Difference between revisions of "Francis Bacon" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(→‎Summary: removed template)
(→‎References: formatting and removed Template)
Line 2: Line 2:
 
{{otherpeople|Francis Bacon}}
 
{{otherpeople|Francis Bacon}}
 
{{Contracted}}
 
{{Contracted}}
'''Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban''', [[King's Council|KC]] ([[22 January]] [[1561]] – [[9 April]] [[1626]]) was an [[England|English]] [[philosopher]], [[statesman]] and [[essayist]] but is best known for leading the scientific revolution with his new 'observation and experimentation' theory which is the way science has been conducted ever since. He was knighted in 1603, created '''Baron Verulam''' in 1618, and created '''Viscount St Alban''' in 1621; both [[peerage of England|peerage]] titles became extinct upon his death.
+
'''Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban''', King's Council (KC) (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an [[England|English]] philosopher, statesman and essayist but is best known for leading the scientific revolution with his new 'observation and experimentation' theory which is the way science has been conducted ever since. He was knighted in 1603, created '''Baron Verulam''' in 1618, and created '''Viscount St Alban''' in 1621; both [ titles became extinct upon his death.  His life coinciced with the English Renaissance, making him for many the essential English Renaissance Man with cultural, literary, scientific and political achievements of note. His reputation is such that he appears in works of fiction and of fact with reference to the role played by certain secret societies.
  
He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the [[scientific revolution]]. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for [[science|scientific]] inquiry, often called the ''[[Baconian method]]''. [[Inductive reasoning|Induction]] implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through [[experimentation]], [[observation]], and testing of [[hypotheses]]. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the [[occult]] trends of [[hermeticism]] and [[alchemy]].
+
He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the scientific revolution. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for [[science|scientific]] inquiry, often called the ''Baconian method''. Induction (or inductuve reasoning) implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the occult trends of hermeticism and alchemy. Some credit Bacon as having caused the secularization of Western life, or the side-lining of theology by raising reason to the level of absolute authority in the place of revelation, which takes priority in religious understanding. 
  
 
==Early life==
 
==Early life==
Bacon was born at York House [[Strand, London|Strand]], [[London]]. He was the youngest of five sons of [[Nicholas Bacon|Sir Nicholas Bacon]], [[Lord Keeper]] of the Great Seal under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. His mother, Ann Cooke Bacon was the second wife of Sir Nicholas, a member of the Reformed or [[Puritan]] Church, and a daughter of Sir [[Anthony Cooke]], whose sister married [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|William Cecil, Lord Burghley]], the great minister of Queen Elizabeth.  
+
Bacon was born at York House in the Strand, London, [[London]]. He was the youngest of five sons of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. His mother, Ann Cooke Bacon was the second wife of Sir Nicholas, a member of the Reformed or [[Puritan]] Church, and a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, whose sister married William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, the great minister of Queen Elizabeth.  
  
Biographers believe that Bacon received an education at home in his early years, and that his health during that time, as later, was delicate. He entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], in 1573 at the age of twelve, living for three years there with his older brother Anthony.
+
Biographers believe that Bacon received an education at home in his early years, and that his health during that time, as later, was delicate. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573 at the age of twelve, living for three years there with his older brother Anthony.
  
 
At Cambridge he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him "the young Lord Keeper."
 
At Cambridge he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him "the young Lord Keeper."
Line 15: Line 15:
 
Here also his studies of science brought him to the conclusion that the methods (and thus the results) were erroneous. His reverence for [[Aristotle]] conflicted with his dislike of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.
 
Here also his studies of science brought him to the conclusion that the methods (and thus the results) were erroneous. His reverence for [[Aristotle]] conflicted with his dislike of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.
  
On [[June 27]], [[1576]], he and Anthony were entered ''de societate magistrorum'' at [[Gray's Inn]], and a few months later they went abroad with Sir [[Amias Paulet]], the English [[ambassador]] at [[Paris]]. The disturbed state of government and society in [[France]] under [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] afforded him valuable political instruction.
+
On June 27, 1576, he and Anthony were entered ''de societate magistrorum'' at Gray's Inn (Inn of Court), and a few months later they went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at [[Paris]]. The disturbed state of government and society in [[France]] under Henry III of France afforded him valuable political instruction.
  
