Difference between revisions of "Eucharist" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Ecce Agnus Dei.jpg|thumb|300px|right|At a [[Solemn Mass|Solemn]] [[Tridentine Mass]], the host is displayed to the people before communion.]]
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The '''Eucharist''' is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of the [[Last Supper]] between Jesus and his disciples, in which [[Christian]]s partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ. It is also known as '''Holy Communion'''.
  
The '''Eucharist''' is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of the [[Last Supper]] between Jesus and his disciples, in which Christians partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ. It is also known as [[holy communion]].
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Christians generally recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. Some believe that they partake of the literal body and blood of Jesus, which is transformed through the eucharistic prayer of the priest, while others believe in a "real" but not physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while still others take the act to be a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper. The word "Eucharist" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] noun {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστία}} (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning ''thanksgiving.'' It is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.
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{{toc}}
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The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]]. Some [[Protestant]]s view it as an ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]]'' in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]], but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ. Precursors to the Eucharist are found in a Jewish holy day and pagan rites.
  
Christians generally recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. Some believe that they partake of the literal body and blood of Jesus, which is transformed through the eucharistic prayer of the priest, while others believe in a "real" but not physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while still others take the act to be a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper. The word "Eucharist" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] noun {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστία}} (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning ''thanksgiving.'' It is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.
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==Eucharist in the Bible==
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[[Image:Fra Angelico 015.jpg|thumb|350px|In Fra Angelico's ''Last Supper'', Jesus dispenses the Eucharist.]]
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The three [[synoptic Gospels]] ({{bibleverse||Matthew|26:29}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|14:24}}, and {{bibleverse||Luke|22:19-20}}), as well as [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s first [[I Corinthians|Letter to the Corinthians]] {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-26}} contain versions of the words reportedly spoken by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]]: "Take, eat, this is my body... Take, drink, this is my blood... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats my flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" ({{bibleref|John|6:55–56}}).
  
The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]]. Some [[Protestants]] view it as an ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]]'' in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]], but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.  Precursors to the Eucharist are found in a Jewish holy day and pagan rites.
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Bible critics tend to take the view that these passages reflect the tradition of the early church at the time that the [[New Testament]] was written. In this view, the Last Supper was simply a Passover meal and only later became a memorial in which believers partake of Jesus' body and blood. The ritual thus developed as Christians dealt with the unexpected death of Jesus and reinterpreted the traditional idea of the Jewish [[Messiah]] as a spiritual savior sent by God to die for mankind's sins.
  
 
==Names for the Eucharist==
 
==Names for the Eucharist==
 
* "Eucharist" (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Εὐχαριστία}} ''Eucharistia,'' "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use.
 
* "Eucharist" (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Εὐχαριστία}} ''Eucharistia,'' "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use.
  
* "Communion" (from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''communio,'' "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent.  
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* "Communion" (from [[Latin]] ''communio,'' "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent.  
  
* "The Lord’s Supper" and "the Breaking of Bread" are terms that the New Testament (Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, 20:7) also apply to celebration of the Eucharist.  
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* "The Lord’s Supper" and "the Breaking of Bread" are terms that the New Testament ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|2:42}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|20:7}}) also apply to the celebration of the Eucharist.  
  
 
* Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist, including "Table of the Lord" ''(Mensa Domini)'', the "Lord's Body" ''(Corpus Domini)'', and the "Holy of Holies" ''(Sanctissimum)''.
 
* Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist, including "Table of the Lord" ''(Mensa Domini)'', the "Lord's Body" ''(Corpus Domini)'', and the "Holy of Holies" ''(Sanctissimum)''.
 
==Eucharist in the Bible==
 
The three [[synoptic Gospels]] ({{bibleverse||Matthew|26:29}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|22:24}}, and {{bibleverse||Luke|22:19-20}}), as well as [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s first [[Letter to the Corinthians]] {{bibleverse-nb|1|Corinthians|11:23-26}} contain versions of the words reportedly spoken by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]]: "Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats my flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" ({{bibleref|John|6:55–56}}).
 
