horse chestnut]], and [[lychee]]. In cultivation, guarana is often referred to as ''Paullinia cupana'' variety ''sorbilis'' (Erickson et al. 1984).
  
The guarana fruit's color ranges from brown to red and contains black [[seed]]s which are partly covered by white [[aril]]s. The color contrast when the fruit has been split open has been likened to eyeballs; this has formed the basis of a myth.<ref name="culthistplants">{{cite book | author=Sir Ghillean Prance, Mark Nesbitt | title=Cultural History of Plants | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | location=New York | page=179}}</ref>
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Guarana grows in the forest primarily as a liana (Erickson et al. 1984). Lianas are long-stemmed, usually woody vines that are rooted in the soil at ground level and use trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in order to get access to well-lit areas of the forest. ''P. cupana'' has woody stems and is supported by large tree trunks, climbing high into the forest canopy. However, when cultivated, it grows in the form of a sprawling shrub that is perhaps two meters tall and a diameter of about four meters (Erickson et al. 1984).
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Guarana is an [[evergreen]] tree. It features large leaves that are pinnately compound, with five shiny leaflets. The stems have deep longitudinal furrows. The flowers are small and white, with male and female flowers on the same tree.
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Guarana is best known for its fruit, which is about the size of a [[Coffea|coffee]] berry and with a color that ranges from brown to red. The fruit splits open at maturity. Each fruit harbors one black seed. The black [[seed]]s are partly covered by white [[aril]]s.  
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The guarana fruit contains approximately five times as much [[caffeine]] as coffee beans (Weinberg and Bealer 2001). Although the substance extracted was named guaranine, and thought to be a unique chemical, it is in actuality caffeine, albeit impure caffeine with some properties of the host plant, such as bound to a particular phenol or tannin (Taylor 2005). Xanthines such as caffeine are bound to such substances but are freed during the roasting process (Taylor 2005). As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive [[toxin]] that repels [[pathogen]]s from the berry and its seeds (Ashihara et al. 2008).
  
 
==History and culture==
 
==History and culture==
The word ''guarana'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''guaraná,'' which has its origins in the [[Sateré-Maué]] word ''warana''.<ref name="etymology">{{cite web | url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/guarana | title=guarana | publisher=Merriam Webster | accessdate=2007-09-18}}</ref>
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Guarana was used by natives in the [[Amazon Basin]] prior to the arrival of Europeans. Indian tribes, such as the [[Guaraní]] used it, and still use it, for a wide variety of medicinal purposes (Taylor 2005; Angelo et al. 2008; Erickson et al. 1984). The Guaranís also would make [[tea]] by shelling and washing the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar (Weinberg and Bealer 2001).
  
Guarana plays an important role in [[Tupi people|Tupi]] and [[Guaraní]] Brazilian culture. According to a myth dating back to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guarana's domestication originated with a [[deity]] killing a beloved village child. In order to console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guarana. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guarana.<ref name="culthistplants-179">Hans T. Beck, "10 Caffeine, Alcohol, and Sweeteners," Cultural History of Plants, ed. Sir Ghillean Prance and Mark Nesbitt (New York: Routledge, 2004) 179</ref>
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This plant was introduced to [[western culture|western civilization]] in the seventeenth century following its discovery by Father Felip Betendorf. By 1958, guarana was commercialized (Weinberg and Bealer 2001).
  
The Guaranís would make [[tea]] by shelling and washing the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-259"/>
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Guarana plays an important role in [[Tupi people|Tupi]] and [[Guaraní]] Brazilian culture. The color contrast between the seed and the fruit when it has been split open has been likened to eyeballs; this has formed the basis of a myth. According to this [[myth]], dating back to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guarana's [[domestication]] originated with a [[deity]] killing a beloved village child. In order to console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guarana. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guarana (Beck 2005).
  
This plant was introduced to [[western culture|western civilization]] in the 17th century following its discovery by Father Felip Betendorf. By 1958, guarana was commercialized.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-259"/>
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The word ''guarana,'' derived from the Guaraní tribe (Taylor 2005) comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''guaraná,'' which has its origins in the [[Sateré-Maué]] word ''warana'' (Merriam-Webster 2008).
  
