Gojoseon

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Revision as of 00:11, 27 April 2007 by Dan Davies (talk | contribs) (New page: {{claimed}} {{koreanname| img=Bronze dagger.jpg|caption=Bronze daggers| hangul=고조선|hanja=古朝鮮|rr=Gojoseon|mr=Kojosŏn|}} '''Gojoseon''' was an ancient Korean kingdom. Accor...)
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Gojoseon
Bronze daggers
Bronze daggers
Korean name
Hangul 고조선
Hanja 古朝鮮
Revised Romanization Gojoseon
McCune-Reischauer Kojosŏn


Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. According to Samguk Yusa and other records,[1] Gojoseon was founded in 2333 B.C.E. by the legendary founder Dangun. Modern historians generally consider Gojoseon to have developed into a powerful federation or kingdom by around 4th century B.C.E. in the basins of the Liao and Taedong Rivers, ruling over northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. However, no archaeological records dating to the Dangun Joseon period (first of three Gojoseon periods) have been found to confirm the founding date or location of early Gojoseon.[2]

Go-, which distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty, is sometimes translated as "Old" or "Ancient"; Joseon is also romanized as Chosŏn. See also: Names of Korea.

People

The people of Gojoseon propagated in Manchuria, far eastern China north of the Yangtze River, and the Korean Peninsula. Gojoseon eventually consolidated in lower Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. The people of Gojoseon were recorded in several Chinese texts as one of the Dongyi, meaning "eastern barbarians".

Location

Initially, Gojoseon was probably located in Liaoning, but around 400 B.C.E., moved its capital to Pyongyang, North Korea. [3][4]

Founding legend

Cheonji (Heavenly Lake) of Baekdu Mountain, where Dangun's father is said to have descended from heaven

Dangun Wanggeom is the legendary founder of Korea. The oldest existing record of this founding myth appears in the Samguk Yusa, a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi.

The Lord of Heaven Hwanin (환인; 桓因, a name which also appears in Indian Buddhist texts), had a son Hwanung who yearned to live on the earth among the people. Hwanin relented, and Hwanung descended to Mount Taebaek with 3,000 helpers, where he founded a city he named Sinsi (신시; 神市, "City of God" or "Holy City"). Along with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind, he instituted laws and moral codes and taught the people various arts, medicine, and agriculture.

A tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to Hwanung that they may become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort, instructing them to eat only this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger shortly gave up and left the cave, but the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman.

The bear-woman (Ungnyeo, 웅녀, 熊女) was very grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. She lacked a husband, however, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a Sindansu (신단수; 神檀樹, "Divine Betula") tree to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, Dangun Wanggeom (단군 왕검; 檀君王儉).

Korea unified vertical.svgHistory of Korea

Jeulmun Period
Mumun Period
Gojoseon, Jin
Proto-Three Kingdoms:
 Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye
 Samhan
  Ma, Byeon, Jin
Three Kingdoms:
 Goguryeo
  Sui wars
 Baekje
 Silla, Gaya
North-South States:
 Unified Silla
 Balhae
 Later Three Kingdoms
Goryeo
 Khitan wars
 Mongol invasions
Joseon
 Japanese invasions
 Manchu invasions
Korean Empire
Japanese occupation
 Provisional Gov't
Division of Korea
 Korean War
 North Korea
 South Korea

List of monarchs

State formation

Gojoseon is said to have been established in 2333 B.C.E., based on the description of the Dongguk Tonggam (1485). The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 B.C.E.-2256 B.C.E.). Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yao's reign, Sejong Sillok says the first year, and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year. [5] Some historians suggested that Gojoseon was founded around 3000B.C.E.[6]

Gojoseon is first found in contemporaneous historical records of early 7th century B.C.E., as located around Bohai Bay and trading with Qi (齊) of China. At this point, it was identified as a distinct polity, but there is little archaeological evidence of a fully functioning state.[7]

Some historians argue that "Dangun" may have been the title of Gojoseon's early leaders. The legitimacy of the Dangun seems to have been derived from the divine lineage of Hwanin, a religious characteristic found in other ancient fortified city-states, such as those of Ancient Greece.