  
 
==The Agape feast==
 
==The Agape feast==
[[Image:TheosAgape.jpg|right|200px|thumb|"ὁ θεòς ἀγάπη ἐστίν" [[Deus Caritas Est|God Is Love]] on a stele in [[Mount Nebo]].]]
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[[Image:Agape feast 07.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Early Christian painting of an Agape feast]]
The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a literal meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, the feast also included various other actions, including sometimes elements of the [[Passover seder]] and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called [[Agape feast|''Agape Feasts'']]. ''[[Agape]]'' is one of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for ''love,'' specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.
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The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a literal meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, the feast also included various other actions, sometimes including elements of the [[Passover]] [[seder]] and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called [[Agape feast|''Agape Feasts'']]. ''[[Agape]]'' is one of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for ''love,'' specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.
  
This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the feast according to their means. It could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20–22}}). The ''Eucharist'' proper was detached from the ''Agape'' meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the ''Agape'' was definitively dropped by the Church between the sixth and eighth centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the eighteenth century, ''[[Pietism|Pietist]]'' Christians began to hold [[Agape feast|''Love Feasts'']] that looked back to the ancient ''Agape.''
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This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the feast according to their means. It could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20–22}}). The ''Eucharist'' proper was detached from the ''Agape'' meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the ''Agape'' was definitively dropped by the Church between the sixth and eighth centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the eighteenth century, ''[[Pietism|Pietist]]'' Christians began to hold [[Agape feast|''Love Feasts'']] that looked back to the ancient ''Agape.''
  
 
==Precursors==
 
==Precursors==
There are Jewish and pagan precedents to the Eucharist:  
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There are Jewish and pagan antecedents to the Eucharist:  
  
'''Melchizedek:''' In the [[Tanakh]], [[Melchizedek]] brought bread and wine to [[Abraham]] after Abraham's victory over the four kings who had besieged [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]] and had taken Abraham's nephew [[Lot]] prisoner.  
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;Melchizedek
Christians believe that [[Jesus]] is the [[Messiah]] spoken of as "a [[priest]] forever in the order of Melchizedek" (Ps. 110:4).
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In the [[Tanakh]], [[Melchizedek]] brought bread and wine to [[Abraham]] after Abraham's victory over the four kings who had besieged [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]] and had taken Abraham's nephew [[Lot]] prisoner. Christians believe that [[Jesus]] is the [[Messiah]] spoken of as "a [[priest]] forever in the order of Melchizedek" ({{bibleverse||Psalms|110:4}}).  
 
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;Passover
'''Passover:'''  At Passover celebrations, the blessing and partaking of of bread and wine are a basic component of the feast. The [[Last Supper]] was apparently a Passover [[seder]], presided over by Jesus.
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At [[Passover]] celebrations, the blessing and partaking of bread and wine are a basic component of the feast. The [[Last Supper]] was apparently a Passover [[seder]], presided over by Jesus.
 
   
 
   
'''Bacchic/Dyonisan rites:''' The Bacchic/Dyonisan rites also included the sacramental partaking of wine and bread, with wine signifying the spirit and bread the manifestation of the spirit in [[matter]], or the body. Elements of the Greek [[thanksgiving]] (''eucharistia'') may also have been adopted in the early centuries of the Christian era for the [[Sacrament]] of the Lord's Supper.
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;Bacchic/Dionysian rites
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The Bacchic/[[Dionysus|Dionysian]] rites also included the sacramental partaking of wine and bread, with wine signifying the spirit and bread the manifestation of the spirit in [[matter]], or the body. Elements of the Greek [[thanksgiving]] ''(eucharistia)'' may also have been adopted in the early centuries of the Christian era for the [[Sacrament]] of the Lord's Supper.
  
 
==Christian theology==
 
==Christian theology==
Though theological interpretations have varied, the Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship. In general, the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the [[salvation]] of humanity from [[sin]] (the "Divine Economy"), a commemoration and making present of Jesus' [[Crucifixion]] on [[Calvary]] and his [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]], the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.
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{{readout||left|250px|The Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, is a [[sacrament]]al reenactment of the [[Last Supper]] between [[Jesus]] and his disciples, in which [[Christian]]s partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ}}
 
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Though theological interpretations have varied, the Eucharist has long been at the center of Christian worship. In general, the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the [[salvation]] of humanity from [[sin]]. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.
Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on ''[http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry]'' (BEM) through the [[World Council of Churches]], which included the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
 
  
 
===Roman Catholic Church===
 
===Roman Catholic Church===
[[Image:Mass at Lourdes.jpg|thumb|360px|left|At a celebration of the Eucharist at [[Lourdes]], the chalice is displayed to the people immediately after the consecration of the wine.]]
 