 
The sudden death of his father in February 1579 necessitated Bacon's return to England, and seriously influenced his fortunes. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. Having started with insufficient means, he borrowed money and became habitually in debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579.
 
The sudden death of his father in February 1579 necessitated Bacon's return to England, and seriously influenced his fortunes. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. Having started with insufficient means, he borrowed money and became habitually in debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579.
Line 22: Line 22:
 
[[Image:Lord Bacon stamp.png|right|thumb|200px|Lord Bacon Postage Stamp]]
 
[[Image:Lord Bacon stamp.png|right|thumb|200px|Lord Bacon Postage Stamp]]
  
In the fragment ''De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium'' (written probably about 1603) Bacon analyses his own mental character and establishes his goals, which were threefold: discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. Knowing that a prestigious post would aid him toward these ends, in 1580 he applied, through his uncle, [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burghley]], for a post at court which might enable him to devote himself to a life of learning. His application failed, and for the next two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn giving himself seriously to the study of [[law]], until admitted as an [[outer barrister]] in 1582. In 1584 he took his seat in [[Parliament of England|parliament]] for [[Melcombe]] in [[Dorset]], and subsequently for [[Taunton]] (1586). He wrote on the condition of parties in the church, and he wrote down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract, ''Temporis Partus Maximus'', but he failed to obtain a position of the kind he thought necessary for success.
+
In the fragment ''De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium'' (written probably about 1603) Bacon analyses his own mental character and establishes his goals, which were threefold: discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. Knowing that a prestigious post would aid him toward these ends, in 1580 he applied, through his uncle, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, for a post at court which might enable him to devote himself to a life of learning. His application failed, and for the next two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn giving himself seriously to the study of law, until admitted as an outer barrister in 1582. In 1584 he took his seat in the English Parliament asd member for Melcombe in Dorset, and subsequently for Taunton (1586). He wrote on the condition of parties in the church, and he wrote down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract, ''Temporis Partus Maximus'', but he failed to obtain a position of the kind he thought necessary for success.
  
In the Parliament of 1586 he took a prominent part in urging the execution of [[Mary Queen of Scots]]. About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the bar, and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the [[Star Chamber]], a valuable appointment, the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter into until 1608.  
+
In the Parliament of 1586 he took a prominent part in urging the execution of [[Mary Queen of Scots]]. About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the bar, and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, a valuable appointment, the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter into until 1608.  
  
During this period Bacon became acquainted with [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]] (1567-1601), [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]]'s favourite. By 1591 he was acting as the earl's confidential adviser. Bacon took his seat for [[Middlesex]] when in February 1593 Elizabeth called a Parliament to investigate a [[Catholic]] plot against her. His opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time (he objected to the time span) offended many people; he was accused of seeking popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court. When the [[Attorney-General]]ship fell vacant in 1594 and Bacon became a candidate for the office, Lord Essex's influence could not secure him the position; in fashion, Bacon failed to become [[solicitor]] in 1595.  To console him for these disappointments Essex presented him with a property at [[Twickenham]], which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now.
+
During this period Bacon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (1567-1601), [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]]'s favourite. By 1591 he was acting as the earl's confidential adviser. Bacon took his seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth called a Parliament to investigate a [[Catholic]] plot against her. His opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time (he objected to the time span) offended many people; he was accused of seeking popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court. When the Attorney-Generalship fell vacant in 1594 and Bacon became a candidate for the office, Lord Essex's influence could not secure him the position; in fashion, Bacon failed to become solicitor in 1595.  To console him for these disappointments Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now.
  
[[Image:StatueOfFrancisBacon.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]]]
+
[[Image:StatueOfFrancisBacon.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge]]
  
In 1596 he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of [[Master of the Rolls]]. During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy widow Lady [[Elizabeth Hatton]] failed, and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. His standing in the queen's eyes, however, was beginning to improve. He gradually acquired the standing of one of the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the queen also improved when he severed ties with Essex, a fortunate move considering that the latter would be executed for treason in 1601; and Bacon was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor. This act Bacon endeavoured to justify in ''A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of ... the Earl of Essex,'' etc. He received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices.  
+
In 1596 he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls. During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton failed, and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. His standing in the queen's eyes, however, was beginning to improve. He gradually acquired the standing of one of the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the queen also improved when he severed ties with Essex, a fortunate move considering that the latter would be executed for treason in 1601; and Bacon was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor. This act Bacon endeavoured to justify in ''A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of ... the Earl of Essex,'' etc. He received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices.  
  
