Difference between revisions of "Eucharist" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Ecce Agnus Dei.jpg|thumb|300px|right|At a [[Solemn Mass|Solemn]] [[Tridentine Mass]], the host is displayed to the people before communion.]]
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The '''Eucharist''' is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of the [[Last Supper]] between Jesus and his disciples, in which [[Christian]]s partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ. It is also known as '''Holy Communion'''.
  
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{{Eucharist}}
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Christians generally recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. Some believe that they partake of the literal body and blood of Jesus, which is transformed through the eucharistic prayer of the priest, while others believe in a "real" but not physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while still others take the act to be a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper. The word "Eucharist" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] noun {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστία}} (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning ''thanksgiving.'' It is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.
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{{redirect|Most Precious Blood}}
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The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]]. Some [[Protestant]]s view it as an ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]]'' in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]], but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ. Precursors to the Eucharist are found in a Jewish holy day and pagan rites.
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The '''Eucharist'''<ref>As will be explained, names other than "Eucharist" are also used.</ref> is the [[rite]] that [[Christianity|Christians]] perform in fulfillment of the instruction (reported in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:24–25}}) that [[Jesus]] gave to do in his memory. It is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of what he did at his [[Last Supper]] in giving his disciples bread, saying "This is my body," and the cup, saying "This is my blood."
 
  
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Christians generally recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The word "Eucharist" is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.
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==Eucharist in the Bible==
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[[Image:Fra Angelico 015.jpg|thumb|350px|In Fra Angelico's ''Last Supper'', Jesus dispenses the Eucharist.]]
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The three [[synoptic Gospels]] ({{bibleverse||Matthew|26:29}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|14:24}}, and {{bibleverse||Luke|22:19-20}}), as well as [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s first [[I Corinthians|Letter to the Corinthians]] {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-26}} contain versions of the words reportedly spoken by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]]: "Take, eat, this is my body... Take, drink, this is my blood... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats my flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" ({{bibleref|John|6:55–56}}).
  
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The word "Eucharist" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] noun {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστία}} (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning ''thanksgiving.''<ref>[http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=2168&version=kjv Definition of "Eucharist" in The KJV New Testament Greek Lexicon at crosswalk.com]</ref> This noun or the corresponding verb {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστῶ}} (I give thanks) is found in 55 verses of the New Testament. ({{Polytonic|Εὐχαριστέω}}, the uncontracted form, given in some aids for students, is not used in the New Testament.) Four of these verses<ref>[[bibleref|Matthew|26:27]], {{bibleref|Mark|14:23}}, {{bibleref|Luke|22:19}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:24}}</ref> recount that Jesus "gave thanks" before presenting to his followers the bread and the cup that he declared to be his body and his blood. The Gospel of John affirms this.<ref>{{bibleref|John|6:48-58}}</ref>
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Bible critics tend to take the view that these passages reflect the tradition of the early church at the time that the [[New Testament]] was written. In this view, the Last Supper was simply a Passover meal and only later became a memorial in which believers partake of Jesus' body and blood. The ritual thus developed as Christians dealt with the unexpected death of Jesus and reinterpreted the traditional idea of the Jewish [[Messiah]] as a spiritual savior sent by God to die for mankind's sins.
  
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The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]]. Some [[Protestants]] view it as an ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]]'' in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]] but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.
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==Names for the Eucharist==
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* "Eucharist" (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Εὐχαριστία}} ''Eucharistia,'' "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use.
  
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== Names for the Eucharist ==
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* "Communion" (from [[Latin]] ''communio,'' "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent.
  
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* "Eucharist" (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Εὐχαριστία}} ''Eucharistia,'' "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch]], who was [[martyr]]ed in [[Rome]] in about 110, used the term "Eucharist," referring to both the rite and the consecrated elements; for example "The Eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ."<ref>[[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch]] referred to the Eucharist three times in his ''[[Letter to the Smyrnaeans]]'' [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html] and once in his ''[[Letter to the Philadelphians]]'' [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html]</ref> [[Justin Martyr]], writing around 150, gave a detailed description of the rite, and stated that "Eucharist" was the name that Christians used: "This food is called among us the Eucharist...we have been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word...is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."<ref>''Apology,'' 66 [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html])</ref> Today, the term "Eucharist" is used by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], [[United Methodist]]s, and [[Lutheran]]s. Most other [[Protestant]] traditions rarely use this term, using instead either "Communion." "Lord's Supper." or "Breaking of Bread."
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* "The Lord’s Supper" and "the Breaking of Bread" are terms that the New Testament ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|2:42}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|20:7}}) also apply to the celebration of the Eucharist.  
  
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* "Communion" (from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''communio,'' "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent. Catholics and Orthodox apply this term not to the Eucharistic rite as a whole, but only to the partaking of the consecrated bread and wine, and to these consecrated elements themselves. In their understanding, it is possible to participate in the celebration of the Eucharistic rite without necessarily "receiving Holy Communion" (partaking of the consecrated elements).<ref>"Even in cases where it is not possible to receive sacramental communion, participation at Mass remains necessary, important, meaningful and fruitful" ([http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_ben-xvi_exh_20070222_sacramentum-caritatis_en.html Pope Benedict XVI, ''Sacramentum caritatis,'' 55])</ref> On the contrary, groups that originated in the [[Protestant Reformation]] usually apply this term to the whole rite. Many, especially Anglicans, prefer the fuller term "Holy Communion" rather than just "Communion." The meaning of the term ''Communion'' here is multivocal in that it also refers to the relationship of Christians, as persons or as a Church, with God and with other Christians (see [[Communion (Christian)]]), and refers, as well, to the relationship between the Three Divine Persons within the [[Trinity]], a relationship known as [[perichoresis]] and which is considered the archetype of the other forms of communion.
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* Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist, including "Table of the Lord" ''(Mensa Domini)'', the "Lord's Body" ''(Corpus Domini)'', and the "Holy of Holies" ''(Sanctissimum)''.
  