In the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the Eucharist is one of the seven [[sacrament]]s, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" ([[Lumen Gentium]] 11) and that "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324). The institution of the Eucharist is one of the Luminous Mysteries of the [[Rosary]]. The Eucharist is a commemoration, or, in Greek, ''[[anamnesis]]'' of Jesus' death , and [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ (called the [[Paschal Mystery]]), understood in the fullest sense given to it in Biblical tradition. In other words, it is a memorial which does not just bring to mind the event celebrated, but also makes it truly present. The Eucharist makes present that one sacrifice, not a different sacrifice. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same (Christ); the only difference is in the manner in which it is offered—the Church teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice at Calvary made present in an unbloody manner.
 
  
[[Image:Ecce Agnus Dei.jpg|thumb|260px|right|At a [[Solemn Mass|Solemn]] [[Tridentine Mass]], the host is displayed to the people before communion.]]
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In the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the Eucharist is one of the seven [[sacrament]]s, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" ([[Lumen Gentium]] 11). "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324).
The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained [[priest]] (either [[bishop]] or [[presbyter]]) acting in the person of Christ ''(in persona Christi)''. In other words, the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.
 
  
According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as the [[Host (Holy Communion)|host]]) and wine represents the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says "The body of Christ" when administering the host, and "The blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the [[communicant]] who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire. The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called "[[transubstantiation]]" in the [[eleventh century]].  
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The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained [[priest]] (either [[bishop]] or [[presbyter]]), who represents Christ himself and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.
  
[[Image:Fr Ratzinger Introibo ad altare Dei.JPG|thumb|right|180px|At a field [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in 1951, Fr. Joseph Ratzinger, future [[Pope Benedict XVI]], begins a [[Low Mass]] with the "prayers at the foot of the altar"]]
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According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. This view has come to be known as ''[[transubstantiation]]''.
  
Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during Mass (the Eucharist) or outside of Mass. Outside of Mass, it is normally given only under the form of bread. Those unable to receive Holy Communion under one or other of the two forms can thus obtain without diminution the grace necessary for salvation that, in view of {{bibleref|John|6:53}}, is believed to be linked with the Eucharist: [[coeliac disease|coeliacs]] allergic to the gluten in bread may receive Christ in Holy Communion under the form of wine alone, and [[alcoholism|alcoholics]] under the form of bread alone.
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Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during [[Mass]] or outside of Mass, in which case it is normally given only in the form of bread.
 
 
The consecrated hosts are kept in a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick or dying during the week, and also that Jesus, present in the Eucharist, may be worshipped and adored. Occasionally, the Eucharist is exposed in a [[monstrance]], so that it may be the focus of prayer and [[Eucharistic adoration|adoration]].
 
  
 
===Eastern Christianity===
 
===Eastern Christianity===
Like Roman Catholics, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the [[Divine Liturgy]], the one sacrifice of Christ is made present. In the Prayer of the Cherubic Hymn, the liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church says: "For thou art he that offereth and is offered, that accepteth and is distributed, Christ our God," and that the exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit, is a mystery. They do not define any precise moment the change occurs, considering it complete only at the end of the [[Epiklesis]]. As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.
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Like Roman Catholics, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the [[Divine Liturgy]], the one sacrifice of Christ is made present. The exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ is a ''mystery''. The Eastern tradition does not define any precise moment the change occurs. As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.
 
 
The holy gifts reserved for the [[Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts]] or communion of the sick are specially consecrated as needed, especially on [[Holy Thursday]], and are not simply leftovers from the Divine Liturgy. They are kept in an elaborately decorated [[Church tabernacle#Eastern Orthodox Church|tabernacle]], which is a container placed on the altar and is often in the shape of a church. Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among more [[Liturgical Latinization|Latinized]] [[Eastern Catholics]] and those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a [[Western Orthodoxy|Western rite]].
 
  
 
===Anglicans/Episcopalians===
 
===Anglicans/Episcopalians===
The historical position of the [[Anglican Communion]] is found in the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'' of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ" (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that the terms "Bread" and "Wine" and the corresponding words "Body" and "Blood" are all capitalized may reflect the wide range of theological beliefs regarding the Eucharist among Anglicans. However, the Articles also state that adoration, or worship ''per se,'' of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.
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The historical position of the [[Anglican Communion]] is found in the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'' of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ." The Articles also state that adoration of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.
 