The accession of [[James I of England|James I]] brought Bacon into greater favour; he was knighted in 1603, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his ''Apologie'' (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. In 1606 during the course of the uneventful first parliament session Bacon married [[Alice Barnham]] (1592 - 1650), the daughter of a well-connected [[London]] [[alderman]] and M.P. Little or nothing is known of their married life. In his last will he disinherited her.  
+
The accession of [[James I of England|James I]] brought Bacon into greater favour; he was knighted in 1603, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his ''Apologie'' (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. In 1606 during the course of the uneventful first parliament session Bacon married Alice Barnham (1592 - 1650), the daughter of a well-connected [[London]] alderman and M.P. Little or nothing is known of their married life. In his last will he disinherited her.  
  
However, substantial evidence suggests that Bacon's emotional interests lay elsewhere. [[John Aubrey]] in his ''Brief Lives'' states that Bacon was "a [[Pederasty|pederast]]". Bacon's fellow parliamentary member Sir [[Simonds D'Ewes]] in his ''Autobiography and Correspondence'' writes of Bacon: "yet would he not relinquish the practice of his most horrible & secret sinne of sodomie, keeping still one Godrick, a verie effeminate faced youth, to bee his [[catamite]] and bedfellow". Bacon's mother Lady Ann Bacon expressed clear exasperation with what she believed was her son's behaviour. In a letter to her other son Anthony, she complains of another of Francis's companions "that bloody Percy" whom, she writes, he kept "yea as a coach companion and a bed companion" ("coach companion" in Bacon's day carried [[louche]] connotations, as the interior of a traveling coach was one of the few places affording privacy). Bacon exhibited a strong penchant for young [[Welsh]] serving-men. One such person, Francis Edney, received the enormous sum of two hundred pounds in Bacon's will. <ref>Bacon's sexual orientation is discussed in detail at the website [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/baconfra.htm Gay History and Literature]. and also in [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p.103</ref>  
+
However, substantial evidence suggests that Bacon's emotional interests lay elsewhere. John Aubrey in his ''Brief Lives'' states that Bacon was "a pederast". Bacon's fellow parliamentary member Sir Simonds D'Ewes in his ''Autobiography and Correspondence'' writes of Bacon: "yet would he not relinquish the practice of his most horrible & secret sinne of sodomie, keeping still one Godrick, a verie effeminate faced youth, to bee his catamite and bedfellow". Bacon's mother Lady Ann Bacon expressed clear exasperation with what she believed was her son's behaviour. In a letter to her other son Anthony, she complains of another of Francis's companions "that bloody Percy" whom, she writes, he kept "yea as a coach companion and a bed companion" ("coach companion" in Bacon's day carried louche connotations, as the interior of a traveling coach was one of the few places affording privacy). Bacon exhibited a strong penchant for young Welsh serving-men. One such person, Francis Edney, received the enormous sum of two hundred pounds in Bacon's will. <ref>Bacon's sexual orientation is discussed in detail at the website [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/baconfra.htm Gay History and Literature]. and also in [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), NY: Garland, 1990 ISBN 0824065441
 +
. p.103</ref>  
  
Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the [[Star Chamber]], and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy.
+
Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy.
  