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* "The Lord’s Supper" and "the Breaking of Bread" are terms that the New Testament ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20}}; {{bibleref|Acts|2:42}}, {{bibleref|Acts|20:7}}) applies to celebration of the Eucharist. Besides the mention in 1 Corinthians, the word "meal" or "supper" was not used to describe the Eucharist (apart from direct quotes of 1 Corinthians) in history until Martin Luther's innovations of the sixteenth century.<ref>J. A. Jungmann, ''Missarum sollemnia,'' 2 vols. (Freiburg 1948-), I:327ff.</ref> The term "meal"or "supper" tends to be preferred by "minimalist" traditions, especially those strongly influenced by [[Huldrych Zwingli|Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli]] and the [[Restoration Movement]]. ''The Lord’s Supper'' is also a common term among Lutherans, as is "The Sacrament of the Altar." Other Churches and denominations also use these terms, but generally not as their basic, routine term. The use is predominant among [[Baptist]] groups, who generally avoid the use of the term Communion due to its use by the Roman Catholic Church. In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] the term [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|The Sacrament]] is used.
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==The Agape feast==
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[[Image:Agape feast 07.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Early Christian painting of an Agape feast]]
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The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a literal meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, the feast also included various other actions, sometimes including elements of the [[Passover]] [[seder]] and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called [[Agape feast|''Agape Feasts'']]. ''[[Agape]]'' is one of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for ''love,'' specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.
  
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* Certain terms are limited to the Orthodox Christian and Catholic traditions, and are typically applied to the rite as a whole. "The Divine Liturgy" is used by Orthodox and the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], who also, especially for the consecrated elements, use "the Divine Mysteries." Roman Catholics use many other terms, including "the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]," "Holy Mass," "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord," the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass," and the "Holy Mysteries".<ref>For example, {{cite book | author=Pope Benedict XVI | year=2006 | title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church | pages=275 | publisher=USCCB | authorlink=Pope Benedict XVI }}, and {{cite book | author=Catholic Church | year=200 | title=Catechism of the Catholic Church | edition = Second Edition | others=1328–1332 | id=ISBN 0–385–50819–0|url = http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p2s2c1a3.htm#1328 }}</ref> The "Blessed Sacrament" and the "Blessed Sacrament of the Altar" are also common terms for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the [[Church tabernacle]]. "Mass" is also used by [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]] and the [[Church of Sweden]].
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This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the feast according to their means. It could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20–22}}). The ''Eucharist'' proper was detached from the ''Agape'' meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the ''Agape'' was definitively dropped by the Church between the sixth and eighth centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the eighteenth century, ''[[Pietism|Pietist]]'' Christians began to hold [[Agape feast|''Love Feasts'']] that looked back to the ancient ''Agape.''
  
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Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist such as "Lord's Supper" ''(Coena Domini)'', "Table of the Lord" ''(Mensa Domini)'', the "Lord's Body" ''(Corpus Domini)'', and the "Holy of Holies" ''(Sanctissimum)'', and "the Breaking of the Bread" The following terms are also related, directly or indirectly, to the celebration of the Eucharist: ''Agape'' (Love-Feast), ''Eulogia'' (Blessing), and ''Synaxis'' (Assembly).
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==Precursors==
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There are Jewish and pagan antecedents to the Eucharist:  
  
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== Eucharist in the Bible ==
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;Melchizedek
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In the [[Tanakh]], [[Melchizedek]] brought bread and wine to [[Abraham]] after Abraham's victory over the four kings who had besieged [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]] and had taken Abraham's nephew [[Lot]] prisoner. Christians believe that [[Jesus]] is the [[Messiah]] spoken of as "a [[priest]] forever in the order of Melchizedek" ({{bibleverse||Psalms|110:4}}).
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;Passover
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At [[Passover]] celebrations, the blessing and partaking of bread and wine are a basic component of the feast. The [[Last Supper]] was apparently a Passover [[seder]], presided over by Jesus.
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;Bacchic/Dionysian rites
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The Bacchic/[[Dionysus|Dionysian]] rites also included the sacramental partaking of wine and bread, with wine signifying the spirit and bread the manifestation of the spirit in [[matter]], or the body. Elements of the Greek [[thanksgiving]] ''(eucharistia)'' may also have been adopted in the early centuries of the Christian era for the [[Sacrament]] of the Lord's Supper.
  
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The three [[synoptic Gospels]] ({{bibleverse||Matthew|26:29}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|22:24}}, and {{bibleverse||Luke|22:19-20}}), as well as [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s first [[Letter to the Corinthians]] {{bibleverse-nb|1|Corinthians|11:23-26}} contain versions of the [[Words of Institution]] spoken by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]]: "Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats My flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" ({{bibleref|John|6:55–56}}).
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==Christian theology==
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{{readout||left|250px|The Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, is a [[sacrament]]al reenactment of the [[Last Supper]] between [[Jesus]] and his disciples, in which [[Christian]]s partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ}}
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Though theological interpretations have varied, the Eucharist has long been at the center of Christian worship. In general, the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the [[salvation]] of humanity from [[sin]]. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.
  
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One writer<ref>see Scott Hahn, ''The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth,'' Doubleday, 1999</ref> has argued that the Book of Revelation used the Eucharistic liturgy of the early Church (with its portrayal of doctrines of the incarnation, paschal sacrifice, and second coming) to describe the heavenly liturgy.
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===Roman Catholic Church===
  
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{{see also|Historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology}}
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In the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the Eucharist is one of the seven [[sacrament]]s, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" ([[Lumen Gentium]] 11). "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324).
  
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== Physical elements used in celebrating the Eucharist ==
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The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained [[priest]] (either [[bishop]] or [[presbyter]]), who represents Christ himself and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.
  