 
==Composition==
 
==Composition==
Below are some of the chemicals found in guarana.<ref name="duke-db">{{cite web | url=http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=703 | title=Guarana | publisher=Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases | date=2007-09-18 | accessdate=2007-09-18}}</ref><ref name="Duke1992a">Duke, James A. 1992. ''Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants.'' Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press.</ref>
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Below are some of the chemicals found in guarana (Duke 2008; Duke 1992).
  
 
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<!--To compare values on this table with those of other plant sources, search ''Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases'' [http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/index.html].—>
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<!--To compare values on this table with those of other plant sources, search ''Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases''—>
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According to the Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, when guaranine is defined as only the [[caffeine]] chemical in guarana, it is identical to the caffeine chemical derived from other sources, for example [[coffee]], [[tea]], and [[Yerba Mate|mate]]. Guaranine, theine, and mateine are all synonyms for caffeine when the definitions of those words include none of the properties and chemicals of their host plants except the chemical caffeine (BMRB 2008). The amount of caffeine in guarana, about 4 to 8 percent, is higher than that in the coffee bean (1-2.5 percent) or Yerba mate leaves (0.7-2 percent) or chocolate (0.25 percent) (Taylor 2005).
  
According to the Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, when guaranine is defined as only the [[caffeine]] chemical in guarana, it is identical to the caffeine chemical derived from other sources, for example [[coffee]], [[tea]], and [[Yerba Mate|mate]]. Guaranine, theine, and mateine are all synonyms for caffeine when the definitions of those words include none of the properties and chemicals of their host plants except the chemical caffeine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bmrb.wisc.edu/metabolomics/gen_metab_summary_5.php?molName=caffeine#SYNONYMS |title=Caffeine |publisher=Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, University of Wisconsin-Madison |accessdate=2007-09-19}}</ref> <!--See talk page before disputing any of the above information.—>Natural sources of caffeine contain widely varying mixtures of [[xanthine]] [[alkaloid]]s other than caffeine, including the [[cardiac]] stimulants [[theophylline]] and [[theobromine]] and other substances such as [[polyphenols]] which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine.<ref>{{cite book
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Natural sources of caffeine contain widely varying mixtures of [[xanthine]] [[alkaloid]]s other than caffeine, including the [[cardiac]] stimulants [[theophylline]] and [[theobromine]] and other substances such as [[polyphenols]] which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine (Balentine et al. 1998).
  | author = Balentine D. A., Harbowy M. E. and Graham H. N.
 
  | title = Tea: the Plant and its Manufacture; Chemistry and Consumption of the Beverage
 
  | journal = Caffeine
 
  | year = 1998
 
  | editor = G Spiller}}</ref>
 
  
 
==Uses==
 
==Uses==
[[Image:Guarana28.PNG|thumb|right|Guarana [[soft drinks]] are very popular in Brazil.]]
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Guarana is used in sweetened or carbonated [[soft drink]]s and [[energy drink|energy shots]], an ingredient of [[herbal tea]] or contained in capsules. Generally, [[South America]] obtains most of its caffeine from guarana.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-230">Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K.Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 230</ref>
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Guarana is used in sweetened or carbonated [[soft drink]]s and [[energy drink|energy shots]], an ingredient of [[herbal tea]] or contained in capsules. Generally, [[South America]] obtains most of its caffeine from guarana (Weinberg and Bealer 2001). Guarana is commercially produced largely in the middle Amazon region of northern Brazil (Erickson et al. 1984).
  