However, Bacon's services were rewarded in June 1607 with the office of Solicitor. In 1610 the famous fourth parliament of James met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves frequently at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance, and the House was dissolved in February 1611. Through this Bacon managed in frequent debate to uphold the prerogative, while retaining the confidence of the Commons. In 1613, Bacon was finally able to become [[attorney general]], by dint of advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments; and in this capacity he would prosecute Somerset in 1616. The parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]&mdash;he was allowed to stay, but a law was passed that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament&mdash;and to the various royal plans which Bacon had supported. His obvious influence over the king inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers.
+
However, Bacon's services were rewarded in June 1607 with the office of Solicitor. In 1610 the famous fourth parliament of James met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves frequently at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance, and the House was dissolved in February 1611. Through this Bacon managed in frequent debate to uphold the prerogative, while retaining the confidence of the Commons. In 1613, Bacon was finally able to become attorney general, by dint of advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments; and in this capacity he would prosecute Somerset in 1616. The parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for the University of Cambridge. He was allowed to stay, but a law was passed that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament. His obvious influence over the king inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers.
  
Bacon continued to receive the King's favor, and in 1618 was appointed by James to the position of [[Lord Chancellor]]. In his great office Bacon showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. His public career ended in disgrace in 1621 when, after having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under twenty-three counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (his imprisonment in fact lasted only a few days). More seriously, Lord St Alban was declared incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.
+
Bacon continued to receive the King's favor, and in 1618 was appointed by James to the position of Lord Chancellor. In his great office Bacon showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. His public career ended in disgrace in 1621 when, after having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under twenty-three counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (his imprisonment in fact lasted only a few days). More seriously, Lord St Alban was declared incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.
  
[[Nieves Mathews]] in her book, ''Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination'' (1996, Yale University Press) alleges that Bacon was completely innocent of the [[bribery]] charges and that writers from later times were themselves guilty of slandering Bacon's reputation. Bacon, commenting on his [[impeachment]] as Chancellor in which he claims to have been forced to plead guilty to bribery charges in order to save King James from a political scandal stated:
+
Nieves Mathews in her book, ''Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination'' (1996) alleges that Bacon was completely innocent of the bribery charges and that writers from later times were themselves guilty of slandering Bacon's reputation. Bacon, commenting on his impeachment as Chancellor in which he claims to have been forced to plead guilty to bribery charges in order to save King James from a political scandal stated:
  
<blockquote> I was the justest judge, that was in England these last fifty years. When the book of all hearts is opened, I trust I shall not be found to have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart. I am as innocent of bribes as any born on [[St. Innocents Day]]. </blockquote>
+
<blockquote> I was the justest judge, that was in England these last fifty years. When the book of all hearts is opened, I trust I shall not be found to have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart. I am as innocent of bribes as any born on St. Innocents Day. </blockquote>
  
 
==Death==
 
==Death==
[[Image:20040912-001-francis-bacon.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to Bacon at his burial place, [[St Michael's church]] in [[St Albans]]]]
+
[[Image:20040912-001-francis-bacon.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to Bacon at his burial place, St Michael's church in St Albans]]
  
In March, 1626, Lord St Alban came to London. Continuing his scientific research, he was inspired by the possibility of using [[snow]] to preserve [[meat]]. He purchased a chicken (fowl) to carry out this experiment.  While stuffing the chicken with snow, he contracted a fatal case of [[pneumonia]]. He died at [[Highgate]] on [[9 April]] [[1626]], leaving assets of about £7,000 and debts to the amount of £22,000.
+
In March, 1626, Lord St Alban came to London. Continuing his scientific research, he was inspired by the possibility of using snow to preserve meat. He purchased a chicken (fowl) to carry out this experiment.  While stuffing the chicken with snow, he contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. He died at Highgate on 9 April 1626, leaving assets of about £7,000 and debts to the amount of £22,000.
  
 
==Works and philosophy==
 
==Works and philosophy==
Bacon's works include his ''[[Essays]]'', as well as the ''Colours of Good and Evil'' and the ''Meditationes Sacrae'', all published in 1597. His famous aphorism, "[[knowledge is power]]", is found in the ''Meditations''.  Bacon also wrote ''In felicem memoriam Elizabethae'', a [[eulogy]] for the queen written in 1609; and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete ''[[Instauratio magna]]'', the most important part of which is the ''[[Novum Organum]]'' (published 1620). Bacon also wrote the ''Astrologia Sana'' and expressed his belief that stars had physical effects on the planet.  
+
Bacon's works include his ''Essays'', as well as the ''Colours of Good and Evil'' and the ''Meditationes Sacrae'', all published in 1597. His famous aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the ''Meditations''.  Bacon also wrote ''In felicem memoriam Elizabethae'', a eulogy for the queen written in 1609; and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete ''Instauratio magna'', the most important part of which is the ''Novum Organum'' (published 1620). Bacon also wrote the ''Astrologia Sana'' and expressed his belief that stars had physical effects on the planet.  
  
Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the [[deductive syllogism]] to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from [[fact]] to [[axiom]] to [[law]]. Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to free his mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are called "Idols" (''idola''), and are of four kinds: "Idols of the Tribe" (''[[idolon tribus|idola tribus]]''), which are common to the race; "Idols of the Den" (''[[idolon specus|idola specus]]''), which are peculiar to the individual; "Idols of the Marketplace" (''[[idolon fori|idola fori]]''), coming from the misuse of language; and "Idols of the Theater" (''[[idolon theatri|idola theatri]]''), which result from an abuse of authority. The end of induction is the discovery of [[forms]], the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of humanity.
+
Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to free his mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are called "Idols" (''idola''), and are of four kinds: "Idols of the Tribe" (''idola tribus''), which are common to the race; "Idols of the Den" (''idola specus''), which are peculiar to the individual; "Idols of the Marketplace" (''idola fori''), coming from the misuse of language; and "Idols of the Theater" (''idola theatri''), which result from an abuse of authority. The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of humanity.
  
Bacon's somewhat fragmentary ethical system, derived through use of his methods, is explicated in the seventh and eighth books of his ''De augmentis scientiarum'' (1623). He distinguishes between duty to the community, an ethical matter, and duty to [[God]], a purely religious matter. Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by reason and spurred on by the passions; habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good. No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ.
+
Bacon's somewhat fragmentary ethical system, derived through use of his methods, is explicated in the seventh and eighth books of his ''De augmentis scientiarum'' (1623). He distinguishes between duty to the community, an ethical matter, and duty to God, a purely religious matter. Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by reason and spurred on by the passions; habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good. No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ.
  
 
Bacon distinctly separated [[religion]] and [[philosophy]], though the two can coexist. Where philosophy is based on reason, faith is based on revelation, and therefore irrational&mdash;in ''De augmentis'' he writes that "[t]he more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to God in believing it, and the nobler is the victory of faith."
 
Bacon distinctly separated [[religion]] and [[philosophy]], though the two can coexist. Where philosophy is based on reason, faith is based on revelation, and therefore irrational&mdash;in ''De augmentis'' he writes that "[t]he more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to God in believing it, and the nobler is the victory of faith."
  
 
==Posthumous reputation==
 
==Posthumous reputation==
Bacon's ideas about the improvement of the human lot were influential in the [[1640s]] and [[1650s]] among a number of [[Parliament of England|Parliamentarian]] scholars. During the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the new-founded [[Royal Society]]. In the [[nineteenth century]] his emphasis on [[Induction (philosophy)|induction]] was revived and developed by [[William Whewell]], among others.
+
Bacon's ideas about the improvement of the human lot were influential in the 1640s and 1650s among a number of Parliamentarian scholars. During the English Restoration Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the new-founded Royal Society. In the nineteenth century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell (1794-1866), among others.
  
Bacon was ranked #90 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
+
Bacon was ranked #90 on Michael H. Hart's 100 list of the most influential figures in history.  There is much specualation that he was asscoaited with various secret societies, such as the Rosicrucians and Freemasons, as well as with the preservation of secrets concerning the true message and identity of [[Jesus of Nazareth]].
  
 
===Bacon and Shakespeare===
 
===Bacon and Shakespeare===
There is a persistent discussion ([http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/skeptic.htm], [http://www.sirbacon.org/links/evidence.htm],[http://www.william-shakespeare.info/william-shakespeare-identity-problem.htm], [http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/histdoub.htm]) amongst historians, researchers, and many scholars who have and continue to engage in an ongoing debate as to whether Bacon was in fact the real Shakespeare. Since the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a number of writers extended Bacon's acknowledged body of work by claiming that Bacon was the author of the plays of [[William Shakespeare]]. There is disputed evidence for this via Bacon's Shakespeare notebook, ''[[The Promus]]'' and ''[[The Northumberland Manuscript]]''. See: [[Shakespearean authorship]].
+
There is a persistent discussion ([http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/skeptic.htm], [http://www.sirbacon.org/links/evidence.htm],[http://www.william-shakespeare.info/william-shakespeare-identity-problem.htm], [http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/histdoub.htm]) amongst historians, researchers, and many scholars who have and continue to engage in an ongoing debate as to whether Bacon was in fact the real Shakespeare. Since the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a number of writers extended Bacon's acknowledged body of work by claiming that Bacon was the author of the plays of [[William Shakespeare]]. There is disputed evidence for this via Bacon's Shakespeare notebook, ''The Promus'' and ''The Northumberland Manuscript''.  
  