 
Anglicans generally and officially believe in the [[Real Presence]] of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly [[Anglo-Catholics]]), to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always "Low Church" or [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Anglicans). The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. There are also small minorities on the one hand which affirm transubstantiation, or on the other hand, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether.  
 
  
Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the [[Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine]].
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Anglicans generally and officially believe in the "[[Real Presence]]" of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from [[transubstantiation]] to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence.
  
 
===Lutherans===
 
===Lutherans===
Disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term ''Eucharist.'' Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject [[high church]] theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response (i.e., thanksgiving), which they argue is inconsistent with Lutheran theology. They note that this point is presented in Article XXIV.66 of the [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession]]. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the [[Book of Concord|Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord]].
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In the [[Lutheran]] [[Book of Concord]], [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession|Apology XXIV.1]], it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly. However, disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term ''Eucharist.'' Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject [[high church]] theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord.
 
 
In the Lutheran [[Book of Concord]], [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession|Apology XXIV.1]], it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly: "In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other festivals, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved." This was their response to those who accused them of abolishing the Eucharist. Strict adherence to this assertion varies in present day Lutheranism.
 
  
Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (for example, [[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the [[sacramental union]]." A detailed defense of and an agreement concerning this doctrine was the subject of the [[Wittenberg Concord]] of 1536. It has been called "[[consubstantiation]]" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.
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Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present" in the consecrated bread and wine, so that communicants eat and drink both the elements themselves ''and'' the true Body and Blood of Christ ([[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10). The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is often referred to as "[[consubstantiation]]" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.
 
 
For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was articulated in the Wittenberg Concord's formula: ''Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum'' ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed the reservation of the consecrated elements (also known as the ''reserve host''), private masses, [[Eucharistic adoration]], and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans.
 
  
 
===Methodism===
 
===Methodism===
[[Image:Methodistcommunion1.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A United Methodist [[Elder (Methodism)|Elder]] presides at the Eucharist]]
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[[Image:Methodistcommunion6.jpg|thumb|right|A [[United Methodist]] Elder consecrates the elements]]
Methodists typically kneel at the [[altar]] to receive, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by intinction (where the bread is dipped into the common cup and both elements are received together) is becoming more common among many Methodists. The [[Methodism|Methodist Church]] believes in the [[real presence]] of Jesus Christ in [[Holy Communion]].
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The [[Methodism|Methodist Church]] believes in the [[Real Presence]] of Jesus Christ in [[Holy Communion]], but generally rejects the notion that the bread and wine are literally transformed into Jesus' body and blood. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by dipping the bread into the common cup is becoming more common. Methodists typically kneel at the [[altar]] to receive communion, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew.
 
 
The followers of [[John Wesley]], himself an Anglican clergyman, have typically affirmed that the sacrament of Holy Communion is an instrumental [[Means of Grace]] through which the real presence of Christ is communicated to the believer. In particular, Methodists reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of [[transubstantiation]]. In 2004, the [[United Methodist Church]] reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled ''[http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/default.html This Holy Mystery].'' Of particular note is the Church's unequivocal recognition of the [[anamnesis]] as more than just a memorial but, rather, a re-presentation of Christ Jesus.
 
  
This affirmation of Real Presence—of what is sometimes called "anamnetical real presence"—can be seen clearly illustrated in the language of the United Methodist Eucharistic Liturgy (for example: [http://www.revneal.org/communionlit1.html Word and Table 1]) where, in the epecletical portion of the Great Thanksgiving, the celebrating minister prays over the elements.
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In 2004, the [[United Methodist Church]] reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled ''This Holy Mystery''.  
[[Image:Methodistcommunion6.jpg|thumb|right|A [[United Methodist]] Elder consecrates the elements]]
 
For most United Methodists—and, indeed, for much of Methodism as a whole—this reflects the furthest extent to which they are willing to go in defining Real Presence. They will assert that Jesus is really present, and that the means of this presence is a "Holy Mystery;" the celebrating minister will pray for the Holy Spirit to make the elements "be the body and blood of Christ."
 