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In the Eastern Orthodox Church there was a dispute with the Western Church, whether the bread should be [[leavening agent|leavened]] or unleavened. Christians who use unleavened bread recognize that the leavened bread of other traditions is equally valid matter for the confection of the Eucharist; but some who use leavened bread consider that the use of unleavened is illegitimate.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://woodstock.georgetown.edu/forum/docs/hopko.doc |title=Roman Presidency and Christian Unity in Our Time |last=Hopko |first=Thomas |conference=Woodstock Forum |booktitle=The Woodstock Report |id={{ISSN|1089–2079}} |volume=November 2005, No. 83 |conferenceurl=http://woodstock.georgetown.edu/forum/ |publisher=Woodstock Theological Center |location=Washington, DC |date=2005–09–25 |format=Microsoft Word |accessdate=2007–05–31 |pages=7 (electronic version)}}</ref> (See [[Azymite]].) The [[Synoptic Gospels]] state that the [[Last Supper]] was celebrated on "the first day of the feast of unleavened bread".<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|26:17}}, {{bibleref|Mark|14:12}}, {{bibleref|Luke|22:7}}</ref> As the name of this seven-day feast indicates, only unleavened bread was eaten and leaven was not even allowed within the house.<ref>{{bibleref|Exodus|12:15}} and {{bibleref|Exodus|12:19}}</ref> The Synoptic account thus suggests that the bread used at the Last Supper was unleavened. On the other hand, the Gospel of John says the Supper occurred "before the feast of the passover",<ref>{{bibleref|John|13:1–2}}</ref> Some interpret as significant the fact that the Synoptics use the generic word for bread, ''{{polytonic|ἄρτος}}'' (artos), which they see as referring specifically to ''leavened'' bread,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://trinityrcus.com/Articles/Grossmann_Robert/Yeast_Lords_Supper.htm |title=Yeast in the Lord's Supper? |last=Grossman |first=Robert |accessdate=2007–05–31}}</ref> to speak of the bread used at the Supper<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|26:26|70}}, {{bibleref|Mark|14:22}}, {{bibleref|Luke|22:19}}</ref> rather than the adjectival term ''{{Polytonic|ἄζυμος}}'' (azymos), "unleavened" (bread), that they used when speaking of the feast a few verses earlier.
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According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. This view has come to be known as ''[[transubstantiation]]''.  
  
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Those who use leavened bread see the leaven as a symbol of resurrection and new life, and concomitantly associate its lack with mourning.<ref>[http://www.prosphora.org/page27.html Leavened versus Unleavened Bread: What's the difference?]</ref> Those who use unleavened bread see it as a symbol of sincerity and truth,<ref>For example, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|5:8}}</ref> and freedom from sin,<ref>[http://www.gnmagazine.org/issues/gn63/unleavenedbread.htm What Does the Feast of Unleavened Bread Mean for Christians?]</ref> and of the typology of the Passover, of which Christ was the fulfillment.<ref>[http://goodnewsiowacity.com/new_page_4.htm The Lord's Supper and the Use of Leavened Bread]</ref> Appropriate symbolism can thus be found in both leavened and unleavened bread.
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Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during [[Mass]] or outside of Mass, in which case it is normally given only in the form of bread.
  
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Since the nineteenth century, some Christians celebrate the Eucharist with grape juice instead of wine. The word ''{{polytonic|οἶνος}}'' (oinos), meaning "wine," is not used in the [[New Testament]] to refer to the contents of the cup Jesus distributed at the Last Supper. The only phrase used to indicate its contents is "{{polytonic|γένημα τῆς ἀμπέλου}}" (genema tes ampelou), meaning "fruit, or produce, of the vine".<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|26:29}} and {{bibleref|Mark|14:25}} {{bibleref|Luke|22:18}} uses the same phrase in relation to a cup distinct from the cup that {{bibleref|Luke|22:20}} says Jesus took "after supper" and linked with his blood.</ref> While some conclude that the three evangelists who used this phrase, rather than the word "wine," did so to indicate that the cup contained what we would call grape juice, others see the phrase only as a poetic description of wine, which was then and is still traditionally used as an essential element at the Passover meal, like unleavened bread. "Fruit of the vine" was in fact the consecrated expression by which Jews designated the wine partaken of on sacred occasions, as at the Passover and on the evening of the Sabbath.<ref>Mishna, De Bened., chap.6, par. 1, quoted in [http://www.hpcministry.org/PDF/WineinCommunion.pdf Wine in Communion]</ref> If the evangelists had wished to indicate that the cup contained [[must]] (unfermented natural grape juice which contains 7–23 percent of pulp, stems, skins and seeds), they could simply have used the Greek word for it, ''{{polytonic|τρύξ}},'' which does not appear anywhere in the New Testament.<ref>[http://www.concordia-seminary.ca/LTR/LTR%20XVI.pdf Lutheran Theological Review XVI (2003–04)]</ref>
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===Eastern Christianity===
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Like Roman Catholics, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the [[Divine Liturgy]], the one sacrifice of Christ is made present. The exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ is a ''mystery''. The Eastern tradition does not define any precise moment the change occurs. As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.
  
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== Christian theology ==
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===Anglicans/Episcopalians===
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The historical position of the [[Anglican Communion]] is found in the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'' of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ." The Articles also state that adoration of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.
  
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The Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship, though theological interpretations vary. In general, the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the [[salvation]] of humanity from [[sin]] (the "Divine Economy"), a commemoration and making present of Jesus' [[Crucifixion]] on [[Calvary]] and his [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]], the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.
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Anglicans generally and officially believe in the "[[Real Presence]]" of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from [[transubstantiation]] to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence.
  
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Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on ''[http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry]'' (BEM) through the [[World Council of Churches]], which included the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
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===Lutherans===
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In the [[Lutheran]] [[Book of Concord]], [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession|Apology XXIV.1]], it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly. However, disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term ''Eucharist.'' Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject [[high church]] theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord.
  
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=== Roman Catholic Church ===
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Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present" in the consecrated bread and wine, so that communicants eat and drink both the elements themselves ''and'' the true Body and Blood of Christ ([[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10). The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is often referred to as "[[consubstantiation]]" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.
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[[Image:Mass at Lourdes.jpg|thumb|360px|left|At a celebration of the Eucharist at [[Lourdes]], the chalice is displayed to the people immediately after the consecration of the wine.]]
 
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{{main|Eucharist (Catholic Church)}}
 
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In the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the Eucharist is one of the seven [[sacrament]]s, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" ([[Lumen Gentium]] 11) and that "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324). The institution of the Eucharist is one of the Luminous Mysteries of the [[Rosary]]. The Eucharist is a commemoration, or, in Greek, ''[[anamnesis]]''
 
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[http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=364&version=kjv] of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]], [[Chronology of Jesus#Death|Death]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ (called the [[Paschal Mystery]]), understood in the fullest sense given to it in Biblical tradition. In other words, it is a memorial which does not just bring to mind the event celebrated, but also makes it truly present. The Eucharist is therefore understood to be not simply a representation of Christ's presence, or a remembrance of his Passion and Death, but an actual participation in the Sacrifice of Christ, the manifestation, in the present, of an event that occurred once for all in time. The Eucharist makes present that one sacrifice, not a different sacrifice. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same (Christ); the only difference is in the manner in which it is offered—the Church teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice at Calvary made present in an unbloody manner.
 
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[[Image:Ecce Agnus Dei.jpg|thumb|260px|right|At a [[Solemn Mass|Solemn]] [[Tridentine Mass]], the host is displayed to the people before communion.]]
 