 
==Summary==
 
==Summary==
Line 91: Line 92:
 
   from:1576 till:1579 text:In France
 
   from:1576 till:1579 text:In France
 
   at:1582            text:Called to Bar
 
   at:1582            text:Called to Bar
   at:1584            text:Enters [[Parliament of England]]
+
   at:1584            text:Enters Parliament of England
 
   at:1591            text:Becomes friend of Essex
 
   at:1591            text:Becomes friend of Essex
 
   at:1593            text:Essex presents him with estate
 
   at:1593            text:Essex presents him with estate
   at:1597            text:Publishes first ed of Essays
+
   at:1597            text:Publishes first ed of ''Essays''
 
   at:1601            text:Prosecutes Essex
 
   at:1601            text:Prosecutes Essex
   at:1605            text:Publishes Advancement of Learning
+
   at:1605            text:Publishes ''Advancement of Learning''
 
   at:1607            text:Solicitor General
 
   at:1607            text:Solicitor General
   at:1609            text:Publishes Wisdom of the Ancients
+
   at:1609            text:Publishes ''Wisdom of the Ancients''
 
   at:1613            text:Attorney General
 
   at:1613            text:Attorney General
 
   at:1616            text:Prosecutes Somerset
 
   at:1616            text:Prosecutes Somerset
 
   at:1618 fontsize:XS text:Lord Keeper
 
   at:1618 fontsize:XS text:Lord Keeper
 
   at:1619 fontsize:XS text:Lord Chancellor with title of Verulam
 
   at:1619 fontsize:XS text:Lord Chancellor with title of Verulam
   at:1620 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Novum Organum
+
   at:1620 fontsize:XS text:Publishes ''Novum Organum''
 
   at:1621 fontsize:XS text:Viscount St. Albans; Charged with corruption, retires from public life.
 
   at:1621 fontsize:XS text:Viscount St. Albans; Charged with corruption, retires from public life.
 
   at:1622 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Henry VII and third part of Instauratio
 
   at:1622 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Henry VII and third part of Instauratio
Line 116: Line 117:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
* {{1911}}
+
* 1911 edition of the ''Encyclopedia Brittanica'' (Public Domain)
 
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
 
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
 
* ''Some material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.''
 
* ''Some material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.''
 
* ''Some material originally from the 1912 Schaff-Herzoc Encyclopedio of Religion.''
 
* ''Some material originally from the 1912 Schaff-Herzoc Encyclopedio of Religion.''
 +
*Matthews, Nieves ''Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination'', New Haven: CT: Yale University Press, 1996 ISBN 0300064411
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 16:55, 9 July 2006

Sir Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, King's Council (KC) (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman and essayist but is best known for leading the scientific revolution with his new 'observation and experimentation' theory which is the way science has been conducted ever since. He was knighted in 1603, created Baron Verulam in 1618, and created Viscount St Alban in 1621; both [ titles became extinct upon his death. His life coinciced with the English Renaissance, making him for many the essential English Renaissance Man with cultural, literary, scientific and political achievements of note. His reputation is such that he appears in works of fiction and of fact with reference to the role played by certain secret societies.

He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the scientific revolution. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method. Induction (or inductuve reasoning) implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the occult trends of hermeticism and alchemy. Some credit Bacon as having caused the secularization of Western life, or the side-lining of theology by raising reason to the level of absolute authority in the place of revelation, which takes priority in religious understanding.

