Eucharist

From New World Encyclopedia


The Eucharist is the rite that Christians perform in fulfillment of the instruction (1 Corinthians 11:24–25) that Jesus gave to do in his memory. It is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of what he did at his Last Supper in giving his disciples bread, saying "This is my body," and the cup, saying "This is my blood."

Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The word "Eucharist" is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.

The word "Eucharist" comes from the Greek noun εὐχαριστία (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning thanksgiving.[1] This noun or the corresponding verb εὐχαριστῶ (I give thanks) is found in 55 verses of the New Testament. (Εὐχαριστέω, the uncontracted form, given in some aids for students, is not used in the New Testament.) Four of these verses[2] recount that Jesus "gave thanks" before presenting to his followers the bread and the cup that he declared to be his body and his blood. The Gospel of John affirms this.[3]

The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a sacrament. Some Protestants view it as an ordinance in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.

Names for the Eucharist

  • "Eucharist" (from Greek Εὐχαριστία Eucharistia, "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who was martyred in Rome in about 110, used the term "Eucharist," referring to both the rite and the consecrated elements; for example "The Eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ."
  • "Communion" (from Latin communio, "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent. Catholics and Orthodox apply this term not to the Eucharistic rite as a whole, but only to the partaking of the consecrated bread and wine, and to these consecrated elements themselves.
  • On the contrary, groups that originated in the Protestant Reformation usually apply this term to the whole rite. Many, especially Anglicans, prefer the fuller term "Holy Communion" rather than just "Communion."
  • "The Lord’s Supper" and "the Breaking of Bread" are terms that the New Testament (1 Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, Acts 20:7) applies to celebration of the Eucharist. Besides the mention in 1 Corinthians, the word "meal" or "supper" was not used to describe the Eucharist (apart from direct quotes of 1 Corinthians) in history until Martin Luther's innovations of the sixteenth century.
  • Certain terms are limited to the Orthodox Christian and Catholic traditions, and are typically applied to the rite as a whole. "The Divine Liturgy" is used by Orthodox and the Eastern Catholic Churches, who also, especially for the consecrated elements, use "the Divine Mysteries." Roman Catholics use many other terms, including "the Mass," "Holy Mass," "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord," the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass," and the "Holy Mysteries". The "Blessed Sacrament" and the "Blessed Sacrament of the Altar" are also common terms for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the Church tabernacle. "Mass" is also used by Anglo-Catholics and the Church of Sweden.
  • Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist such as "Lord's Supper" (Coena Domini), "Table of the Lord" (Mensa Domini), the "Lord's Body" (Corpus Domini), and the "Holy of Holies" (Sanctissimum), and "the Breaking of the Bread" The following terms are also related, directly or indirectly, to the celebration of the Eucharist: Agape (Love-Feast), Eulogia (Blessing), and Synaxis (Assembly).

Eucharist in the Bible

The three synoptic Gospels (Matthew 26:29, Mark 22:24, and Luke 22:19-20), as well as Saint Paul's first Letter to the Corinthians 11:23-26 contain versions of the Words of Institution spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats My flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" (John 6:55–56).

One writer[4] has argued that the Book of Revelation used the Eucharistic liturgy of the early Church (with its portrayal of doctrines of the incarnation, paschal sacrifice, and second coming) to describe the heavenly liturgy.

The Agape feast

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"ὁ θεòς ἀγάπη ἐστίν" God Is Love on a stele in Mount Nebo.

The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, it also included various other actions, including sometimes elements of the Passover seder and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called Agape Feasts, although terminology varied in the first few centuries along with other aspects of practice. Agape is one of the Greek words for love, specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.

This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the meal according to their means. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example 1 Corinthians 11:20–22). The Eucharist proper was detached from the Agape meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the Agape was definitively dropped by the Church between the sixth and eighth centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church.In the eighteenth century, Pietist Christians began to hold Love Feasts that looked back to the ancient Agape.

Many Christians today after celebrating the Eucharist or another liturgy, now routinely participate in a sharing of light refreshments and conversation in an informal ritual that is functionally an Agape. This post-Eucharistic gathering is often called "fellowship hour" or "coffee hour," and is regarded by many clergy as a particularly opportune time for engaging adults in Christian education. Some contemporary Christians participate in Agape meals on rare occasions, to experience this historical form of the Eucharist. Others, particularly among the House Church movement, practice the love feast weekly as the observation of the Lord's Supper—a full meal provided by and shared among the members. The bread and wine are taken as part of the meal, either at the end or the meal may be opened with the bread and ended with the wine.