By the 4th century B.C.E., other states with defined political structures developed in the areas of the earlier bronze age "walled-town states"; Gojoseon was the most advanced of them in the peninsular region.[8] The city-state expanded by incorporating other neighboring city-states by alliance or military conquest. Thus, a vast confederation of political entities between the Taedong and Liao rivers was formed. As Gojoseon evolved, so did the title and function of the leader, who came to be designated as "king" (王 Wáng), in the tradition of the Zhou Dynasty, around the same time as the Yan (燕) leader.[9] Records of that time mention the hostility between the feudal state in Northern China and the "confederated" kingdom of Gojoseon, and notably, a plan to attack the Yan beyond the Liao River frontier. The confrontation led to the decline and eventual downfall of Gojoseon, described in Yan records as "arrogant" and "cruel". But the ancient kingdom also appears as a prosperous bronze age civilization, with a complex social structure, including a class of horse-riding warriors who contributed to the development of Gojoseon, particularly the northern expansion[10] into most of the Liaotung basin.

Around 300 B.C.E., Gojoseon lost significant western territory after a war with the Yan state, but this indicates Gojoseon was already a large enough state that could wage war against Yan and survive the loss of 2000 li (800 kilometers) of territory.[11] Gojoseon is thought to have relocated its capital to the Pyongyang region around this time.[12]

Gija controversy

Main article: Gija Joseon

According to some Chinese records, Gija Joseon is the kingdom founded by Chinese descendants led by Gija. Whether Gija Joseon actually existed is a matter of controversy. Korean scholars deny its existence for various reasons.[13] These scholars point to the book entitled Chu-shu chi-nien (竹書紀年) and Confucian Analects (論語), which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon.[14]. Detractors of the Gija Joseon theory also point out that the cultural artifacts found in the region do not appear to have Chinese origins. An example of such an artifact is found in a Gojoseon mandolin-shaped bronze dagger. Its shape and bronze composition are different from similar artifacts found in China.

According to the school of historians who believe that Gija Joseon coexisted with Gojoseon of Dangun, Gija Joseon was established at the only west of Gojoseon, which is currently around Hebei, Liaoning and southern east of Inner Mongolia, and was later overthrown by Wiman. Thus Wudi's conquest against Wiman Joseon was in western part of Gojoseon formerly ruled by Gija and his descendants.

The records of Gija refer to laws (Beomgeum Paljo, 범금팔조, 犯禁八條) that evidence a hierarchical society and legal protection of private property.[15]

Decline of Gojoseon

The course of the decline and Gojoseon's fall is also controversial, depending on how historians view the migration of Gija Joseon.

One account relays that King Jun appointed a refugees from China, Wiman. Wiman later rebelled in 194 B.C.E., and Jun fled to southern Korean Peninsula. Wiman Joseon was influenced by the Chinese, but was not a Chinese fiefdom. In 109 B.C.E., Wudi of China invaded near the Liao River. Gojoseon fell after over a year of war in 108 B.C.E. it is thought that China established Four Commanderies of Han in western part of Gojoseon.

After the Gojoseon disintegrated by 1st century B.C.E. as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. As Gojoseon lost the control to their confederacies, many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon, such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, Guda-guk, Galsa-guk, Gaema-guk, and Hangin-guk. Goguryeo and Baekje evolved from Buyeo.

Culture

Around 2000 B.C.E., a new pottery culture of painted and chiseled design is found. These people practiced agriculture in a settled communal life, probably organized into familial clans. Rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. Bronze daggers and mirrors have been excavated, and there is archaeological evidence of small walled-town states in this period.[16][17]

Mumun pottery

In the Mumun Pottery Period (1500 - 300 B.C.E.), plain coarse pottery replaced earlier comb-pattern wares, possibly as a result of the influence of new populations migrating to Korea from Manchuria and Siberia. This type of pottery typically has thicker walls and displays a wider variety of shapes, indicating improvements in kiln technology.[18] This period is sometimes called the Korean bronze age, but bronze artifacts are relatively rare and regionalized until the 7th century B.C.E.