Early life

Bacon was born at York House in the Strand, London, London. He was the youngest of five sons of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under Elizabeth I. His mother, Ann Cooke Bacon was the second wife of Sir Nicholas, a member of the Reformed or Puritan Church, and a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, whose sister married William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, the great minister of Queen Elizabeth.

Biographers believe that Bacon received an education at home in his early years, and that his health during that time, as later, was delicate. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573 at the age of twelve, living for three years there with his older brother Anthony.

At Cambridge he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him "the young Lord Keeper."

Here also his studies of science brought him to the conclusion that the methods (and thus the results) were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his dislike of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.

On June 27, 1576, he and Anthony were entered de societate magistrorum at Gray's Inn (Inn of Court), and a few months later they went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris. The disturbed state of government and society in France under Henry III of France afforded him valuable political instruction.

The sudden death of his father in February 1579 necessitated Bacon's return to England, and seriously influenced his fortunes. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. Having started with insufficient means, he borrowed money and became habitually in debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579.

Career

Lord Bacon Postage Stamp

In the fragment De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium (written probably about 1603) Bacon analyses his own mental character and establishes his goals, which were threefold: discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. Knowing that a prestigious post would aid him toward these ends, in 1580 he applied, through his uncle, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, for a post at court which might enable him to devote himself to a life of learning. His application failed, and for the next two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn giving himself seriously to the study of law, until admitted as an outer barrister in 1582. In 1584 he took his seat in the English Parliament asd member for Melcombe in Dorset, and subsequently for Taunton (1586). He wrote on the condition of parties in the church, and he wrote down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract, Temporis Partus Maximus, but he failed to obtain a position of the kind he thought necessary for success.

In the Parliament of 1586 he took a prominent part in urging the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the bar, and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, a valuable appointment, the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter into until 1608.

During this period Bacon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (1567-1601), Queen Elizabeth's favourite. By 1591 he was acting as the earl's confidential adviser. Bacon took his seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth called a Parliament to investigate a Catholic plot against her. His opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time (he objected to the time span) offended many people; he was accused of seeking popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court. When the Attorney-Generalship fell vacant in 1594 and Bacon became a candidate for the office, Lord Essex's influence could not secure him the position; in fashion, Bacon failed to become solicitor in 1595. To console him for these disappointments Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now.

File:StatueOfFrancisBacon.jpg
Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge

In 1596 he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls. During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton failed, and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. His standing in the queen's eyes, however, was beginning to improve. He gradually acquired the standing of one of the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the queen also improved when he severed ties with Essex, a fortunate move considering that the latter would be executed for treason in 1601; and Bacon was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor. This act Bacon endeavoured to justify in A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of ... the Earl of Essex, etc. He received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices.

The accession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour; he was knighted in 1603, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his Apologie (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. In 1606 during the course of the uneventful first parliament session Bacon married Alice Barnham (1592 - 1650), the daughter of a well-connected London alderman and M.P. Little or nothing is known of their married life. In his last will he disinherited her.

However, substantial evidence suggests that Bacon's emotional interests lay elsewhere. John Aubrey in his Brief Lives states that Bacon was "a pederast". Bacon's fellow parliamentary member Sir Simonds D'Ewes in his Autobiography and Correspondence writes of Bacon: "yet would he not relinquish the practice of his most horrible & secret sinne of sodomie, keeping still one Godrick, a verie effeminate faced youth, to bee his catamite and bedfellow". Bacon's mother Lady Ann Bacon expressed clear exasperation with what she believed was her son's behaviour. In a letter to her other son Anthony, she complains of another of Francis's companions "that bloody Percy" whom, she writes, he kept "yea as a coach companion and a bed companion" ("coach companion" in Bacon's day carried louche connotations, as the interior of a traveling coach was one of the few places affording privacy). Bacon exhibited a strong penchant for young Welsh serving-men. One such person, Francis Edney, received the enormous sum of two hundred pounds in Bacon's will. [1]

Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy.

However, Bacon's services were rewarded in June 1607 with the office of Solicitor. In 1610 the famous fourth parliament of James met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves frequently at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance, and the House was dissolved in February 1611. Through this Bacon managed in frequent debate to uphold the prerogative, while retaining the confidence of the Commons. In 1613, Bacon was finally able to become attorney general, by dint of advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments; and in this capacity he would prosecute Somerset in 1616. The parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for the University of Cambridge. He was allowed to stay, but a law was passed that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament. His obvious influence over the king inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers.