Among Eastern Christians, the Eucharistic service is called the Divine Liturgy. It comprises two main divisions: the first is the Liturgy of the Catechumens, which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons, and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the Gospels and often, a sermon; the second is the Liturgy of the Faithful, in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as Holy Communion. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the anaphora, literally: "offering" or "carrying up" (ἀνα- + φέρω). In the Byzantine rite, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to St. John Chrysostom, and the other to St. Basil the Great. Among the Oriental Orthodox, a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Byzantine Rite. In the Byzantine Rite, the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; St. Basil's is offered on the Sundays of Great Lent, the eves of Christmas and Theophany, Holy Thursday, Holy Saturday, and upon his feast day (January 1). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the Body and Blood of Christ.

Conventionally, this change in the elements is understood to occur at the Epiklesis (Greek: "invocation") by which the Holy Spirit is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can be readily singled out.

Precursors

There are Jewish and pagan precedents to the Eucharist:

Melchizedek: In the Tanakh, Melchizedek brought bread and wine to Abraham (then called Abram) after Abraham's victory over the four kings (led by Chedorlaomer) who had besieged Sodom and Gomorrah and had taken Abraham's nephew Lot prisoner. Melchizedek is also described as blessing Abraham in the name of El Elyon (see name and titles section for identification of El Elyon), and in return for these favours, Abraham gave Melchizedek a tithe, from the spoils gained in the battle.[6]

Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah spoken of as "a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek" (Ps. 110:4), and so Jesus plays the role of High Priest once and for all. Jesus is considered a priest in the order of Melchizedek because, like Melchizedek, Jesus was not a Levite, and thus would not qualify for the Levitical priesthood (Heb. 7:13-17).

In some translations, Psalms names Melchizedek as representative of the priestly line through which a future king of Israel's Davidic line was ordained. Alternatively, it may be more accurate to treat this term as an agglutinated improper noun, to be translated as rightful king rather than left as Melchizedek; this interpretation is taken by some modern translations, such as the New JPS Tanakh.

Passover: Passover is probably the best known of the Jewish holidays, mostly because it ties in with Christian history (the Last Supper was apparently a Passover seder), and because a lot of its observances have been reinterpreted by Christians as Messianic and signs of Jesus. Passover begins on the 15th day of the Jewish month of Nissan. It is the first of the three major festivals with both historical and agricultural significance (the other two are Shavu’ot and Sukkot). Agriculturally, it represents the beginning of the harvest season in Israel, but little attention is paid to this aspect of the holiday. The primary observances of Passover are related to the Exodus from Egypt after 400 years of slavery. This story is told in Exodus, Ch. 1-15. Many of the Passover observances are instituted in Chs. 12-15.

The name “Passover” refers to the fact that G-d “passed over” the houses of the Jews when he was slaying the firstborn of Egypt. In Hebrew, it is known as Pesach (that “ch” is pronounced as in the Scottish “loch”), which is based on the Hebrew root meaning “pass over”. The holiday is also referred to as Chag he-Aviv (the Spring Festival), Chag ha-Matzoth (the Festival of Matzahs), and Zeman Herutenu (the Time of Our Freedom) (again, all with those Scottish “ch”s).

Christian theology

The Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship, though theological interpretations vary. In general, the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the salvation of humanity from sin (the "Divine Economy"), a commemoration and making present of Jesus' Crucifixion on Calvary and his Resurrection, the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.

Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry (BEM) through the World Council of Churches, which included the Roman Catholic Church.

Roman Catholic Church

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At a celebration of the Eucharist at Lourdes, the chalice is displayed to the people immediately after the consecration of the wine.

In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is one of the seven sacraments, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" (Lumen Gentium 11) and that "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324). The institution of the Eucharist is one of the Luminous Mysteries of the Rosary. The Eucharist is a commemoration, or, in Greek, anamnesis [1] of the Passion, Death, and Resurrection of Christ (called the Paschal Mystery), understood in the fullest sense given to it in Biblical tradition. In other words, it is a memorial which does not just bring to mind the event celebrated, but also makes it truly present. The Eucharist is therefore understood to be not simply a representation of Christ's presence, or a remembrance of his Passion and Death, but an actual participation in the Sacrifice of Christ, the manifestation, in the present, of an event that occurred once for all in time. The Eucharist makes present that one sacrifice, not a different sacrifice. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same (Christ); the only difference is in the manner in which it is offered—the Church teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice at Calvary made present in an unbloody manner.

