Difference between revisions of "First Italo–Ethiopian War" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Infobox Military Conflict
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[[Image:Ethiopia.png|thumb|Map of Ethiopia. Italy occupied Eritrea and part of Somalia in the late nineteenth century but failed to conquer Ethiopia until 1835.]]
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The '''First Italo–Ethiopian War''' was fought between [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italy]] and [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] in 1895-1896. Ethiopia's military victory over Italy secured it the distinction of being the only [[African]] nation to resist [[scramble for Africa|European colonialism]] with a decisive show of force. The ancient land of Ethiopia became the only African territory to avoid absorption into a European colonial empire during the nineteenth century, although areas of what became [[Eritrea]] and of [[Somalia]] where at times Ethiopia had ruled did fall to Italy, becoming Italian East Africa. Between 1935, following the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian]] war which Italy won, Ethiopia was added to Italian West Africa until liberated by [[Allied Powers (World War II) Allied]] troops during [[World War II]]. On the one hand, Italy was perhaps the weakest of all the colonial powers, which might detract from Ethiopia’s success. On the other hand, Italy was a colonial power, if not the most militarily skilled or experienced. Italy, too, won battles and annexed territory right up to Ethiopia’s borders, so Emperor Menelik deserves due credit for resisting European [[imperialism|imperial]] aggression. In fact, the Italians pressed on with their campaign despite early setbacks because they could not entertain the possibility of being defeated by Africans. Had they waited before their final attempt at victory, history may have recorded a different result. The war’s result does have some symbolic significance, since it left Ethiopia to carry the torch of African pride, self-determination and dignity for another half-century or so. Ethiopia’s victory in the First Italo-Ethiopian War may be one of the very few, if not the only example of a European power failing to get its own way in the Scramble for Africa. Writing to [[Vitoria of the United Kingdom]], [[Menekik II]] stated:
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|campaign=
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:I have no intention at all of being an indifferent spectator, if the distant Powers hold the idea of dividing up Africa, Ethiopia having been for the past fourteen centuries, an island of Christianity in a sea of pagans... <ref>Menelik II, in a letter to Queen Victoria. "Menelik II", Black History. [http://blackhistorypages.net/pages/menelikii.php Menelik II] Retrieved May 18, 2008.</ref>
|conflict=First Italo-Ethiopian War
 
|date=1895–1896
 
|place=[[Ethiopia]]
 
|result=Ethiopian victory
 
|combatant1=<center>{{flagicon|Italy|1861|size=30px}}<br>[[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italy]]
 
|combatant2=<center>[[Image:Ethiopian Pennants.svg|30px]]<br>[[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]]
 
|commander1={{flagicon|Italy|1861|size=25px}} [[Oreste Baratieri]]
 
|commander2=[[Image:Ethiopian Pennants.svg|25px]] [[Menelik II]]
 
|strength1=20,000+<ref name=vand>Vandervort, Bruce. ''Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914''. 1998, page 160</ref>
 
<!------------- THESE STATISTICS MAY INCORRECTLY REFER TO THE BATTLE OF ADWA EXCLUSIVELY, RATHER THAN THE WHOLE OF THE CONFLICT -------------------->
 
|strength2=100,000+ (70,000 with firearms)<ref name=vand />
 
|casualties1=10,000+<ref name=vand /> to 15,000<ref name=batadw>''The Battle of Adwa: Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism''. 2005, page 71.</ref> dead
 
|casualties2=7,000<ref name=batadw /> dead
 
}}
 
{{Campaignbox First Italo-Ethiopian War}}
 
The '''First Italo–Ethiopian War''' was fought between [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italy]] and [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] in 1895-1896. Ethiopia's military victory over Italy secured it the distinction of being the only [[African]] nation to resist [[scramble for Africa|European colonialism]] with a decisive show of force.  
 