Bacon continued to receive the King's favor, and in 1618 was appointed by James to the position of Lord Chancellor. In his great office Bacon showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. His public career ended in disgrace in 1621 when, after having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under twenty-three counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (his imprisonment in fact lasted only a few days). More seriously, Lord St Alban was declared incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.

Nieves Mathews in her book, Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination (1996) alleges that Bacon was completely innocent of the bribery charges and that writers from later times were themselves guilty of slandering Bacon's reputation. Bacon, commenting on his impeachment as Chancellor in which he claims to have been forced to plead guilty to bribery charges in order to save King James from a political scandal stated:

I was the justest judge, that was in England these last fifty years. When the book of all hearts is opened, I trust I shall not be found to have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart. I am as innocent of bribes as any born on St. Innocents Day.

Death

Monument to Bacon at his burial place, St Michael's church in St Albans

In March, 1626, Lord St Alban came to London. Continuing his scientific research, he was inspired by the possibility of using snow to preserve meat. He purchased a chicken (fowl) to carry out this experiment. While stuffing the chicken with snow, he contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. He died at Highgate on 9 April 1626, leaving assets of about £7,000 and debts to the amount of £22,000.

Works and philosophy

Bacon's works include his Essays, as well as the Colours of Good and Evil and the Meditationes Sacrae, all published in 1597. His famous aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the Meditations. Bacon also wrote In felicem memoriam Elizabethae, a eulogy for the queen written in 1609; and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete Instauratio magna, the most important part of which is the Novum Organum (published 1620). Bacon also wrote the Astrologia Sana and expressed his belief that stars had physical effects on the planet.

Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to free his mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are called "Idols" (idola), and are of four kinds: "Idols of the Tribe" (idola tribus), which are common to the race; "Idols of the Den" (idola specus), which are peculiar to the individual; "Idols of the Marketplace" (idola fori), coming from the misuse of language; and "Idols of the Theater" (idola theatri), which result from an abuse of authority. The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of humanity.

Bacon's somewhat fragmentary ethical system, derived through use of his methods, is explicated in the seventh and eighth books of his De augmentis scientiarum (1623). He distinguishes between duty to the community, an ethical matter, and duty to God, a purely religious matter. Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by reason and spurred on by the passions; habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good. No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ.

Bacon distinctly separated religion and philosophy, though the two can coexist. Where philosophy is based on reason, faith is based on revelation, and therefore irrational—in De augmentis he writes that "[t]he more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to God in believing it, and the nobler is the victory of faith."

Posthumous reputation

Bacon's ideas about the improvement of the human lot were influential in the 1640s and 1650s among a number of Parliamentarian scholars. During the English Restoration Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the new-founded Royal Society. In the nineteenth century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell (1794-1866), among others.

Bacon was ranked #90 on Michael H. Hart's 100 list of the most influential figures in history. There is much specualation that he was asscoaited with various secret societies, such as the Rosicrucians and Freemasons, as well as with the preservation of secrets concerning the true message and identity of Jesus of Nazareth.

Bacon and Shakespeare

There is a persistent discussion ([1], [2],[3], [4]) amongst historians, researchers, and many scholars who have and continue to engage in an ongoing debate as to whether Bacon was in fact the real Shakespeare. Since the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a number of writers extended Bacon's acknowledged body of work by claiming that Bacon was the author of the plays of William Shakespeare. There is disputed evidence for this via Bacon's Shakespeare notebook, The Promus and The Northumberland Manuscript.

Summary


|}

Notes

  1. Bacon's sexual orientation is discussed in detail at the website Gay History and Literature. and also in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), NY: Garland, 1990 ISBN 0824065441 . p.103

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • 1911 edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica (Public Domain)
  • Template:A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature
  • Some material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.
  • Some material originally from the 1912 Schaff-Herzoc Encyclopedio of Religion.
  • Matthews, Nieves Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination, New Haven: CT: Yale University Press, 1996 ISBN 0300064411

External links

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.