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The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained [[priest]] (either [[bishop]] or [[presbyter]]) acting in the person of Christ ''(in persona Christi)''. In other words the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.
 
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According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as the [[Host (Holy Communion)|host]]) and wine represents the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says "The body of Christ" when administering the host, and "The blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the [[communicant]] who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.
 
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[[Image:Fr Ratzinger Introibo ad altare Dei.JPG|thumb|right|180px|At a field [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in 1951, Fr. Joseph Ratzinger, future [[Pope Benedict XVI]], begins a [[Low Mass]] with the "prayers at the foot of the altar"]]
 
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The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called "[[transubstantiation]]" in the [[Eleventh Century]]. It seems that the first text in which the term appears is of [[Gilbert of Savardin]], [[Archbishop of Tours]], in a sermon from 1079 (''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' CLXXI 776). The theological explanation based on Aristotle's hylemorphic theory of reality didn't appear until the [[Thirteenth Century]], with [[Alexander of Hales]] (died 1245). The term first appeared in a papal document in the letter ''Cum Marthae circa'' to a certain
 
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[[John, Archbishop of Lyon]], 29 November 1202,<ref>[http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma5.html Denzinger 416</ref> then in the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] (1215)<ref>[http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma5.html Denzinger 430</ref>and afterward in the book "Iam dudum" sent to the Armenians in the year 1341.<ref>[http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma6.html Denzinger 544</ref>
 
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The definition of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which concerns ''what'' is changed, not ''how'' the change occurs, is given in the following words of the thirteenth session of the Council of Trent, quoted in [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 paragraph 1376] of the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."
 
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Though the Church sees this change as occurring "in a way surpassing understanding"<ref>[http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1333]</ref> and so as something that can never be fully explained or understood, the Catholic Church considers that the term "transubstantiation," with its accompanying unambiguous distinction between "[[substance]]" or underlying reality, and "[[Accident (philosophy)|accidents]]" or humanly perceptible appearances, still best safeguards against the opposite extremes of a cannibalistic interpretation (the accidents remain real, not an illusion) or of a merely symbolic interpretation (the substance is changed from that of bread and wine to that of the body and blood of Christ) of the Eucharist.
 
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Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during Mass (the Eucharist) or outside of Mass. Outside of Mass, it is normally given only under the form of bread. At Mass, it may be given in this same way ("under one kind") or "under both kinds": "Holy Communion has a fuller form as a sign when it is distributed under both kinds. For in this form the sign of the Eucharistic banquet is more clearly evident and clear expression is given to the divine will by which the new and eternal Covenant is ratified in the Blood of the Lord, as also the relationship between the Eucharistic banquet and the eschatological banquet in the Father's Kingdom … (However,) Christ, whole and entire, and the true Sacrament, is received even under only one species, and consequently that as far as the effects are concerned, those who receive under only one species are not deprived of any of the grace that is necessary for salvation" ({{PDFlink|[http://www.nccbuscc.org/liturgy/current/GIRM.pdf General Instruction of the Roman Missal]|218&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 223891 bytes —>}}, 281–282).
 
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Those unable to receive Holy Communion under one or other of the two forms can thus obtain without diminution the grace necessary for salvation that, in view of {{bibleref|John|6:53}}, is believed to be linked with the Eucharist: [[coeliac disease|coeliacs]] allergic to the gluten in bread may receive Christ in Holy Communion under the form of wine alone, and [[alcoholism|alcoholics]] under the form of bread alone.
 
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The consecrated hosts are kept in a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick or dying during the week, and also that Jesus, present in the Eucharist, may be worshipped and adored. Occasionally, the Eucharist is exposed in a [[monstrance]], so that it may be the focus of prayer and [[Eucharistic adoration|adoration]].
 
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=== Eastern Christianity: true sacrifice and objective presence but pious silence on the particulars ===
 
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{{Main|Divine Liturgy}}
 
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Like Roman Catholics, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the [[Divine Liturgy]], the one sacrifice of Christ is made present;<ref>In the Prayer of the Cherubic Hymn, the liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church says: {{polytonic|Σὺ γὰρ εἶ ὁ προσφέρων, καὶ προσφερόμενος, καὶ προσδεχόμενος, καὶ διαδιδόμενος, Χριστὲ ὁ Θεὸς ἡμῶν}} (For thou art he that offereth and is offered, that accepteth and is distributed, Christ our God)</ref> and that the exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit, is a mystery. They do not define any precise moment the change occurs, considering it complete only at the end of the [[Epiklesis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ware |first=Timothy |title=The Orthodox Church |pages=p. 283 |publisher=The Penguin Group |location=London |origyear=1963 |year=1993 |isbn=0–14–014656–3 |edition=2nd edition}}</ref> As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.
 
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The holy gifts reserved for the [[Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts]] or communion of the sick are specially consecrated as needed, especially on [[Holy Thursday]], and are not simply leftovers from the Divine Liturgy. They are kept in an elaborately decorated [[Church tabernacle#Eastern Orthodox Church|tabernacle]], which is a container placed on the altar and is often in the shape of a church. Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among more [[Liturgical latinisation|latinised]] [[Eastern Catholics]] and those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a [[Western Orthodoxy|Western Rite]].
 
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=== Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with opinion ===
 
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{{main|Anglican Eucharistic theology}}
 
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The historical position of the [[Anglican Communion]] is found in the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'' of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ" (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that the terms "Bread" and "Wine" and the corresponding words "Body" and "Blood" are all capitalized may reflect the wide range of theological beliefs regarding the Eucharist among Anglicans. However, the Articles also state that adoration, or worship ''per se,'' of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.<!-- could they receive Christ unto condemnation? ~Edonovan —>
 
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Anglicans generally and officially believe in the [[Real Presence]] of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly [[Anglo-Catholics]]), to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always "Low Church" or [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Anglicans). The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. There are also small minorities on the one hand which affirm transubstantiation, or on the other hand, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether. The classic Anglican aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by [[John Donne]] (sometimes attributed to [[Elizabeth I]]):
 
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<blockquote>
 
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: He was the Word that spake it;
 
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: He took the bread and brake it;
 
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: and what that Word did make it;
 
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: I do believe and take it.<ref> Donne, John. Divine Poems—On the Sacrament, (Flesher's Edition) http://www.giga-usa.com/quotes/topics/doctrine_t001.htm</ref></blockquote>
 
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Anglican belief in the Eucharistic Sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") is set forth in the response [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgbmxd/saepius.htm ''Saepius officio''] of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s Papal Encyclical [http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Leo13/l13curae.htm ''Apostolicae curae''].
 