Rice cultivation

Sometime around 1200 to 900 B.C.E., rice cultivation was introduced to Korea, most likely from China by way of Manchuria. The people also farmed native grains such as millet and barley, and domesticated livestock.[19]

Bronze tools

File:Bipajoseon.jpg
mandolin-shaped bronze dagger of Gojoseon

The beginning of the Bronze Age on the peninsula is usually said to be 1000 B.C.E., but estimates range from the 15th to 8th centuries B.C.E. Although the Korean bronze age culture derives from the Liaoning and Manchuria, it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects. [20]

By the 7th century B.C.E., a Bronze Age material culture, with influences from northeastern China as well as Siberia and Scythian bronze styles, flourishes on the peninsula. Korean bronzes contain a higher percentage of zinc than those of the neighboring bronze cultures. Bronze artifacts, found most frequently in burial sites, consist mainly of swords, spears, daggers, small bells, and mirrors decorated with geometric patterns. [21][22]

File:Bipabronze1.jpg
The distribution map of the mandolin-shaped dagger shows the possible extent of Gojoseon's influences of politics, military or culture

Gojoseon's development seems linked to the adoption of bronze technology. Its singularity finds its most notable expression in the idiosyncratic type of bronze swords, or mandolin-shaped daggers (비파형동검, 琵琶形銅劍). The mandolin-shape dagger is found in the regions of Liaoning, Manchuria down to the Korean peninsula. It suggest the existence of Gojoseon dominions, at least in the area shown on the map. Remarkably, the shape of the "mandolin" dagger of Gojoseon differs significantly from the sword artifacts found in China. In addition, the composition of Gojoseon's bronze artifacts contains much more tin than that of China, which emphasizes the differences between Gojoseon's bronze culture and Chinese bronze ware, and the originality of Gojoseon's technological development.

Dolmen tombs

Around 900 B.C.E., burial practices become more elaborate, a reflection of increasing social stratification. Goindol, the Dolmen tombs in Korea and manchuria, formed of upright stones supporting a horizontal slab, are more numerous in Korea than in other parts of East Asia. Other new forms of burial are stone cists (underground burial chambers lined with stone) and earthenware jar coffins. The bronze objects, pottery, and jade ornaments recovered from dolmens and stone cists indicate that such tombs were reserved for the elite class. [1] [2]

Around the 6th century B.C.E., burnished red wares, made of a fine iron-rich clay and characterized by a smooth, lustrous surface, appear in dolmen tombs, as well as in domestic bowls and cups. [3]

Iron culture

Around this time, Jin-guk occupied the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about this state, except it was the apparent predecessor to the Samhan confederacies.

Around 300 B.C.E., iron technology was introduced into Korea from China. Iron was produced locally in the southern part of the peninsula by the second century B.C.E. According to Chinese accounts, iron from the lower Nakdong River valley in the southeast, was valued throughout the peninsula and Japan. [4]

Proto-Three Kingdoms

Numerous small states and confederations arose from the remnants of Gojoseon, including Goguryeo, Buyeo, Jeon-Joseon, Okjeo, and Dongye. Three of the Chinese commanderies fell to local resistance within a few decades, but the last, Lelang, remained an important commercial and cultural outpost until it was destroyed by the expanding Goguryeo in 313.

King Jun of Gojoseon is said to have fled to the state of Jin in southern Korean peninsula. Jin developed into the Samhan confederacies, the beginnings of Baekje and Silla, continuing to absorb migration from the north. Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla gradually grew into the Three Kingdoms of Korea that dominated the entire peninsula by around the 4th century.

See also

Notes

  1. See also Jewang Ungi, Dongguk Tonggam, Sejong Sillok, and Chronicle of Korean Rulers, 제왕연대력 帝王年代曆 Jewang yeondaeryeok, Choe Chiwon (최치원) (857 - ?)
  2. Jaehoon Lee (2004). The Relatedness Between The Origin of Japanese and Korean Ethnicity pp. 39. The Florida State University. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
  3. http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b%7CDaum article: 고조선[古朝鮮
  4. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm%7CMetropolitan Museum of Art: Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 B.C.E.-1 C.E.
  5. Yoon, N.-H.(윤내현), The Location and Transfer of GO-CHOSUN's Capital(고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), 단군학연구, 7, 207 - 238 (2002)
  6. 허종호, 고조선력사 개관 (An Introduction to Gojoseon's History), 사회과학원(2001) ISBN 89-89524-04-0
  7. http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
  8. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm
  9. http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
  10. http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/c/cumings-korea.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
  11. http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b
  12. http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=14543
  13. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/view/ar_view.asp?pid=694&isid=30674&arid=657709&topMenu=&topMenu1=
  14. http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=29466
  15. http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b01g4157b
  16. http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/c/cumings-korea.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
  17. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9500.html
  18. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm
  19. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/eak/ht03eak.htm
  20. http://daegu.museum.go.kr/museum/english/body_02/body02_1_03.htm
  21. Metropolitan Museum of Art: Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 B.C.E.-1 C.E.
  22. Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Korea, Bronze Age Objects

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