 
===Beverages===
 
===Beverages===
{{seealso|List of beverages containing guarana}}
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[[Brazil]], which is the third-largest consumer of soft drinks in the world (Weaver and Bealer 2001), produces several soft drink brands from guarana extract. Guarana-based drinks exceed Brazilian sales of [[cola]] drinks (Moffett and Deogun 1999).
[[Brazil]], which is the third-largest consumer of soft drinks in the world,<ref name="mostpopulardrug192and3">Bennett Alan Weinberg, and Bonnie K. Bealer, The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug (New York: Routledge, 2001) 192-3</ref> produces several soft drink brands from guarana extract. Exceeding Brazilian sales of [[cola]] drinks,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.s-t.com/daily/07-99/07-11-99/b03bu068.htm | title=Guarana's potent reputation makes consumers drink it up | author=Matt Moffett and Nikhil Deogun, The Wall Street Journal | publisher=Standard-Times | accessdate=2007-09-18}}</ref> guarana-containing  beverages may cause [[wikt:jitter|jitters]] associated with drinking [[coffee]], a perception that could be a [[placebo effect]] or result from another substance.<ref name="worldofcaffeine-230"/>
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===Medicinal===
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Guarana has long been used medicinally. Past and present tribal uses include as a pain reliever, cardiovascular drug, preventative for arteriosclerosis, stimulant, and tonic to treat diarrhea, migraine, fever, hypertension, neuralgia, and dysentery. It is used by present-day Brazilians to overcome heat fatigue, for obesity, for intestinal gas, to detoxify the blood, and other such purposes. It is felt to increase mental alertness and increase stamina and physical endurance (Taylor 2005).
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As guarana is rich in caffeine, it is of interest for its potential effects on [[cognition]]. In [[rat]]s, guarana increased memory retention and physical endurance when compared with a [[placebo]] (Espinola et al. 1997). A 2007 human pilot study (Haskell et al. 2007), assessed acute behavioral effects to four doses (37.5 mg, 75 mg, 150 mg and 300 mg) of guarana extract. Memory, alertness, and mood were increased by the two lower doses, confirming previous results of cognitive improvement following 75 mg guarana. These studies have not been evaluated by any United States government agencies, so within the U.S. there is no medical or regulatory approval for use of guarana to enhance cognition.
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[[Image:Guarana.jpg|thumb|right|Guarana seed powder]] In the United States, guarana has the status of being [[Generally recognized as safe|generally recognized as safe (GRAS)]] (Heneman and Zidenberg-Cherr 2007).
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Preliminary research has shown guarana may have metabolic effects. One study showed an average 11.2 pound (5.1 kilogram) weight loss in a group taking a mixture of [[yerba mate]], guarana, and [[damiana]], compared to an average one pound loss in a placebo group after 45 days (Anderson and Foght 2001). Although inconclusive about specific effects due only to guarana, this study differs from another showing no effect on body weight of a formula containing guarana (Sale et al. 2006).
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Guarana extract reduced aggregation of rabbit [[platelets]] by up to 37 percent below control values and decreased platelet [[thromboxane]] formation from [[arachidonic acid]] by 78 percent below control values (Bydlowski et al. 1991). It is not known if such platelet action has any effect on the risk of [[heart attack]] or [[ischemic stroke]] (Nicolaou et al. 1979).
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Other laboratory studies showed [[antioxidant]] and [[antibacterial]] effects (Taylor 2005), and also [[fat]] cell reduction in mice (when combined with [[conjugated linoleic acid]]) from chronic intake of guarana (Terpstra et al. 2002).
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From anecdotal evidence of excessive consumption of energy drinks, guarana may contribute (alone or in combination with caffeine and [[taurine]]) to onset of [[seizure]]s in some people (Iyadurai and Chung 2007).
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==References==
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* Anderson, T., and J. Foght. 2001. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-277X.2001.00290.x Weight loss and delayed gastric emptying following a South American herbal preparation in overweight patients]. ''J Hum Nutr Diet'' 14(3): 243-250. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
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* Ângelo, P. C. S., C. G. Nunes-Silva, M. M. Brígido, J. S. N. Azevedo, E. N. Assunção, A. R. B. Sousa, F. J. B. Patrício, et al. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/f48262127h838476/ Guarana (''Paullinia cupana'' var. ''sorbilis''), an anciently consumed stimulant from the Amazon rain forest: The seeded-fruit transcriptome]. ''Plant Cell Reports'' 27(1): 117-124. Retrieved January 18, 2009.
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* Ashihara, H., H. Sano, and A. Crozier. 2008. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: Biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. ''Phytochemistry'' 69(4): 841-856. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
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* Balentine, D. A., M. E. Harbowy, and H. N. Graham. 1998. Tea: The plant and its manufacture; Chemistry and consumption of the beverage. In G. A. Spiller, ed., ''Caffeine.'' Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0849326478.
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* Beck, H. T. 2005. Caffeine, alcohol, and sweeteners. In G. Prance and M. Nesbett, eds., ''Cultural History of Plants.'' New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415927463.
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* Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank (BMRB). 2008. [http://www.bmrb.wisc.edu/metabolomics/gen_metab_summary_5.php?molName=caffeine#SYNONYMS Caffeine]. ''Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, University of Wisconsin-Madison''. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
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* Bydlowski, S. P. et al. 1991. An aqueous extract of guarana ''(Paullinia cupana)'' decreases platelet thromboxane synthesis. ''Braz J Med Biol Res'' 24(4): 421–424.
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* Duke, J. A. 2008. [http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/ibc99/dr-duke/ Guarana]. ''Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases''. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
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* Duke, J. A. 1992. ''Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and Other Economic Plants.'' Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press. ISBN 0849336724.
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* Erickson, H. T., M. P. F. Correa, and J. R. Escoba. 1984. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/c45t865ur8827541 Guaraná ''(Paullinia cupana)'' as a commercial crop in Brazilian Amazonia]. ''Economic Botany'' 38(3): 273-286. Retrieved January 18, 2009.
  