At a Solemn Tridentine Mass, the host is displayed to the people before communion.

The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained priest (either bishop or presbyter) acting in the person of Christ (in persona Christi). In other words, the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as the host) and wine represents the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says "The body of Christ" when administering the host, and "The blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.

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At a field Mass in 1951, Fr. Joseph Ratzinger, future Pope Benedict XVI, begins a Low Mass with the "prayers at the foot of the altar"

The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which patristic writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called "transubstantiation" in the eleventh century. It seems that the first text in which the term appears is of Gilbert of Savardin, Archbishop of Tours, in a sermon from 1079 (Patrologia Latina CLXXI 776). The theological explanation based on Aristotle's hylemorphic theory of reality didn't appear until the thirteenth century, with Alexander of Hales (died 1245). The term first appeared in a papal document in the letter Cum Marthae circa to a certain John, Archbishop of Lyon, 29 November 1202,[5] then in the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)[6]and afterward in the book "Iam dudum" sent to the Armenians in the year 1341.[7]

The definition of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which concerns what is changed, not how the change occurs, is given in the following words of the thirteenth session of the Council of Trent, quoted in paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."

Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during Mass (the Eucharist) or outside of Mass. Outside of Mass, it is normally given only under the form of bread. At Mass, it may be given in this same way ("under one kind") or "under both kinds": "Holy Communion has a fuller form as a sign when it is distributed under both kinds. For in this form the sign of the Eucharistic banquet is more clearly evident and clear expression is given to the divine will by which the new and eternal Covenant is ratified in the Blood of the Lord, as also the relationship between the Eucharistic banquet and the eschatological banquet in the Father's Kingdom—(However,) Christ, whole and entire, and the true Sacrament, is received even under only one species, and consequently that as far as the effects are concerned, those who receive under only one species are not deprived of any of the grace that is necessary for salvation" (Noia 64 mimetypes pdf.pngPDF, 281–282).

Those unable to receive Holy Communion under one or other of the two forms can thus obtain without diminution the grace necessary for salvation that, in view of John 6:53, is believed to be linked with the Eucharist: coeliacs allergic to the gluten in bread may receive Christ in Holy Communion under the form of wine alone, and alcoholics under the form of bread alone.

The consecrated hosts are kept in a tabernacle after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick or dying during the week, and also that Jesus, present in the Eucharist, may be worshipped and adored. Occasionally, the Eucharist is exposed in a monstrance, so that it may be the focus of prayer and adoration.

Eastern Christianity: true sacrifice and objective presence but pious silence on the particulars

Like Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Catholic Churches, and the Assyrian Church of the East believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the Divine Liturgy, the one sacrifice of Christ is made present. In the Prayer of the Cherubic Hymn, the liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church says: "For thou art he that offereth and is offered, that accepteth and is distributed, Christ our God," and that the exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit, is a mystery. They do not define any precise moment the change occurs, considering it complete only at the end of the Epiklesis.[8] As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.

The holy gifts reserved for the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts or communion of the sick are specially consecrated as needed, especially on Holy Thursday, and are not simply leftovers from the Divine Liturgy. They are kept in an elaborately decorated tabernacle, which is a container placed on the altar and is often in the shape of a church. Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among more latinised Eastern Catholics and those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a Western Rite.

Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with opinion

The historical position of the Anglican Communion is found in the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ" (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that the terms "Bread" and "Wine" and the corresponding words "Body" and "Blood" are all capitalized may reflect the wide range of theological beliefs regarding the Eucharist among Anglicans. However, the Articles also state that adoration, or worship per se, of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.

Anglicans generally and officially believe in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly Anglo-Catholics), to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always "Low Church" or Evangelical Anglicans). The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. There are also small minorities on the one hand which affirm transubstantiation, or on the other hand, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether.

Anglican belief in the Eucharistic Sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") is set forth in the response Saepius officio of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to Pope Leo XIII's Papal Encyclical Apostolicae curae.

Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation and the Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement.

Lutherans—the sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms"

Disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term Eucharist. Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject high church theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response (i.e., thanksgiving), which they argue is inconsistent with Lutheran theology. They note that this point is presented in Article XXIV.66 of the Apology of the Augsburg Confession. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord.

In the Lutheran Book of Concord, Apology XXIV.1, it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly: "In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other festivals, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved." This was their response to those who accused them of abolishing the Eucharist. Strict adherence to this assertion varies in present day Lutheranism.

Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (for example, Augsburg Confession, Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the sacramental union." A detailed defense of and an agreement concerning this doctrine was the subject of the Wittenberg Concord of 1536. It has been called "consubstantiation" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.

For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was articulated in the Wittenberg Concord's formula: Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed the reservation of the consecrated elements (also known as the reserve host), private masses, Eucharistic adoration, and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans.

A variety of practices exist regarding the handling of bread and wine that remain after the communion service. In high church congregations, the practice tends to be similar to that of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican traditions—the host is stored in a place of honor such as a tabernacle, consumed by those leading the service or (in the case of wine) poured into the earth. In less formal congregations, the elements receive no special treatment. They may be used again for another service or the remaining bread may be taken home and eaten by those in attendance.

Methodism: Real Presence as "Holy Mystery"

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A United Methodist Elder presides at the Eucharist

Methodists typically kneel at the altar to receive, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by intinction (where the bread is dipped into the common cup and both elements are received together) is becoming more common among many Methodists.

The Methodist Church believes in the real presence of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion:[9]

The followers of John Wesley, himself an Anglican clergyman, have typically affirmed that the sacrament of Holy Communion is an instrumental Means of Grace through which the real presence of Christ is communicated to the believer. In particular, Methodists reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation (see "Article XVIII" of the Articles of Religion, Means of Grace). In 2004, the United Methodist Church reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled This Holy Mystery. Of particular note here is the Church's unequivocal recognition of the anamnesis as more than just a memorial but, rather, a re-presentation of Christ Jesus.

This affirmation of Real Presence—of what is sometimes called "anamnetical real presence"—can be seen clearly illustrated in the language of the United Methodist Eucharistic Liturgy (for example: Word and Table 1) where, in the epecletical portion of the Great Thanksgiving, the celebrating minister prays over the elements.

A United Methodist Elder consecrates the elements

For most United Methodists—and, indeed, for much of Methodism as a whole—this reflects the furthest extent to which they are willing to go in defining Real Presence. They will assert that Jesus is really present, and that the means of this presence is a "Holy Mystery"; the celebrating minister will pray for the Holy Spirit to make the elements "be the body and blood of Christ."

Methodists believe that Holy Communion should not only be available to the clergy in both forms (the Bread and the Cup), but to the layman as well. According to Article XIX of the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church, {{cquote|The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for both the parts of the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.

Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, "pneumatic" presence

Many Reformed Christians, who follow John Calvin hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally present in the Eucharist,[10] but that "the Spirit truly unites things separated in space" (Calvin).

Following a phrase of Augustine, the Calvinist view is that "no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith." "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.

Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony (or reused in later services); they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return.

Latter Day Saints movement

To Latter Day Saints (or Mormons), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at baptism. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.

The Sacrament is considered to be a weekly renewal of a member's commitment to follow Jesus Christ, and a plea for forgiveness of sins.

Like most Restorationist sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints choose to use water instead of wine following the Doctrine and Covenants where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins" (see D&C 27:2).

Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence

Some Protestant groups (also called the Lord's Supper or the Lord's Table) as a symbolic meal, a memorial of the Last Supper and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after Huldrych Zwingli, a Church leader in Zurich, Switzerland during the Reformation. It is commonly associated with Baptists and the Disciples of Christ. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.

Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the Spiritual feeding idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.

The successor of Zwingli in Zurich, Heinrich Bullinger, came to an agreement theologically with John Calvin. The Consensus Tigurinus lays out an explanation of the doctrine of the Sacraments in general, and specifically, that of Holy Communion, as the view embraced by John Calvin and leaders of the Church of Zurich who followed Zwingli. It demonstrates that at least the successors of Zwingli held to the real spiritual presence view most commonly attributed to Calvin and Reformed Protestantism.

Some Christian denominations that hold this view include the Baptist Church, Disciples of Christ, and Church of the Nazarene.