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Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_Eucharist.html Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation] and the [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_elucid_euch.html Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement].
 
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=== Lutherans—the sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms" ===
 
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<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Elevation1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lutheran]] pastor elevating the host after consecration.]] —>
 
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Disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term ''Eucharist.'' Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject [[high church]] theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response (i.e., thanksgiving), which they argue is inconsistent with Lutheran theology. They note that this point is presented in Article XXIV.66 of the [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession]]. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the [[Book of Concord|Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord]].
 
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In the Lutheran [[Book of Concord]], [[Apology of the Augsburg Confession|Apology XXIV.1]] it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly: "In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other festivals, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved." This was their response to those who accused them of abolishing the Eucharist. Strict adherence to this assertion varies in present day Lutheranism.
 
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Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (for example, [[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the [[sacramental union]]." A detailed defense of and an agreement concerning this doctrine was the subject of the [[Wittenberg Concord]] of 1536. It has been called "[[consubstantiation]]" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.
 
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For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was articulated in the Wittenberg Concord's formula: ''Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum'' ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed the reservation of the consecrated elements (also known as the ''reserve host''), private masses, [[Eucharistic adoration]], and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans.
 
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A variety of practices exist regarding the handling of bread and wine that remain after the communion service. In [[high church]] congregations, the practice tends to be similar to that of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Anglican traditions—the host is stored in a place of honor such as a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]], consumed by those leading the service or (in the case of wine) poured into the earth. In less formal congregations, the elements receive no special treatment. They may be used again for another service or the remaining bread may be taken home and eaten by those in attendance.
 
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Most Lutheran congregations have some mechanism to provide communion to those who are too ill or infirm to receive the sacrament at worship services. A pastor or a congregational member who is "called" for this role may consecrate the bread in the presence of the person being visited. Some congregations also send individuals or families directly from the communion service to deliver the elements to the ill or home-bound.
 
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Lutherans use the terms "in, with and under the forms of [consecrated] bread and wine" and "sacramental union" to distinguish their understanding of the Lord's Supper from those of the Reformed and other traditions. More liberal Lutheran churches tend to practice open communion, inviting all who are baptized to participate. Conservative Lutheran churches are more likely to practice closed communion (or "close communion"), restricting participation to those, who are in doctrinal agreement with them. This might involve the formal declaration of "altar and pulpit fellowship," another term for Eucharistic sharing coupled with the acceptance of the ministrations of one another's clergy. (Some argue that this is not simply a matter of ''liberal'' and ''conservative,'' but is complicated by [[high church]] and [[low church]] understandings of authority and ontology.)
 
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=== Methodism—Real Presence as "Holy Mystery" ===
 
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According to the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]] in the ''[[Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church]],''
 
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[[Image:Methodistcommunion1.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A United Methodist [[Elder (Methodism)|Elder]] presides at the Eucharist]]
 
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{{cquote|The Supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another, but rather is a sacrament of our redemption by Christ's death; insomuch that, to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of Christ; and likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ.
 
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Transubstantiation, or the change of the substance of bread and wine in the Supper of our Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions.
 
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−
The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the Supper, only after a heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith.
 
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−
The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshiped.<ref>[http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=1651 The United Methodist Church: The Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church—Article XVIII—Of the Lord's Supper]</ref>}}
 
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Methodists typically kneel at the [[altar]] to receive, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by intinction (where the bread is dipped into the common cup and both elements are received together) is becoming more common among many Methodists.
 
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The [[Methodism|Methodist Church]] believes in the [[real presence]] of Jesus Christ in [[Holy Communion]]:<ref name="UMC—This Holy Mystery 2">{{cite web|url = http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/parttwo.html| title = This Holy Mystery: Part Two |publisher = The United Methodist Church GBOD|accessdate = 2007–07–10}}</ref>
 
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::[[Jesus Christ]], who "is the reflection of God's glory and the exact imprint of God's very being" (Hebrews 1:3), is truly present in [[Holy Communion]]. Through Jesus Christ and in the power of the Holy Spirit, God meets us at the [[Altar|Table]]. God, who has given the [[sacraments]] to the church, acts in and through Holy Communion. Christ is present through the community gathered in Jesus' name (Matthew 18:20), through the [[Bible|Word]] proclaimed and enacted, and through the elements of bread and [[Grape juice|wine]] shared ({{bibleverse|1| Corinthians|11:23–26}}). The divine presence is a living reality and can be experienced by participants; it is not a remembrance of the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Death and resurrection of Jesus|Crucifixion]] only.<ref name="UMC—This Holy Mystery 2">{{cite web|url = http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/parttwo.html| title = This Holy Mystery: Part Two |publisher = The United Methodist Church GBOD|accessdate = 2007–07–10}}</ref>
 
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The followers of [[John Wesley]], himself an Anglican clergyman, have typically affirmed that the sacrament of Holy Communion is an instrumental [[Means of Grace]] through which the real presence of Christ is communicated to the believer,<ref name="UMC—This Holy Mystery 1">{{cite web|url = http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/theologyofsacraments.html| title = This Holy Mystery: Part One |publisher = The United Methodist Church GBOD|accessdate = 2007–07–10}}</ref> but have otherwise allowed the details to remain a mystery.<ref name="UMC—This Holy Mystery 2">{{cite web|url = http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/parttwo.html| title = This Holy Mystery: Part Two |publisher = The United Methodist Church GBOD|accessdate = 2007–07–10}}</ref>
 
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In particular, Methodists reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] ''(see "Article XVIII" of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]], [[Means of Grace]])''. In 2004, the [[United Methodist Church]] reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled ''[http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/default.html This Holy Mystery].'' Of particular note here is the Church's unequivocal recognition of the [[anamnesis]] as more than just a memorial but, rather, a ''re-presentation'' of Christ Jesus:
 
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::Holy Communion is remembrance, commemoration, and memorial, but this remembrance is much more than simply intellectual recalling. "Do this in remembrance of me" ({{bibleverse||Luke|22:19}}; {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:24-25}}) is ''anamnesis'' (the biblical Greek word). This dynamic action becomes re-presentation of past gracious acts of God in the present, so powerfully as to make them truly present now. Christ is risen and is alive here and now, not just remembered for what was done in the past.
 