===Cognitive effects===
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* Espinola, E. B., R. F. Dias, R. Mattei, and E. A. Carlini. 1997. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=9080343 Pharmacological activity of guarana (''Paullinia cupana'' Mart.) in laboratory animals]. ''J Ethnopharmacol'' 55(3): 223–9. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
As guarana is rich in caffeine, it is of interest for its potential effects on [[cognition]]. In [[rat]]s, guarana increased memory retention and physical endurance when compared with a [[placebo]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Espinola EB, et al. | title=Pharmacological activity of Guarana (Paullinia cupana Mart.) in laboratory animals | journal=J Ethnopharmacol | year=1997 | pages=223–9 | volume=55 | issue=3 | doi = 10.1016/S0378-8741(96)01506-1 | unused_data=|[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=9080343 Abstract.]}}</ref>
 
  
A 2007 human pilot study<ref>Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA, Milne AL, Scholey AB. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-dose evaluation of the acute behavioural effects of guarana in humans. J Psychopharmacol. 2007 Jan;21(1):65-70. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=16533867 Abstract.]</ref> assessed acute behavioral effects to four doses (37.5 mg, 75 mg, 150 mg and 300 mg) of guarana extract. Memory, alertness and mood were increased by the two lower doses, confirming previous results of cognitive improvement following 75 mg guarana. These studies have not been evaluated by any US government agencies, so within the US there is no medical or regulatory approval for use of guarana to enhance cognition.
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* Haskell, C. F., D. O. Kennedy, K. A. Wesnes, A. L. Milne, and A. B. Scholey. 2007. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=16533867 A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-dose evaluation of the acute behavioural effects of guarana in humans]. ''J Psychopharmacol.'' 21(1):65-70. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  
===Other uses and side-effects===
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* Heneman, K., and S. Zidenberg-Cherr. 2007. [http://nutrition.ucdavis.edu/InfoSheets/ANR/EnergyDrinkFact.pdf Energy drinks]. ''University of California, Davis''. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
[[Image:Guarana.jpg|thumb|right|Guarana seed powder]] In the United States, guarana has the status of being [[Generally recognized as safe|generally recognized as safe (GRAS)]].<ref name="ucdavis">{{cite web | url=http://nutrition.ucdavis.edu/InfoSheets/ANR/EnergyDrinkFact.pdf | title=Energy Drinks | publisher=University of California, Davis" | date=April 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-18 | format=PDF}}</ref>
 