  
Methodists believe that Holy Communion should not only be available to the [[Elder (Methodism)|clergy]] in both forms (the Bread and the Cup), but to the [[layman]] as well. According to Article XIX of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]] in the ''[[Book of Discipline (disambiguation)|Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church]],'' {{cquote|The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for both the parts of the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.
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Methodists believe that Holy Communion may be offered by laypersons as well as the clergy. According to Article XIX of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]] in the ''[[Book of Discipline (disambiguation)|Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church]],'' "The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for... the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.
  
 
===Calvinist Reformed===
 
===Calvinist Reformed===
Many [[Reformed]] Christians, who follow [[John Calvin]] hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally present in the Eucharist, but that "the Spirit truly unites things separated in space" (Calvin).
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Many [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] Christians hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally or literally present in the Eucharist, but to the faithful believer Christ is indeed present. "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," [[John Calvin]] said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. The faithful partaker beholds God incarnate in the Eucharist, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.
  
Following a phrase of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], the Calvinist view is that "no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith." "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.
+
Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony, or reused in later services.
  
Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony (or reused in later services); they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return.
+
=== Baptists and Zwinglian Reformed===
 
+
Some [[Protestant]] groups see the bread and wine as a symbolic meal, a [[Memorialism|memorial]] of the [[Last Supper]] and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a Church leader in [[Zurich, Switzerland]] during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. It is commonly associated with [[Baptist]]s and the [[Disciples of Christ]]. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.
===Latter Day Saints===
 
To [[Latter Day Saints]] (or [[Mormons]]), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at [[baptism]]. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.
 
 
 
The Sacrament is considered to be a weekly renewal of a member's commitment to follow Jesus Christ, and a plea for forgiveness of sins.
 
 
 
Like most [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] choose to use water instead of wine following the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins." (see D&C 27:2)
 
 
 
=== Zwinglian Reformed===
 
Some Protestant groups (also called the [[Lord's Supper]] or the Lord's Table) as a symbolic meal, a [[Memorialism|memorial]] of the [[Last Supper]] and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a Church leader in [[Zurich, Switzerland]] during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. It is commonly associated with [[Baptist]]s and the [[Disciples of Christ]]. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.
 
  
 
Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the ''Spiritual feeding'' idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.
 
Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the ''Spiritual feeding'' idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.
  
The successor of Zwingli in Zurich, [[Heinrich Bullinger]], came to an agreement theologically with John Calvin. The [[Consensus Tigurinus]] lays out an explanation of the doctrine of the Sacraments in general, and specifically, that of Holy Communion, as the view embraced by John Calvin and leaders of the Church of Zurich who followed Zwingli. It demonstrates that at least the successors of Zwingli held to the real spiritual presence view most commonly attributed to Calvin and [[Reformed]] [[Protestantism]].
+
===Latter Day Saints===
 +
Like some other [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence, but view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] uses water instead of wine, following the ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'' where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament..." (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/27/2 Doctrine and Covenants 27:2])
  
Some [[Christian denominations]] that hold this view include the [[Baptist Church]], [[Disciples of Christ]], and [[Church of the Nazarene]].
+
To [[Latter Day Saints]] (or [[Mormons]]), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at [[baptism]]. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.
 
 
===Summary of views===
 
Because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical. The opposing views are summarized below:
 
 
 
* "Transubstantiation"—the [[Substance theory|substance]] (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the [[accident (philosophy)|accidents]] (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is that taught by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Synod of Jerusalem]], and is held by many [[Anglicans]], especially in [[Anglo-Catholic]] circles.
 
* "In, with and under the forms"—the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], and some [[Anglican]]s. Lutherans and non-Lutherans refer to this view as 'consubstantiation.' Although, for some, this term is difficult to understand, it remains the confessed understanding of the Lutheran faith.
 