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This affirmation of Real Presence—of what is sometimes called ''anamnetical real presence''—can be seen clearly illustrated in the language of the United Methodist Eucharistic Liturgy (for example: [http://www.revneal.org/communionlit1.html Word and Table 1]) where, in the epecletical portion of the Great Thanksgiving, the celebrating minister prays over the elements:
 
  
 +
===Methodism===
 
[[Image:Methodistcommunion6.jpg|thumb|right|A [[United Methodist]] Elder consecrates the elements]]
 
[[Image:Methodistcommunion6.jpg|thumb|right|A [[United Methodist]] Elder consecrates the elements]]
 +
The [[Methodism|Methodist Church]] believes in the [[Real Presence]] of Jesus Christ in [[Holy Communion]], but generally rejects the notion that the bread and wine are literally transformed into Jesus' body and blood. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by dipping the bread into the common cup is becoming more common. Methodists typically kneel at the [[altar]] to receive communion, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew.
  
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{{cquote|Pour out your Holy Spirit on us gathered here, and on these gifts of bread and wine. Make them be for us the body and blood of Christ that we may be for the world the body of Christ, redeemed by his blood.}}
+
In 2004, the [[United Methodist Church]] reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled ''This Holy Mystery''.  
  
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For most United Methodists—and, indeed, for much of Methodism as a whole—this reflects the furthest extent to which they are willing to go in defining Real Presence. They will assert that Jesus is really present, and that the means of this presence is a "Holy Mystery"; the celebrating minister will pray for the Holy Spirit to make the elements "be the body and blood of Christ," and the congregation will even sing, as in the third stanza of [[Charles Wesley|Charles Wesley's]] hymn ''Come Sinners to the Gospel Feast'':
+
Methodists believe that Holy Communion may be offered by laypersons as well as the clergy. According to Article XIX of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]] in the ''[[Book of Discipline (disambiguation)|Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church]],'' "The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for... the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.”
  
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<blockquote>
+
===Calvinist Reformed===
 +
Many [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] Christians hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally or literally present in the Eucharist, but to the faithful believer Christ is indeed present. "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," [[John Calvin]] said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. The faithful partaker beholds God incarnate in the Eucharist, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.
  
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: Come and partake the gospel feast,
+
Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony, or reused in later services.
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: Be saved from sin, in Jesus rest;
 
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: O taste the goodness of our God,
 
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: and eat his flesh and drink his blood.[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Come%2C_Sinners%2C_to_the_Gospel_Feast_%28version_2%29]</blockquote>
 
  
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Methodists believe that Holy Communion should not only be available to the [[Elder (Methodism)|clergy]] in both forms (the Bread and the Cup), but to the [[layman]] as well. According to Article XIX of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]] in the ''[[Book of Discipline (disambiguation)|Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church]],'' {{cquote|The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for both the parts of the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.<ref>[http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=1652 The United Methodist Church: The Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church—Article XIX—Of Both Kinds]</ref>}}
+
=== Baptists and Zwinglian Reformed===
 +
Some [[Protestant]] groups see the bread and wine as a symbolic meal, a [[Memorialism|memorial]] of the [[Last Supper]] and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a Church leader in [[Zurich, Switzerland]] during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. It is commonly associated with [[Baptist]]s and the [[Disciples of Christ]]. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.
  
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=== Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, "pneumatic" presence ===
+
Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the ''Spiritual feeding'' idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.
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Many [[Reformed]] Christians, who follow [[John Calvin]] hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally present in the Eucharist,<ref>This is also the belief of the Catholic Church, as witnessed by Thomas Aquinas in [http://www.ccel.org/a/aquinas/summa/TP/TP076.html#TPQ76A5THEP1 ''Summa Theologica,'' III, 76, 5]</ref> but that "the Spirit truly unites things separated in space" (Calvin).
 
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Following a phrase of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], the Calvinist view is that "no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith." "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.
 
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Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony (or reused in later services); they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return.
 
  
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=== Latter Day Saint movement ===
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===Latter Day Saints===
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{{main|Sacrament (Latter Day Saints)}}
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Like some other [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence, but view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] uses water instead of wine, following the ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'' where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament..." (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/27/2 Doctrine and Covenants 27:2])
  
 
To [[Latter Day Saints]] (or [[Mormons]]), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at [[baptism]]. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.
 
To [[Latter Day Saints]] (or [[Mormons]]), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at [[baptism]]. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.
  
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The Sacrament is considered to be a weekly renewal of a member's commitment to follow Jesus Christ, and a plea for forgiveness of sins.
+
==Open and closed communion==
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[[Image:Eucharist001.jpg|thumb|righft|200px|In the Western Church, the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the "body of Christ" with faith and devotion.]]
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Like most [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] choose to use water instead of wine following the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins" (see D&C 27:2).
+
[[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in [[full communion]] with them. [[Closed communion]] was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist [[Saint|St.]] [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite.  
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=== Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence ===
 
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{{Main|Memorialism}}
 
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Some Protestant groups (also called the [[Lord's Supper]] or the Lord's Table) as a symbolic meal, a [[Memorialism|memorial]] of the [[Last Supper]] and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a Church leader in [[Zurich, Switzerland]] during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. It is commonly associated with [[Baptist]]s and the [[Disciples of Christ]]. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.
 
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Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the ''Spiritual feeding'' idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.
 
−
 
 
−
The successor of Zwingli in Zurich, [[Heinrich Bullinger]], came to an agreement theologically with John Calvin. The [[Consensus Tigurinus]] lays out an explanation of the doctrine of the Sacraments in general, and specifically, that of Holy Communion, as the view embraced by John Calvin and leaders of the Church of Zurich who followed Zwingli. It demonstrates that at least the successors of Zwingli held to the real spiritual presence view most commonly attributed to Calvin and [[Reformed]] [[Protestantism]].
 
−
 
 
−
Some [[Christian denominations]] that hold this view include the [[Baptist Church]], [[Disciples of Christ]], and [[Church of the Nazarene]].
 
−
 
 
−
=== Summary of views ===
 
−
 
 
−
Because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical. The opposing views are summarized below.
 
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−
{{details|Real Presence}}
 
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−
* "Transubstantiation"—the [[Substance theory|substance]] (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the [[accident (philosophy)|accidents]] (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is that taught by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Synod of Jerusalem]], and is held by many [[Anglicans]], especially in [[Anglo-Catholic]] circles.
 