  
Preliminary research has shown guarana may have metabolic effects. One study showed an average 11.2 pound (5.1 kilogram) weight loss in a group taking a mixture of [[yerba mate]], guarana, and [[damiana]], compared to an average one pound loss in a placebo group after 45 days.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Anderson, T and Foght, J | title=Weight loss and delayed gastric emptying following a South American herbal preparation in overweight patients | journal=J Hum Nutr Diet | year=2001 | pages=243 | volume=14 | issue=3 | url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-277X.2001.00290.x | doi=10.1046/j.1365-277X.2001.00290.x}}</ref> Although inconclusive about specific effects due only to guarana, this study differs from another showing no effect on body weight of a formula containing guarana.<ref>Sale C, Harris RC, Delves S, Corbett J. Metabolic and psychological effects of ingesting extracts of bitter orange, green tea and guarana at rest and during treadmill walking in overweight males. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006 May;30(5):764-73. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=16418760 Abstract.]</ref>
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* Iyadurai, S. J., and S. S. Chung. 2007. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=17349826 New-onset seizures in adults: Possible association with consumption of popular energy drinks]. ''Epilepsy Behav.'' 10(3): 504-508. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  
Guarana extract reduced aggregation of rabbit [[platelets]] by up to 37 percent below control values and decreased platelet [[thromboxane]] formation from [[arachidonic acid]] by 78 percent below control values.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Bydlowski SP, et al. | title=An aqueous extract of guarana (Paullinia cupana) decreases platelet thromboxane synthesis | journal=Braz J Med Biol Res | year=1991 | pages=421–4 | volume=24 | issue=4}}</ref> It is not known if such platelet action has any effect on the risk of [[heart attack]] or [[ischemic stroke]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Nicolaou, KC et al. | title=Synthesis and biological properties of pinane-thromboxane A2, a selective inhibitor of coronary artery constriction, platelet aggregation, and thromboxane formation | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | year=1979 | pages=2566–2570 | volume=76 | issue=6 | pmid=288046 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.76.6.2566}}</ref> 
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* ''Merriam-Webster. 2008. [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/guarana Guarana]. ''Merriam-Webster Online''. Retrieved January 18, 2009.  
  
Other laboratory studies showed [[antioxidant]] and [[antibacterial]] effects, and also [[fat]] cell reduction in mice (when combined with [[conjugated linoleic acid]]) from chronic intake of guarana.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Terpstra, et al. | title=The Decrease in Body Fat in Mice Fed Conjugated Linoleic Acid Is Due to Increases in Energy Expenditure and Energy Loss in the Excreta | journal=J Nutr | year=2002 | pages=940–945 | volume=132 | url=http://www.nemhaupt.de/obesity.htm}}</ref>
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* Nicolaou, K. C., R. L. Magolda, J. B. Smith,1979. [http://www.pnas.org/content/76/6/2566 Synthesis and biological properties of pinane-thromboxane A2, a selective inhibitor of coronary artery constriction, platelet aggregation, and thromboxane formation]. ''Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA'' 76(6): 2566–2570. PMID 288046. Retrieved January 18, 2009.  
  
From anecdotal evidence of excessive consumption of energy drinks, guarana may contribute (alone or in combination with caffeine and [[taurine]]) to onset of [[seizure]]s in some people.<ref>Iyadurai SJ, Chung SS. New-onset seizures in adults: possible association with consumption of popular energy drinks. Epilepsy Behav. 2007 May;10(3):504-8. Epub 2007 Mar 8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=17349826 Abstract.]</ref>
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* Prance, G. T., and M. Nesbitt. 2005. ''The Cultural History of Plants.'' New York: Routledge. ISBN 0203020901.
  