  
 
==Background==
 
==Background==
On [[March 25]], [[1889]], the [[Shewa]] ruler [[Menelik II]] — having conquered [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] and [[Amhara province|Amhara]], and with the support of Italy — declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (''Abyssinia'' in the European parlance of the time). Barely a month later, on [[May 2]], he signed a treaty of amity with the Italians, which apparently gave them control over [[Eritrea]], the [[Red Sea]] coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule.
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[[Image:Menelik II.jpg|thumb|Manelik II of Ethiopia.]]
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On March 25, 1889, the [[Shewa]] ruler [[Menelik II]]—having conquered [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] and [[Amhara province|Amhara]], and with the support of Italy—declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (''Abyssinia'' in the European parlance of the time). Barely a month later, on May 2, he signed a treaty of amity with the Italians, which apparently gave them control over [[Eritrea]], the [[Red Sea]] coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule.
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In fact, the bilingual [[Treaty of Wuchale]] did not say the same thing in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Amharic language|Amharic]]. The former text established an Italian [[protectorate]] over Ethiopia, which Menelik discovered soon afterwards. The Amharic version, however, merely stated that Menelik could contact foreign powers and conduct foreign affairs through Italy if he so chose. Italian diplomats, however, claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and Menelik knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty. <ref> "Menelik II", Black History. [http://blackhistorypages.net/pages/menelikii.php Menelik II] Retrieved May 18, 2008.</ref>
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In fact, the bilingual [[Treaty of Wuchale]] did not say the same thing in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Amharic language|Amharic]]. The former text established an Italian [[protectorate]] over Ethiopia, which Menelik discovered soon afterwards. The Amharic version, however, merely stated that Menelik could contact foreign powers and conduct foreign affairs through Italy if he so chose. Italian diplomats, however, claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and Menelik knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty.<ref>{{cite web | author=Piero Pastoretto | title=Battaglia di Adua | url=http://www.arsmilitaris.org/pubblicazioni/ADUA/adua.htm | accessdate=2006-06-04 |language=Italian}}</ref>
 
  
 
==Opening Phase==
 
==Opening Phase==
In 1893, when Menelik judged that his power over Ethiopia was consolidated, he repudiated the treaty, at which point the Italians ramped up the pressure in a variety of ways, including the annexation of small territories bordering their original claim under the Treaty of Wuchale, and finally culminating with a military campaign across the [[Mareb River]] into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in December 1894. The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus [[Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam]], [[Ras Mengesha Yohannes]], and the [[Aussa Sultanate|Sultan of Aussa]] to join them; instead, all of the ethnic Tigrayan or Amharic peoples flocked to the Emperor Menelik's side in a display of both nationalism and anti-Italian feeling, while other peoples of dubious loyalty (e.g. the Sultan of Aussa), were watched by Imperial garrisons.<ref>Chris Prouty, ''Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia 1883-1910'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), p. 143</ref> Further, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of [[modern weapons]] and [[ammunition]], acquired from the French, British, and the Italians themselves, as the European colonial powers sought to keep each other's North African aspirations in check. They also used the Ethiopians as a proxy army against the Sudanese [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]].  
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In 1893, when Menelik judged that his power over Ethiopia was consolidated, he repudiated the treaty, at which point the Italians ramped up the pressure in a variety of ways, including the annexation of small territories bordering their original claim under the Treaty of Wuchale, and finally culminating with a military campaign across the [[Mareb River]] into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in December 1894. The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus [[Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam]], [[Ras Mengesha Yohannes]], and the [[Aussa Sultanate|Sultan of Aussa]] to join them; instead, all of the ethnic Tigrayan or Amharic peoples flocked to the Emperor Menelik's side in a display of both nationalism and anti-Italian feeling, while other peoples of dubious loyalty (e.g. the Sultan of Aussa), were watched by Imperial garrisons.<ref>Prouty, Chris. 1986. page 143. </ref>> Further, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of [[modern weapons]] and [[ammunition]], acquired from the French, British, and the Italians themselves, as the European colonial powers sought to keep each other's North African aspirations in check. They also used the Ethiopians as a proxy army against the Sudanese [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]].  
  