−
* "In, with and under the forms"—the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], and some [[Anglican]]s. Lutherans and non-Lutherans refer to this view as 'consubstantiation'. Although, for some, this term is difficult to understand, it remains the confessed understanding of the Lutheran faith.
 
−
* "Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities"—the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox Church|Oriental Orthodox]], the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]) and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, and having historically employed the "substance" and "accidents" terminology to explain what is changed in the transformation,<ref>"after the consecration of the bread and of the wine, there no longer remaineth the ''substance'' of the bread and of the wine, but the Body Itself and the Blood of the Lord, under the species and form of bread and wine; that is to say, under the ''accidents'' of the bread" ([http://catholicity.elcore.net/ConfessionOfDositheus.html Confession of Dositheus], [[Synod of Jerusalem]]); "the word ''transubstantiation'' is not to be taken to define the manner in which the bread and wine are changed into the Body and Blood of the Lord; for this none can understand but God; but only thus much is signified, that the bread truly, really, and ''substantially'' becomes the very true Body of the Lord, and the wine the very Blood of the Lord" ([http://www.tserkovnost.org/catechism_filaret/catechism_filaret-2.html ''The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church'']); the [http://www.bible.ca/cr-Orthodox.htm#catechism Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church] also uses the term ''transubstantiation.''</ref> usually avoid this terminology, lest they seem to scrutize the technicalities of the manner in which the transformation occurs.
 
−
* "Real Spiritual presence," also called "pneumatic presence," holds that not only the Spirit of Christ, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real"), are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence "spiritual"), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the "pious silence" view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the "mystical presence" view, and is held by most [[Reformed]] Christians, such as [[Presbyterians]], as well as some Methodists and some [[Anglicans]], particularly [[Low Church]] Reformed Anglicans. See [http://www.opc.org/wcf.html Westminster Confession of Faith], ch. 29. This understanding is often called "receptionism." Some argue that this view can be seen as being suggested—though not by any means clearly—by the "[[epiklesis|invocation]]" of the Anglican Rite as found in the American [[Book of Common Prayer]], 1928 and earlier and in Rite I of the American BCP of 1979 as well as in other Anglican formularies:
 
−
:: ''And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify, with thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine; that we, receiving them according to thy Son our Savior Jesus Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, may be partakers of his most blessed body and blood.''
 
−
* "Symbolism"—the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as "memorialism" and "Zwinglianism" after [[Huldrych Zwingli|Ulrich Zwingli]] and is held by several [[Protestant]] and [[Latter-day Saint]] denominations, including most [[Baptist]]s.
 
−
* "Suspension"—the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as ''adeipnonism,'' meaning "no supper" or "no meal"). This is the view of [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] and the [[Salvation Army]], as well as the [[hyperdispensationalism|hyperdispensationalist]] positions of [[E. W. Bullinger]], Cornelius R. Stam, and others.
 
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−
== Ritual and liturgy ==
 
−
 
 
−
===The Agape feast===
 
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[[Image:TheosAgape.jpg|right|200px|thumb|"ὁ θεòς ἀγάπη ἐστίν" [[Deus Caritas Est|God Is Love]] on a stele in [[Mount Nebo]].]]
 
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−
The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, it also included various other actions, including sometimes elements of the [[Passover seder]] and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called [[Agape feast|''Agape Feasts'']], although terminology varied in the first few centuries along with other aspects of practice. ''[[Agape]]'' is one of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for ''love,'' specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.
 
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−
This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the meal according to their means. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example  {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20–22}}). The ''Eucharist'' proper was detached from the ''Agape'' meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the ''Agape'' was definitively dropped by the Church between the 6th and 8th centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the 18th century, ''[[Pietism|Pietist]]'' Christians began to hold [[Agape feast|''Love Feasts'']] that looked back to the ancient ''Agape.'' Many Christians today after celebrating the Eucharist or another liturgy, now routinely participate in a sharing of light refreshments and conversation in an informal ritual that is functionally an Agape. This post-Eucharistic gathering is often called "fellowship hour" or "coffee hour" and is regarded by many clergy as a particularly opportune time for engaging adults in Christian education.
 
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−
Today some contemporary Christians participate in ''Agape'' meals on rare occasions, to experience this historical form of the Eucharist. Others, particularly among the [[House Church]] movement, practice the love feast weekly as the observation of the Lord's Supper—a full meal provided by and shared among the members. The bread and wine are taken as part of the meal, either at the end or the meal may be opened with the bread and ended with the wine.<!-- Don't the Covenanters (Scotch Reformed) historically celebrate the Lord's Supper/Eucharist as part of a meal as well?) —>
 
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−
=== Anglican ===
 
−
 
 
−
In the [[Episcopal Church in the United States  of America]] (ECUSA), the Eucharist is designated as the principal service of the Church. The service for Holy Eucharist is found in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] for each national Church in the [[Anglican Communion]]. The [[Anglican Church]] holds the Eucharist as the highest form of worship, the Church's main service. Daily celebrations are now the case in most [[cathedral]]s and many parish churches, and there are few churches where Holy Communion is not celebrated at least once every Sunday. The nature of the ritual with which it is celebrated, however, varies according to the churchmanship of the individual parish.
 
−
 
 
−
See [[Book of Common Prayer]] and [[Ritualism]].
 
−
 
 
−
=== Baptist ===
 
−
 
 
−
The bread and "fruit of the vine" indicated in Matthew, Mark and Luke as the elements of the ''Lord's Supper''<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|26:26–29}}, {{bibleref|Mark|14:22–25}}, {{bibleref|Luke|22:19}}</ref> are interpreted by Baptists as unleavened bread and, in line with their historic stance against partaking of alcoholic beverages, [[grape juice]], which they commonly refer to simply as "the Cup".<ref>See, e.g., {{cite book | first=J. R. | last=Graves | year=1928 | title=What is It to Eat and Drink Unworthily | publisher=Baptist Sunday School Committee | id={{OCLC|6323560}}}}</ref>
 
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=== Eastern Christianity ===
 
−
{{main|Divine Liturgy}}
 
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Among Eastern Christians, the Eucharistic service is called the ''Divine Liturgy.'' It comprises two main divisions: the first is the ''Liturgy of the Catechumens'' which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the [[Gospels]] and often, a [[sermon]]; the second is the ''Liturgy of the Faithful'' in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as [[Holy Communion]]. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the ''[[anaphora (liturgy)|anaphora]],'' literally: "offering" or "carrying up" ({{polytonic|ἀνα- + φέρω}}). In the Byzantine Rite, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to [[John Chrysostom|St. John Chrysostom]], and the other to [[Basil of Caesarea|St. Basil the Great]]. Among the [[Oriental Orthodox]], a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Byzantine Rite. In the Byzantine Rite, the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; St. Basil's is offered on the Sundays of [[Great Lent]], the eves of [[Christmas]] and [[Theophany]], [[Holy Thursday]], [[Holy Saturday]], and upon his feast day (January 1). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the Body and Blood of Christ.
 