==Footnotes==<!-- Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 28(4): 277 -->
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* Sale, C., R. C. Harris, S. Delves, and J. Corbett. 2006. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=16418760 Metabolic and psychological effects of ingesting extracts of bitter orange, green tea and guarana at rest and during treadmill walking in overweight males]. ''Int J Obes'' (Lond). 30(5):764-773. Retrieved January 18, 2009.
{{Reflist}}
 
  
http://www.springerlink.com/content/f48262127h838476/
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* Taylor, L. 2005. [http://www.rain-tree.com/guarana.htm Database File for: Guaraná ''(Paullinia cupana)'']. From L. Taylor, ''The Healing Power of Rainforest Herbs.'' Garden City Park, NY: Square One Publishers. ISBN 0757001440.
Paula C. S. Ângelo1, Carlos G. Nunes-Silva2, Marcelo M. Brígido3, Juliana S. N. Azevedo4, Enedina N. Assunção2, Alexandra R. B. Sousa5, Fernando J. B. Patrício6, Mailson M. Rego7, Jean C. C. Peixoto8, Waldesse P. Oliveira Jr.9, Danival V. Freitas2, Elionor R. P. Almeida10, Andréya Márcya H. A. Viana6, Ana Fabíola P. N. Souza5, Edmar V. Andrade2,
 
Guarana ( Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis  ), an anciently consumed stimulant from the Amazon rain forest: the seeded-fruit transcriptome
 
Journal Plant Cell Reports
 
Publisher Springer Berlin / Heidelberg
 
ISSN 0721-7714 (Print) 1432-203X (Online)
 
Issue Volume 27, Number 1 / January, 2008
 
Category Genetics and Genomics
 
DOI 10.1007/s00299-007-0456-y
 
Pages 117-124
 
Subject Collection Biomedical and Life Sciences
 
SpringerLink Date Friday, October 05, 2007
 
  
Raintree. 1996. [http://www.rain-tree.com/guarana.htm Database File for: Guaraná (Paullinia cupana)]. Tropical Plant Database
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* Terpstra, A. H. M., A. C. Beynen, H. Everts, et al. 2002. [http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/132/5/940 The decrease in body fat in mice fed conjugated linoleic acid is due to increases in energy expenditure and energy loss in the excreta]. ''J Nutr'' 132: 940–945. Retrieved January 18, 2009.  
  
H. T. Erickson, Maria Pinheiro F. Correa2 and José ricardo Escoba
+
* Weinberg, B. A., and B. K. Bealer. 2001. ''The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug.'' New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415927226.
Guaraná ( Paullinia cupana  ) as a commercial crop in Brazilian Amazonia
 
Journal Economic Botany
 
Publisher Springer New York
 
ISSN 0013-0001 (Print) 1874-9364 (Online)
 
Issue Volume 38, Number 3 / July, 1984
 
DOI 10.1007/BF02859006
 
Pages 273-286
 
Subject Collection Biomedical and Life Sciences
 
SpringerLink Date Sunday, March 23, 2008
 
http://www.springerlink.com/content/c45t865ur8827541/
 
  
==External links==
 
*[http://www.eherbal.org/data/guarana.html Guarana medical uses, dosage, and side effects]
 
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Paullinia%20cupana Guarana at USDA database]
 
  
 
[[Category:Life sciences]]
 
[[Category:Life sciences]]

Latest revision as of 22:26, 2 December 2021

Guarana
Koeh-234.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked) Eudicots
(unranked) Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Genus: Paullinia
Species: P. cupana
Binomial name
Paullinia cupana
Kunth

Guarana is the common name for a South American woody vine or sprawling shrub, Paullinia cupana in the Sapindaceae family, with large, pinnately compound evergreen leaves with five leaflets, clusters of small flowers, and red to brown globular fruits that split open at maturity and have black seeds (one per fruit). Guarana also is the name of a nonalcoholic carbonated beverage produced from the seeds. The Guarana plant is native to the Amazon basin and especially common in Brazil.

The high concentration of caffeine in the seeds, which is more concentrated than even in coffee beans, provides for the plants a defense mechanism, helping to repel plant pathogens of the fruit and its seeds. For human beings, the caffeine is one of the active ingredients that has made guarana commercially popular in Brazil, with increasing importance as a trade commodity to Europe, North America, and Asia.

Overview and description

Paullinia cupana, or guarana, is a member of the Sapindaceae, a family of flowering plants that also include maple, horse chestnut, and lychee. In cultivation, guarana is often referred to as Paullinia cupana variety sorbilis (Erickson et al. 1984).