Summary of views

Because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical. The opposing views are summarized below:

  • "Transubstantiation"—the substance (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the accidents (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is that taught by the Roman Catholic Church and by the Eastern Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, and is held by many Anglicans, especially in Anglo-Catholic circles.
  • "In, with and under the forms"—the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most Lutherans, and some Anglicans. Lutherans and non-Lutherans refer to this view as 'consubstantiation'. Although, for some, this term is difficult to understand, it remains the confessed understanding of the Lutheran faith.
  • "Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities"—the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Catholic Churches), and the Assyrian Church of the East, as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, and having historically employed the "substance" and "accidents" terminology to explain what is changed in the transformation, "after the consecration of the bread and of the wine, there no longer remaineth the substance of the bread and of the wine, but the Body Itself and the Blood of the Lord, under the species and form of bread and wine; that is to say, under the accidents of the bread" (Confession of Dositheus, Synod of Jerusalem); "the word transubstantiation is not to be taken to define the manner in which the bread and wine are changed into the Body and Blood of the Lord; for this none can understand but God; but only thus much is signified, that the bread truly, really, and substantially becomes the very true Body of the Lord, and the wine the very Blood of the Lord" (The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church); the Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church also uses the term transubstantiation.</ref> usually avoid this terminology, lest they seem to scrutize the technicalities of the manner in which the transformation occurs.
  • "Real Spiritual presence," also called "pneumatic presence,"—holds that not only the Spirit of Christ, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real"), are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence "spiritual"), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the "pious silence" view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the "mystical presence" view, and is held by most Reformed Christians, such as Presbyterians, as well as some Methodists and some Anglicans, particularly Low Church Reformed Anglicans. See Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 29. This understanding is often called "receptionism."
  • "Symbolism"—the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as "memorialism" and "Zwinglianism" after Ulrich Zwingli and is held by several Protestant and Latter-day Saint denominations, including most Baptists.
  • "Suspension"—the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as adeipnonism, meaning "no supper" or "no meal"). This is the view of Quakers and the Salvation Army, as well as the hyperdispensationalist positions of E. W. Bullinger, Cornelius R. Stam, and others.

Open and closed communion

In the Western Church, the administration of the Most Holy Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion.

Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in full communion with them. Closed communion was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist St. Justin Martyr (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and catechumens (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not usually followed by any action) at this point.

The ancient Churches, such as the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g., for non-members in danger of death who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative Protestant communities also practice closed communion, including conservative Lutheran Churches like the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod practices "close" communion, which means that while membership in a Lutheran church is expected, individual pastors may use their discretion, meaning that many LC-MS churches have a more relaxed attitude. The Mennonites and the Landmark Baptist Churches also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.

Most Protestant communities practice open communion, including some Anglican, Reformed, Evangelical, Methodist, and more-liberal Lutherans, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Church of Sweden. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls all of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many Churches that practice open communion offer it only to baptized Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.

Notes

  1. Definition of "Eucharist" in The KJV New Testament Greek Lexicon at crosswalk.com
  2. Matthew|26:27, Mark 14:23, Luke 22:19, 1 Corinthians 11:24
  3. John 6:48-58
  4. see Scott Hahn, The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth, Doubleday, 1999
  5. [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma5.html Denzinger 416
  6. [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma5.html Denzinger 430
  7. [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma6.html Denzinger 544
  8. Ware, Timothy [1963] (1993). The Orthodox Church, 2nd edition, London: The Penguin Group, p. 283. ISBN 0–14–014656–3. 
  9. This Holy Mystery: Part Two. The United Methodist Church GBOD. Retrieved 2007–07–10.
  10. This is also the belief of the Catholic Church, as witnessed by Thomas Aquinas in Summa Theologica, III, 76, 5

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chemnitz, Martin. The Lord's Supper, Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 0–570–03275-X
  • Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy, Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0–8264–7942–1
  • Elert, Werner. Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries, Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0–570–04270–4
  • Hahn, Scott. The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth, Darton, Longman, Todd. 1999. ISBN 0–232–52500–5
  • Jurgens, William A. The Faith of the Early Fathers, The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0–8146–0432–3
  • Schmemann, Alexander. The Eucharist. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0–88141–018–7
  • Stookey, L.H. Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church, Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 0–687–12017–9

External links

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