* "Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities"—the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox Church|Oriental Orthodox]], the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]), and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, and having historically employed the "substance" and "accidents" terminology to explain what is changed in the transformation, "after the consecration of the bread and of the wine, there no longer remaineth the ''substance'' of the bread and of the wine, but the Body Itself and the Blood of the Lord, under the species and form of bread and wine; that is to say, under the ''accidents'' of the bread" ([http://catholicity.elcore.net/ConfessionOfDositheus.html Confession of Dositheus], [[Synod of Jerusalem]]); "the word ''transubstantiation'' is not to be taken to define the manner in which the bread and wine are changed into the Body and Blood of the Lord; for this none can understand but God; but only thus much is signified, that the bread truly, really, and ''substantially'' becomes the very true Body of the Lord, and the wine the very Blood of the Lord" ([http://www.tserkovnost.org/catechism_filaret/catechism_filaret-2.html ''The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church'']); the [http://www.bible.ca/cr-Orthodox.htm#catechism Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church] also uses the term ''transubstantiation.''</ref> usually avoid this terminology, lest they seem to scrutize the technicalities of the manner in which the transformation occurs.
 
* "Real Spiritual presence," also called "pneumatic presence,"—holds that not only the Spirit of Christ, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real"), are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence "spiritual"), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the "pious silence" view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the "mystical presence" view, and is held by most [[Reformed]] Christians, such as [[Presbyterians]], as well as some Methodists and some [[Anglicans]], particularly [[Low Church]] Reformed Anglicans. See [http://www.opc.org/wcf.html Westminster Confession of Faith], ch. 29. This understanding is often called "receptionism."
 
* "Symbolism"—the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as "memorialism" and "Zwinglianism" after [[Huldrych Zwingli|Ulrich Zwingli]] and is held by several [[Protestant]] and [[Latter-day Saint]] denominations, including most [[Baptist]]s.
 
* "Suspension"—the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as ''adeipnonism,'' meaning "no supper" or "no meal"). This is the view of [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] and the [[Salvation Army]], as well as the [[hyperdispensationalism|hyperdispensationalist]] positions of [[E. W. Bullinger]], Cornelius R. Stam, and others.
 
 
 
===Open and closed communion===
 
[[Image:Eucharist001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|In the Western Church, the administration of the Most Holy Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion.]]
 
[[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in [[full communion]] with them. [[Closed communion]] was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist [[Saint|St.]] [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The [[Divine Liturgy]] of St. John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not usually followed by any action) at this point.
 
  
The ancient Churches, such as the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g., for non-members ''in danger of death'' who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative [[Protestant]] communities also practice closed communion, including conservative [[Lutheran]] Churches like the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]. The [[Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod]] practices "close" communion, which means that while membership in a Lutheran church is expected, individual pastors may use their discretion, meaning that many LC-MS churches have a more relaxed attitude. The [[Mennonite]]s and the [[Landmark Baptist Church]]es also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.
+
==Open and closed communion==
 +
[[Image:Eucharist001.jpg|thumb|righft|200px|In the Western Church, the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the "body of Christ" with faith and devotion.]]
 +
[[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in [[full communion]] with them. [[Closed communion]] was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist [[Saint|St.]] [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite.  
  
Most [[Protestant]] communities practice [[open communion]], including some [[Anglican]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and more-liberal [[Lutheran]]s, such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] and the [[Church of Sweden]]. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls ''all'' of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many Churches that practice open communion offer it only to [[baptized]] Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.
+
The older Churches, such as the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances. Many conservative [[Protestant]] communities also practice closed communion, including some conservative [[Lutheran]] Churches. The [[Mennonite]]s and the [[Landmark Baptist Church]]es also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.
  
==Notes==
+
Most [[Protestant]] communities, however, practice [[open communion]], including some [[Anglican]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and liberal [[Lutheran]]s. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls ''all'' of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many churches that practice open communion offer it only to [[baptism|baptized]] Christians (regardless of denomination).
{{reflist|2}}
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
*Chemnitz, Martin. ''The Lord's Supper'', Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 0–570–03275-X
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* Chemnitz, Martin. ''The Lord's Supper''. Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 978-0570032755
*Dom Gregory. ''The Shape of the Liturgy'', Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0–8264–7942–1
+
* Dix, Dom Gregory. ''The Shape of the Liturgy''. Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 978-0826479426
* Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries'', Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0–570–04270–4
+
* Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries''. Concordia Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 978-0570042709
*Hahn, Scott. ''The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth'', Darton, Longman, Todd. 1999. ISBN 0–232–52500–5
+
* Hahn, Scott. ''The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth''. Doubleday, 1999. ISBN 978-0385496599
* Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers'', The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0–8146–0432–3
+
* Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers''. The Liturgical Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0814610251
*Schmemann, Alexander. ''The Eucharist''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0–88141–018–7
+
* Schmemann, Alexander. ''The Eucharist''. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0881410181
*Stookey, L.H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church'', Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 0–687–12017–9
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* Stookey, Laurence H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church''. Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 978-0687120178
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
* [http://www.bethelmbc.org/The_Lord_s_Supper__Scriptur.html The Lord's Supper: What Is Its Scriptural Extent?]
+
All Links retrieved August 13, 2017.
* [http://www.therealpresence.org/eucharst/mir/a3.html]—Eucharistic Miracles
 