Guarana grows in the forest primarily as a liana (Erickson et al. 1984). Lianas are long-stemmed, usually woody vines that are rooted in the soil at ground level and use trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in order to get access to well-lit areas of the forest. P. cupana has woody stems and is supported by large tree trunks, climbing high into the forest canopy. However, when cultivated, it grows in the form of a sprawling shrub that is perhaps two meters tall and a diameter of about four meters (Erickson et al. 1984).

Guarana is an evergreen tree. It features large leaves that are pinnately compound, with five shiny leaflets. The stems have deep longitudinal furrows. The flowers are small and white, with male and female flowers on the same tree.

Guarana is best known for its fruit, which is about the size of a coffee berry and with a color that ranges from brown to red. The fruit splits open at maturity. Each fruit harbors one black seed. The black seeds are partly covered by white arils.

The guarana fruit contains approximately five times as much caffeine as coffee beans (Weinberg and Bealer 2001). Although the substance extracted was named guaranine, and thought to be a unique chemical, it is in actuality caffeine, albeit impure caffeine with some properties of the host plant, such as bound to a particular phenol or tannin (Taylor 2005). Xanthines such as caffeine are bound to such substances but are freed during the roasting process (Taylor 2005). As with other plants producing caffeine, the high concentration of caffeine is a defensive toxin that repels pathogens from the berry and its seeds (Ashihara et al. 2008).

History and culture

Guarana was used by natives in the Amazon Basin prior to the arrival of Europeans. Indian tribes, such as the Guaraní used it, and still use it, for a wide variety of medicinal purposes (Taylor 2005; Angelo et al. 2008; Erickson et al. 1984). The Guaranís also would make tea by shelling and washing the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders. This product is known as guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar (Weinberg and Bealer 2001).

This plant was introduced to western civilization in the seventeenth century following its discovery by Father Felip Betendorf. By 1958, guarana was commercialized (Weinberg and Bealer 2001).

Guarana plays an important role in Tupi and Guaraní Brazilian culture. The color contrast between the seed and the fruit when it has been split open has been likened to eyeballs; this has formed the basis of a myth. According to this myth, dating back to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guarana's domestication originated with a deity killing a beloved village child. In order to console the villagers, a more benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest, resulting in the wild variety of guarana. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, giving rise to domesticated guarana (Beck 2005).

The word guarana, derived from the Guaraní tribe (Taylor 2005) comes from the Portuguese guaraná, which has its origins in the Sateré-Maué word warana (Merriam-Webster 2008).

Composition

Below are some of the chemicals found in guarana (Duke 2008; Duke 1992).

Chemical Plant part Parts per million
Adenine seed
Ash seed < 14,200
Caffeine seed 9,100 - 76,000
Catechutannic-acid seed
Choline seed
D-catechin seed
Fat seed < 30,000
Guanine seed
Hypoxanthine seed
Mucilage seed
Protein seed < 98,600
Resin seed < 70,000
Saponin seed
Starch seed 50,000 - 60,000
Tannin seed 50,000 - 120,000
Theobromine seed 200 - 400
Theophylline seed 0 - 2500
Timbonine seed
Xanthine seed

According to the Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, when guaranine is defined as only the caffeine chemical in guarana, it is identical to the caffeine chemical derived from other sources, for example coffee, tea, and mate. Guaranine, theine, and mateine are all synonyms for caffeine when the definitions of those words include none of the properties and chemicals of their host plants except the chemical caffeine (BMRB 2008). The amount of caffeine in guarana, about 4 to 8 percent, is higher than that in the coffee bean (1-2.5 percent) or Yerba mate leaves (0.7-2 percent) or chocolate (0.25 percent) (Taylor 2005).

Natural sources of caffeine contain widely varying mixtures of xanthine alkaloids other than caffeine, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine and other substances such as polyphenols which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine (Balentine et al. 1998).

Uses

Guarana is used in sweetened or carbonated soft drinks and energy shots, an ingredient of herbal tea or contained in capsules. Generally, South America obtains most of its caffeine from guarana (Weinberg and Bealer 2001). Guarana is commercially produced largely in the middle Amazon region of northern Brazil (Erickson et al. 1984).