In December 1894, [[Bahta Hagos]] led a rebellion against the Italians in [[Akkele Guzay]], claiming support of Mengesha. Units of General [[Oreste Baratieri]]'s army under Major [[Pietro Toselli]] crushed the rebellion and killed Hagos. The Italian army then occupied the Tigrian capital, [[Adwa]]. Baratieri suspected that Mengesha would invade Eritrea, and met him at the [[Battle of Coatit]] in January 1895. The victorious Italians chased a retreating Mengesha, capturing weapons and important documents proving his complicity with Menelik. The victory in this campaign, along with previous victories against the Sudanese [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]], led the Italians to underestimate the difficulties to overcome in a campaign against Menelik.<ref>{{cite book| last=Berkeley | first=George | title=The campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik. |id= ISBN 1569020094 | publisher=Negro University Press (reprint) | year=1969}}</ref> At this point, Emperor Menelik turned to [[France]], offering a treaty of alliance; the French response was to abandon the Emperor to secure Italian approval of the [[Treaty of Bardo]] which would secure French control of [[Tunisia]]. Virtually alone, on [[17 September]] [[1895]], Emperor Menelik issued a proclamation calling up the men of [[Shewa]] to join his army at [[Were Ilu]].<ref>{{Ref Ethiopia|Marcus-1995|pages= p. 160}}</ref>
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In December 1894, [[Bahta Hagos]] led a rebellion against the Italians in [[Akkele Guzay]], claiming support of Mengesha. Units of General [[Oreste Baratieri]]'s army under Major [[Pietro Toselli]] crushed the rebellion and killed Hagos. The Italian army then occupied the Tigrian capital, [[Adwa]]. Baratieri suspected that Mengesha would invade Eritrea, and met him at the [[Battle of Coatit]] in January 1895. The victorious Italians chased a retreating Mengesha, capturing weapons and important documents proving his complicity with Menelik. The victory in this campaign, along with previous victories against the Sudanese [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]], led the Italians to underestimate the difficulties to overcome in a campaign against Menelik. At this point, Emperor Menelik turned to [[France]], offering a treaty of alliance; the French response was to abandon the Emperor to secure Italian approval of the [[Treaty of Bardo]] which would secure French control of [[Tunisia]]. Virtually alone, on 17 September 1895, Emperor Menelik issued a proclamation calling up the men of [[Shewa]] to join his army at [[Were Ilu]].<ref>Marcus, Harold G. 1995 page 160</ref>
  
The next clash came at [[Battle of Amba Alagi (1895)|Amba Alagi]] on [[7 December]][[1895]], when Ethiopian soldiers overran the Italian positions dug in on that natural fortress, and forced the Italians to retreat back to Eritrea. The remaining Italian troops under General [[Giuseppe Arimondi]] reached the unfinished Italian fort at [[Meqele]]. Arimondi left there a small garrison of approximately 1150 askaris and 200 Italians, commanded by Major [[Giuseppe Galliano]], and took the bulk of his troops to [[Adigrat]], where [[Oreste Baratieri]], the Italian commander, was concentrating the Italian Army.
+
The next clash came at [[Battle of Amba Alagi (1895)|Amba Alagi]] on 7 December1895, when Ethiopian soldiers overran the Italian positions dug in on that natural fortress, and forced the Italians to retreat back to Eritrea. The remaining Italian troops under General [[Giuseppe Arimondi]] reached the unfinished Italian fort at [[Meqele]]. Arimondi left there a small garrison of approximately 1150 askaris and 200 Italians, commanded by Major [[Giuseppe Galliano]], and took the bulk of his troops to [[Adigrat]], where [[Oreste Baratieri]], the Italian commander, was concentrating the Italian Army.
  