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=548&letter=L Jewish Encyclopedia: Lord's Supper]
 
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/lmass/ord.htm The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962]
 
* [http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/euchmenu.htm EWTN—The Holy Eucharist]—Easy yet comprehensive website with Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist
 
* [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 Paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church]
 
  
 +
* [http://www.therealpresence.org/eucharst/mir/a3.html Real Presence Eucharistic Education and Adoration Association Home Page: Eucharistic Miracles] ''www.therealpresence.org''.
 +
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=548&letter=L Jewish Encyclopedia: Lord's Supper] ''jewishencyclopedia.com''.
 +
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/lmass/ord.htm The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962] ''www.sacred-texts.com''.
 +
* [http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/euchmenu.htm EWTN—The Holy Eucharist: Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist] ''www.ewtn.com''.
 +
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM The Sacrament of the Eucharist Catechism of the Catholic Church], Libreria Editrice Vaticana.
 +
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05572c.htm Eucharist] Catholic Encyclopedia, ''New Advent''.
 +
* [http://www.liturgy.co.nz/celebratingeucharist/book.html Celebrating Eucharist] by Bosco Peters, ''www.liturgy.co.nz''.
 +
* [http://www.churches-of-christ.net/tracts/job003u.htm The Lord's Supper] ''www.churches-of-christ.net''
  
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[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
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Revision as of 06:56, 31 March 2021

At a Solemn Tridentine Mass, the host is displayed to the people before communion.

The Eucharist is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of the Last Supper between Jesus and his disciples, in which Christians partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ. It is also known as Holy Communion.

Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. Some believe that they partake of the literal body and blood of Jesus, which is transformed through the eucharistic prayer of the priest, while others believe in a "real" but not physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while still others take the act to be a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper. The word "Eucharist" comes from the Greek noun εὐχαριστία (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning thanksgiving. It is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.

The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a sacrament. Some Protestants view it as an ordinance in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of divine grace, but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ. Precursors to the Eucharist are found in a Jewish holy day and pagan rites.

Eucharist in the Bible

In Fra Angelico's Last Supper, Jesus dispenses the Eucharist.

The three synoptic Gospels (Matthew 26:29, Mark 14:24, and Luke 22:19-20), as well as Saint Paul's first Letter to the Corinthians 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 contain versions of the words reportedly spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "Take, eat, this is my body... Take, drink, this is my blood... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats my flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" (John 6:55–56).

Bible critics tend to take the view that these passages reflect the tradition of the early church at the time that the New Testament was written. In this view, the Last Supper was simply a Passover meal and only later became a memorial in which believers partake of Jesus' body and blood. The ritual thus developed as Christians dealt with the unexpected death of Jesus and reinterpreted the traditional idea of the Jewish Messiah as a spiritual savior sent by God to die for mankind's sins.

Names for the Eucharist

  • "Eucharist" (from Greek Εὐχαριστία Eucharistia, "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use.
  • "Communion" (from Latin communio, "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent.
  • Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist, including "Table of the Lord" (Mensa Domini), the "Lord's Body" (Corpus Domini), and the "Holy of Holies" (Sanctissimum).

The Agape feast

Early Christian painting of an Agape feast

The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a literal meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, the feast also included various other actions, sometimes including elements of the Passover seder and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called Agape Feasts. Agape is one of the Greek words for love, specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.

This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the feast according to their means. It could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example 1 Corinthians 11:20–22). The Eucharist proper was detached from the Agape meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the Agape was definitively dropped by the Church between the sixth and eighth centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the eighteenth century, Pietist Christians began to hold Love Feasts that looked back to the ancient Agape.

Precursors

There are Jewish and pagan antecedents to the Eucharist:

Melchizedek

In the Tanakh, Melchizedek brought bread and wine to Abraham after Abraham's victory over the four kings who had besieged Sodom and Gomorrah and had taken Abraham's nephew Lot prisoner. Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah spoken of as "a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek" (Psalms 110:4).