Beverages

Brazil, which is the third-largest consumer of soft drinks in the world (Weaver and Bealer 2001), produces several soft drink brands from guarana extract. Guarana-based drinks exceed Brazilian sales of cola drinks (Moffett and Deogun 1999).

Medicinal

Guarana has long been used medicinally. Past and present tribal uses include as a pain reliever, cardiovascular drug, preventative for arteriosclerosis, stimulant, and tonic to treat diarrhea, migraine, fever, hypertension, neuralgia, and dysentery. It is used by present-day Brazilians to overcome heat fatigue, for obesity, for intestinal gas, to detoxify the blood, and other such purposes. It is felt to increase mental alertness and increase stamina and physical endurance (Taylor 2005).

As guarana is rich in caffeine, it is of interest for its potential effects on cognition. In rats, guarana increased memory retention and physical endurance when compared with a placebo (Espinola et al. 1997). A 2007 human pilot study (Haskell et al. 2007), assessed acute behavioral effects to four doses (37.5 mg, 75 mg, 150 mg and 300 mg) of guarana extract. Memory, alertness, and mood were increased by the two lower doses, confirming previous results of cognitive improvement following 75 mg guarana. These studies have not been evaluated by any United States government agencies, so within the U.S. there is no medical or regulatory approval for use of guarana to enhance cognition.

Guarana seed powder

In the United States, guarana has the status of being generally recognized as safe (GRAS) (Heneman and Zidenberg-Cherr 2007).

Preliminary research has shown guarana may have metabolic effects. One study showed an average 11.2 pound (5.1 kilogram) weight loss in a group taking a mixture of yerba mate, guarana, and damiana, compared to an average one pound loss in a placebo group after 45 days (Anderson and Foght 2001). Although inconclusive about specific effects due only to guarana, this study differs from another showing no effect on body weight of a formula containing guarana (Sale et al. 2006).

Guarana extract reduced aggregation of rabbit platelets by up to 37 percent below control values and decreased platelet thromboxane formation from arachidonic acid by 78 percent below control values (Bydlowski et al. 1991). It is not known if such platelet action has any effect on the risk of heart attack or ischemic stroke (Nicolaou et al. 1979).

Other laboratory studies showed antioxidant and antibacterial effects (Taylor 2005), and also fat cell reduction in mice (when combined with conjugated linoleic acid) from chronic intake of guarana (Terpstra et al. 2002).

From anecdotal evidence of excessive consumption of energy drinks, guarana may contribute (alone or in combination with caffeine and taurine) to onset of seizures in some people (Iyadurai and Chung 2007).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ashihara, H., H. Sano, and A. Crozier. 2008. Caffeine and related purine alkaloids: Biosynthesis, catabolism, function and genetic engineering. Phytochemistry 69(4): 841-856. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  • Balentine, D. A., M. E. Harbowy, and H. N. Graham. 1998. Tea: The plant and its manufacture; Chemistry and consumption of the beverage. In G. A. Spiller, ed., Caffeine. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0849326478.
  • Beck, H. T. 2005. Caffeine, alcohol, and sweeteners. In G. Prance and M. Nesbett, eds., Cultural History of Plants. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415927463.
  • Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank (BMRB). 2008. Caffeine. Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
  • Bydlowski, S. P. et al. 1991. An aqueous extract of guarana (Paullinia cupana) decreases platelet thromboxane synthesis. Braz J Med Biol Res 24(4): 421–424.
  • Duke, J. A. 2008. Guarana. Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
  • Duke, J. A. 1992. Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and Other Economic Plants. Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press. ISBN 0849336724.
  • Heneman, K., and S. Zidenberg-Cherr. 2007. Energy drinks. University of California, Davis. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  • Merriam-Webster. 2008. Guarana. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved January 18, 2009.
  • Prance, G. T., and M. Nesbitt. 2005. The Cultural History of Plants. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0203020901.
  • Weinberg, B. A., and B. K. Bealer. 2001. The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415927226.

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