The first Ethiopian troops reached Maqele in the following days. Ras Makonnen surrounded the fort at Meqele on [[December 18]], but the Italian commander adroitly used promises of a negotiated surrender to prevent the Ras from attacking the fort. By the first days of January, Emperor Menelik, accompanied by his Queen [[Taytu Betul]], had led large forces into Tigray, and besieged the Italians for 15 days ([[January 6]] - [[January 21]] [[1896]]), trying in vain to storm the fort on several occasions, until the Italians surrendered with permission from the Italian Headquarters. Menelik allowed them to leave Meqele with their weapons, and even provided the defeated Italians mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri.<ref>Prouty, ''Empress Taytu'', pp. 144-151.</ref> While some historians read this generous act as a sign that Emperor Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution to the war, Harold Marcus points out that this escort allowed him a tactical advantage: "Menelik craftily managed to establish himself in [[Hawzen|Hawzien]], at [[Gendepata]], near Adwa, where the mountain passes were not guarded by Italian fortifications."<ref>Marcus, ''Menelik II'', p. 167</ref>
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The first Ethiopian troops reached Maqele in the following days. Ras Makonnen surrounded the fort at Meqele on December 18, but the Italian commander adroitly used promises of a negotiated surrender to prevent the Ras from attacking the fort. By the first days of January, Emperor Menelik, accompanied by his Queen [[Taytu Betul]], had led large forces into Tigray, and besieged the Italians for 15 days (January 6 - January 21 1896), trying in vain to storm the fort on several occasions, until the Italians surrendered with permission from the Italian Headquarters. Menelik allowed them to leave Meqele with their weapons, and even provided the defeated Italians mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri.<ref>Prouty, 'Chris. 1986. pp. 144-151.</ref> While some historians read this generous act as a sign that Emperor Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution to the war, Harold Marcus points out that this escort allowed him a tactical advantage: "Menelik craftily managed to establish himself in [[Hawzen|Hawzien]], at [[Gendepata]], near Adwa, where the mountain passes were not guarded by Italian fortifications."<ref>Marcus, Harold G. 1975. page. 167</ref>
  
 
Heavily outnumbered, Baratieri refused to engage, knowing that the Ethiopians could not keep large numbers of troops in the field much longer. However, the Italian government of [[Francesco Crispi]] was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baratieri to bring about a battle.
 
Heavily outnumbered, Baratieri refused to engage, knowing that the Ethiopians could not keep large numbers of troops in the field much longer. However, the Italian government of [[Francesco Crispi]] was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baratieri to bring about a battle.
  
 
==Battle of Adowa==
 
==Battle of Adowa==
{{main|Battle of Adowa}}
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[[Image:Battle of Adwa tapestry at Smithsonian.png|thumb|Tapestry of the Battle of Adwa.]]
The result was the [[Battle of Adowa]] (or ''Adua'') on [[March 1]], [[1896]]. Almost half of all the Italian forces in East Africa were concentrated and engaged the Ethiopians who defeated them decisively. The actual battle took place in mountainous country north of the town of [[Adwa]]. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces.  
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The result was the [[Battle of Adowa]] (or ''Adua'') on March 1, 1896. Almost half of all the Italian forces in East Africa were concentrated and engaged the Ethiopians who defeated them decisively. The actual battle took place in mountainous country north of the town of [[Adwa]]. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces.  
  
 
General Baratieri planned to surprise the larger Ethiopian force with an early morning attack, expecting that his enemy would be asleep. However, the Ethiopians had risen early for [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Church]] services, and upon learning of the Italian advance, swept forth to meet it, and crushed the Italians. While Menelik's victory was in a large part due to sheer force of numbers, Menelik's careful preparations had made them well-armed numbers.
 
General Baratieri planned to surprise the larger Ethiopian force with an early morning attack, expecting that his enemy would be asleep. However, the Ethiopians had risen early for [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Church]] services, and upon learning of the Italian advance, swept forth to meet it, and crushed the Italians. While Menelik's victory was in a large part due to sheer force of numbers, Menelik's careful preparations had made them well-armed numbers.
  
Italian dead and missing numbered 14,133{{Fact|date=February 2007}} with a further 4,000 captured. In addition, 2,000 Eritrean [[askari]]s were killed or captured. The Ethiopians had lost about 3,000 dead and 6,000 wounded. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.
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Italian dead and missing numbered 14,133 with a further 4,000 captured. In addition, 2,000 Eritrean [[askari]]s were killed or captured. The Ethiopians had lost about 3,000 dead and 6,000 wounded. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.
  