Passover

At Passover celebrations, the blessing and partaking of bread and wine are a basic component of the feast. The Last Supper was apparently a Passover seder, presided over by Jesus.

Bacchic/Dionysian rites

The Bacchic/Dionysian rites also included the sacramental partaking of wine and bread, with wine signifying the spirit and bread the manifestation of the spirit in matter, or the body. Elements of the Greek thanksgiving (eucharistia) may also have been adopted in the early centuries of the Christian era for the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper.

Christian theology

Did you know?
The Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, is a sacramental reenactment of the Last Supper between Jesus and his disciples, in which Christians partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ

Though theological interpretations have varied, the Eucharist has long been at the center of Christian worship. In general, the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the salvation of humanity from sin. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.

Roman Catholic Church

In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is one of the seven sacraments, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" (Lumen Gentium 11). "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324).

The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained priest (either bishop or presbyter), who represents Christ himself and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. This view has come to be known as transubstantiation.

Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during Mass or outside of Mass, in which case it is normally given only in the form of bread.

Eastern Christianity

Like Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Catholic Churches, and the Assyrian Church of the East believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the Divine Liturgy, the one sacrifice of Christ is made present. The exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ is a mystery. The Eastern tradition does not define any precise moment the change occurs. As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.

Anglicans/Episcopalians

The historical position of the Anglican Communion is found in the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ." The Articles also state that adoration of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.

Anglicans generally and officially believe in the "Real Presence" of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence.

Lutherans

In the Lutheran Book of Concord, Apology XXIV.1, it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly. However, disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term Eucharist. Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject high church theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord.

Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present" in the consecrated bread and wine, so that communicants eat and drink both the elements themselves and the true Body and Blood of Christ (Augsburg Confession, Article 10). The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is often referred to as "consubstantiation" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.

Methodism

A United Methodist Elder consecrates the elements

The Methodist Church believes in the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion, but generally rejects the notion that the bread and wine are literally transformed into Jesus' body and blood. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by dipping the bread into the common cup is becoming more common. Methodists typically kneel at the altar to receive communion, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew.

In 2004, the United Methodist Church reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled This Holy Mystery.

Methodists believe that Holy Communion may be offered by laypersons as well as the clergy. According to Article XIX of the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church, "The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for... the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.”

Calvinist Reformed

Many Reformed Christians hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally or literally present in the Eucharist, but to the faithful believer Christ is indeed present. "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," John Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. The faithful partaker beholds God incarnate in the Eucharist, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.

Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony, or reused in later services.

Baptists and Zwinglian Reformed

Some Protestant groups see the bread and wine as a symbolic meal, a memorial of the Last Supper and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after Huldrych Zwingli, a Church leader in Zurich, Switzerland during the Reformation. It is commonly associated with Baptists and the Disciples of Christ. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.

Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the Spiritual feeding idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.

Latter Day Saints

Like some other Restorationist sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence, but view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses water instead of wine, following the Doctrine and Covenants where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament..." (see Doctrine and Covenants 27:2)

To Latter Day Saints (or Mormons), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at baptism. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.

Open and closed communion

In the Western Church, the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the "body of Christ" with faith and devotion.

Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in full communion with them. Closed communion was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist St. Justin Martyr (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and catechumens (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite.

The older Churches, such as the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances. Many conservative Protestant communities also practice closed communion, including some conservative Lutheran Churches. The Mennonites and the Landmark Baptist Churches also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.

Most Protestant communities, however, practice open communion, including some Anglican, Reformed, Evangelical, Methodist, and liberal Lutherans. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls all of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many churches that practice open communion offer it only to baptized Christians (regardless of denomination).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chemnitz, Martin. The Lord's Supper. Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 978-0570032755
  • Dix, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 978-0826479426
  • Elert, Werner. Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries. Concordia Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 978-0570042709
  • Hahn, Scott. The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth. Doubleday, 1999. ISBN 978-0385496599
  • Jurgens, William A. The Faith of the Early Fathers. The Liturgical Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0814610251
  • Schmemann, Alexander. The Eucharist. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0881410181
  • Stookey, Laurence H. Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church. Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 978-0687120178

External links

All Links retrieved August 13, 2017.

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