==End of the war==
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==End of the war: Historical Legacy==
Menelik retired in good order to his capital, [[Addis Ababa]], and waited for the fallout of the victory to hit Italy. The casualty rate suffered by Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa was greater than any other major European battle of the 19th century, beyond even the [[Napoleonic Era]]'s infamous [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] and [[Battle of Eylau|Eylau]].<ref name=vand4>Vandervort, Bruce. ''Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914''. 1998, page 164.</ref> Riots broke out in several Italian cities, and within two weeks the [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]] government collapsed amidst Italian disenchantment with "foreign adventures".<ref name=vand4 /> Menelik secured the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] in October, strictly delineating the borders of Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia.
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Menelik retired in good order to his capital, [[Addis Ababa]], and waited for the fallout of the victory to hit Italy. The casualty rate suffered by Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa was greater than any other major European battle of the 19th century, beyond even the [[Napoleonic Era]]'s infamous [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] and [[Battle of Eylau|Eylau]].<ref >Vandervort, Bruce. 1998. page 164.</ref> Riots broke out in several Italian cities, and within two weeks the [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]] government collapsed amidst Italian disenchantment with "foreign adventures".<ref name=vand4 /> Menelik secured the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] (1902)  in October, strictly delineating the borders of Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia. Signed by the Italians, British and Ethiopians, this was one of the few treaties in the history of colonial Africa in which the European powers treated an African ruler as their equal. Unfortunately, some border areas were poorly defined by this treaty, which since at this time they were rarely guarded or patrolled was not hugely problematic. In the twentieth century, following Eritrean independence from Ethiopia in 1993, a border village became the object of dispute, causing the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]] of 1998-2000, a bloody conflict in which approximately 70,000 lives were lost. Ethiopia’s victory in the First Italo-Ethiopian War may be one of the very few if not the only example of  a European power failing to impose its will on Africans during the [[Scramble for Africa]].  
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
 
* [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]
 
* [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]
* [[Military of Ethiopia]]
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* [[Ethiopian Empire]]
  
==References==
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==Notes==
 
<div class="references-small">
 
<div class="references-small">
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
 
</div>
 
</div>
  
[[Category:19th century conflicts]]
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==References==
[[Category:Wars involving Ethiopia|Italy]]
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* Marcus, 'Harold Golden. 1975  The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844-1913. Oxford: Clarendon Press
[[Category:Wars involving Italy|Ethiopia]]
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* Marcus, Harold G. 1995. A History of Ethiopia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press ISBN 9780520224797
[[Category:1895 in Italy]]
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*Berkeley, George. 1969. The campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik. NY: Negro University Press ISBN 9780837111322
[[Category:1896 in Italy]]
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* Rosenfeld, Chris Prouty. 1986. Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883-1910. London: Ravens Educational & Development Services ISBN 9780947895013
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* Vandervort, Bruce. 1998. ''Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914''. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press ISBN 9780253333834
  
[[cs:První italsko-etiopská válka]]
 
[[es:Primera Guerra Ítalo-Etíope]]
 
[[fr:Première guerre italo-éthiopienne]]
 
[[id:Perang Italia-Ethiopia Pertama]]
 
[[it:Campagna d'Africa orientale]]
 
[[he:המלחמה האיטלקית-אתיופית הראשונה]]
 
[[ja:第一次エチオピア戦争]]
 
[[ru:Первая итало-эфиопская война]]
 
  
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[[Category: History]]
 
{{Credit|210302589}}
 
{{Credit|210302589}}

Revision as of 01:56, 19 May 2008

Map of Ethiopia. Italy occupied Eritrea and part of Somalia in the late nineteenth century but failed to conquer Ethiopia until 1835.
The First Italo–Ethiopian War was fought between Italy and Ethiopia in 1895-1896. Ethiopia's military victory over Italy secured it the distinction of being the only African nation to resist European colonialism with a decisive show of force. The ancient land of Ethiopia became the only African territory to avoid absorption into a European colonial empire during the nineteenth century, although areas of what became Eritrea and of Somalia where at times Ethiopia had ruled did fall to Italy, becoming Italian East Africa. Between 1935, following the Second Italo-Ethiopian war which Italy won, Ethiopia was added to Italian West Africa until liberated by Allied Powers (World War II) Allied troops during World War II. On the one hand, Italy was perhaps the weakest of all the colonial powers, which might detract from Ethiopia’s success. On the other hand, Italy was a colonial power, if not the most militarily skilled or experienced. Italy, too, won battles and annexed territory right up to Ethiopia’s borders, so Emperor Menelik deserves due credit for resisting European imperial aggression. In fact, the Italians pressed on with their campaign despite early setbacks because they could not entertain the possibility of being defeated by Africans. Had they waited before their final attempt at victory, history may have recorded a different result. The war’s result does have some symbolic significance, since it left Ethiopia to carry the torch of African pride, self-determination and dignity for another half-century or so. Ethiopia’s victory in the First Italo-Ethiopian War may be one of the very few, if not the only example of a European power failing to get its own way in the Scramble for Africa. Writing to Vitoria of the United Kingdom, Menekik II stated:
I have no intention at all of being an indifferent spectator, if the distant Powers hold the idea of dividing up Africa, Ethiopia having been for the past fourteen centuries, an island of Christianity in a sea of pagans... [1]

Background

Manelik II of Ethiopia.
On March 25, 1889, the Shewa ruler Menelik II—having conquered Tigray and Amhara, and with the support of Italy—declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (Abyssinia in the European parlance of the time). Barely a month later, on May 2, he signed a treaty of amity with the Italians, which apparently gave them control over Eritrea, the Red Sea coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule.

In fact, the bilingual Treaty of Wuchale did not say the same thing in Italian and Amharic. The former text established an Italian protectorate over Ethiopia, which Menelik discovered soon afterwards. The Amharic version, however, merely stated that Menelik could contact foreign powers and conduct foreign affairs through Italy if he so chose. Italian diplomats, however, claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and Menelik knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty. [2]


Opening Phase

In 1893, when Menelik judged that his power over Ethiopia was consolidated, he repudiated the treaty, at which point the Italians ramped up the pressure in a variety of ways, including the annexation of small territories bordering their original claim under the Treaty of Wuchale, and finally culminating with a military campaign across the Mareb River into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in December 1894. The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, and the Sultan of Aussa to join them; instead, all of the ethnic Tigrayan or Amharic peoples flocked to the Emperor Menelik's side in a display of both nationalism and anti-Italian feeling, while other peoples of dubious loyalty (e.g. the Sultan of Aussa), were watched by Imperial garrisons.[3]> Further, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of modern weapons and ammunition, acquired from the French, British, and the Italians themselves, as the European colonial powers sought to keep each other's North African aspirations in check. They also used the Ethiopians as a proxy army against the Sudanese Mahdists.

In December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akkele Guzay, claiming support of Mengesha. Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Hagos. The Italian army then occupied the Tigrian capital, Adwa. Baratieri suspected that Mengesha would invade Eritrea, and met him at the Battle of Coatit in January 1895. The victorious Italians chased a retreating Mengesha, capturing weapons and important documents proving his complicity with Menelik. The victory in this campaign, along with previous victories against the Sudanese Mahdists, led the Italians to underestimate the difficulties to overcome in a campaign against Menelik. At this point, Emperor Menelik turned to France, offering a treaty of alliance; the French response was to abandon the Emperor to secure Italian approval of the Treaty of Bardo which would secure French control of Tunisia. Virtually alone, on 17 September 1895, Emperor Menelik issued a proclamation calling up the men of Shewa to join his army at Were Ilu.[4]

The next clash came at Amba Alagi on 7 December1895, when Ethiopian soldiers overran the Italian positions dug in on that natural fortress, and forced the Italians to retreat back to Eritrea. The remaining Italian troops under General Giuseppe Arimondi reached the unfinished Italian fort at Meqele. Arimondi left there a small garrison of approximately 1150 askaris and 200 Italians, commanded by Major Giuseppe Galliano, and took the bulk of his troops to Adigrat, where Oreste Baratieri, the Italian commander, was concentrating the Italian Army.

The first Ethiopian troops reached Maqele in the following days. Ras Makonnen surrounded the fort at Meqele on December 18, but the Italian commander adroitly used promises of a negotiated surrender to prevent the Ras from attacking the fort. By the first days of January, Emperor Menelik, accompanied by his Queen Taytu Betul, had led large forces into Tigray, and besieged the Italians for 15 days (January 6 - January 21 1896), trying in vain to storm the fort on several occasions, until the Italians surrendered with permission from the Italian Headquarters. Menelik allowed them to leave Meqele with their weapons, and even provided the defeated Italians mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri.[5] While some historians read this generous act as a sign that Emperor Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution to the war, Harold Marcus points out that this escort allowed him a tactical advantage: "Menelik craftily managed to establish himself in Hawzien, at Gendepata, near Adwa, where the mountain passes were not guarded by Italian fortifications."[6]

Heavily outnumbered, Baratieri refused to engage, knowing that the Ethiopians could not keep large numbers of troops in the field much longer. However, the Italian government of Francesco Crispi was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baratieri to bring about a battle.

Battle of Adowa

File:Battle of Adwa tapestry at Smithsonian.png
Tapestry of the Battle of Adwa.
The result was the Battle of Adowa (or Adua) on March 1, 1896. Almost half of all the Italian forces in East Africa were concentrated and engaged the Ethiopians who defeated them decisively. The actual battle took place in mountainous country north of the town of Adwa. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. 

General Baratieri planned to surprise the larger Ethiopian force with an early morning attack, expecting that his enemy would be asleep. However, the Ethiopians had risen early for Church services, and upon learning of the Italian advance, swept forth to meet it, and crushed the Italians. While Menelik's victory was in a large part due to sheer force of numbers, Menelik's careful preparations had made them well-armed numbers.

Italian dead and missing numbered 14,133 with a further 4,000 captured. In addition, 2,000 Eritrean askaris were killed or captured. The Ethiopians had lost about 3,000 dead and 6,000 wounded. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.

End of the war: Historical Legacy

Menelik retired in good order to his capital, Addis Ababa, and waited for the fallout of the victory to hit Italy. The casualty rate suffered by Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa was greater than any other major European battle of the 19th century, beyond even the Napoleonic Era's infamous Waterloo and Eylau.[7] Riots broke out in several Italian cities, and within two weeks the Crispi government collapsed amidst Italian disenchantment with "foreign adventures".[8] Menelik secured the Treaty of Addis Ababa (1902) in October, strictly delineating the borders of Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia. Signed by the Italians, British and Ethiopians, this was one of the few treaties in the history of colonial Africa in which the European powers treated an African ruler as their equal. Unfortunately, some border areas were poorly defined by this treaty, which since at this time they were rarely guarded or patrolled was not hugely problematic. In the twentieth century, following Eritrean independence from Ethiopia in 1993, a border village became the object of dispute, causing the Eritrean-Ethiopian War of 1998-2000, a bloody conflict in which approximately 70,000 lives were lost. Ethiopia’s victory in the First Italo-Ethiopian War may be one of the very few if not the only example of a European power failing to impose its will on Africans during the Scramble for Africa.

See also

Notes

  1. Menelik II, in a letter to Queen Victoria. "Menelik II", Black History. Menelik II Retrieved May 18, 2008.
  2. "Menelik II", Black History. Menelik II Retrieved May 18, 2008.
  3. Prouty, Chris. 1986. page 143.
  4. Marcus, Harold G. 1995 page 160
  5. Prouty, 'Chris. 1986. pp. 144-151.
  6. Marcus, Harold G. 1975. page. 167
  7. Vandervort, Bruce. 1998. page 164.
  8. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named vand4

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Marcus, 'Harold Golden. 1975 The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844-1913. Oxford: Clarendon Press
  • Marcus, Harold G. 1995. A History of Ethiopia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press ISBN 9780520224797
  • Berkeley, George. 1969. The campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik. NY: Negro University Press ISBN 9780837111322
  • Rosenfeld, Chris Prouty. 1986. Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883-1910. London: Ravens Educational & Development Services ISBN 9780947895013
  • Vandervort, Bruce. 1998. Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press ISBN 9780253333834

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