−
 
 
−
Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to occur at the ''Epiklesis'' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] "invocation") by which the [[Holy Spirit]] is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can be readily singled out.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===
 
−
 
 
−
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing The Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial, each year on [[Quartodeciman|Nisan 14]] according to the ancient Jewish calendar. They believe that this is the only celebration commanded for Christians in the Bible. Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide will partake of the eating of the unleavened bread and the drinking of the wine.
 
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−
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only [[144,000]] people can receive salvation and thus spend eternity with God in heaven. They are called the "anointed" and are the only ones who can partake of the bread and wine.
 
−
 
 
−
The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry, such as door-to-door work. A suitable hall, for example a [[Kingdom Hall]], is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as "emblems"), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are "anointed" partake. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer.
 
−
 
 
−
It is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Latter Day Saint movement ===
 
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−
In the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] (also known as [[Mormonism]]), the Sacrament is the [[Lord's Supper]], in which participants eat bread and drink wine (or water, in the case of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] since the late 1800s). It is essentially the same as the Eucharist, Communion in some other Christian denominations. Normally in Mormon congregations, the Sacrament is provided every Sunday as part of the [[Sacrament meeting]].
 
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−
In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] the word "ordinance" is used approximately as the word [[Sacrament]] is used in Christianity in general.
 
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−
In the [[Community of Christ]], the word "[[sacrament]]" is also used in the more common, generic sense used by most of [[Christianity]], meaning a rite or "[[Ordinance (Mormonism)|ordinance]]."
 
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−
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Sacrament is performed on a weekly basis during [[Sacrament meeting]] with exceptions arising during [[General conference (Mormonism)|General]] and [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake]] conferences). As most males in the Church age 16 years and older are able to perform the ordinance, it is common for wards to send men to the homes of sick (usually homebound) members of the congregation, and administer the sacrament to them. Also, fathers of families occasionally perform it with their families during times of illness or travel, but this requires the approval of the bishop, as it should not replace the regular attendance of congregation meetings.
 
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−
=== Lutheran ===
 
−
 
 
−
The "Lutheran Eucharistic service" is similar in form to the Roman Catholic and "high" Anglican services. Administration of the bread and wine varies between congregations. The bread can be a thin wafer, or leavened or unleavened bread. The wine may be administered via a common cup (the "chalice"), or through individual cups that may be either prefilled or filled from the chalice during the communion. Intinction is acceptable, but rarely used. Some congregations that use wine make grape juice available for those who are abstaining from alcohol, and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat or grapes.
 
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−
=== Reformed/Presbyterian ===
 
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−
In the [[Reformed Churches]] the Eucharist is variously administered. Acknowledging that the bread at the Passover celebration was almost certainly unleavened, some Churches use bread without any raising agent (whether [[leaven]] or [[yeast]]).<ref>[http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/99778.qna/category/pt/page/questions/site/iiim "Do the Elements of Communion Matter?"] by Ra McLaughlin</ref> The [[Presbyterian Church (USA)]], for instance, prescribes "bread common to the culture." The wine served might be true alcoholic red wine or grape juice, usually served not from a chalice, but from individual cups. Hearkening back to the [[regulative principle of worship]], the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion, preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters (elders) more in the style of a shared meal, but some Churches have reappropriated a High Church liturgy in the spirit of [[Philip Schaff]]'s Mercersburg theology, which held ancient traditions of the Church in higher esteem than did much of the Reformed world. The elements may be found served separately with "consecration" for each element or together. Communion is usually open to all baptized believers, and although often it is reserved for those who are members in good standing of a Bible-believing  Church, participation is left as a matter of conscience.
 
−
<!--In my experience, this has been about the same as the Minimalist practice, described below, although there are "High Church" Reformed whose liturgy is much more similar to that of an Anglican or Lutheran Church. Should we talk about current Reformed practice, historic Reformed practice (i.e., Calvin's Geneva, Covenanters, Puritans, Southern Presbyterians of the 1800s—not that all those are the same (they're actually quite different), or both?
 
−
We can also talk about the Church of Scotland [[Book of Common Order]] and the [[Westminster Directory for Public Worship]]—these are 'how to' manuals of Eucharistic liturgy that formed a high point of agreement amongst Presbyterians and Congregationalists—and it should be possible to find sources that can guide us in summarizing the ritual and liturgy elements from them.
 
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—>
 
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−
=== Roman Catholicism ===
 
−
{{main|Eucharist (Catholic Church)}}
 
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−
See [[Mass (Catholic Church)]] for Catholic worship in the [[Latin Rite]] and [[Divine Liturgy]] for worship in the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]].
 
−
[[Image:Eucharist001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|In the Western Church, the administration of the Most Holy Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion.]]
 
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−
=== Open and closed communion ===
 
−
{{main|Open communion|Closed communion|Full communion}}
 
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−
[[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in [[full communion]] with them. [[Closed communion]] was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist [[Saint|St.]] [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The [[Divine Liturgy]] of St.  John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not usually followed by any action) at this point.
 
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−
The ancient Churches, such as the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g., for non-members ''in danger of death'' who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative [[Protestant]] communities also practice closed communion, including conservative [[Lutheran]] Churches like the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]. The [[Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod]] practices "close" communion, which means that while membership in a Lutheran church is expected, individual pastors may use their discretion, meaning that many LC-MS churches have a more relaxed attitude. The [[Mennonite]]s and the [[Landmark Baptist Church]]es also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.
 
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−
Most [[Protestant]] communities practice [[open communion]], including some [[Anglican]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and more-liberal [[Lutheran]]s (such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] and the [[Church of Sweden]]). Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls ''all'' of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many Churches that practice open communion offer it only to [[baptized]] Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.
 
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−
== Theories about Greco-Roman pre-Christian connection ==
 
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{{seealso|Osiris-Dionysus|Dionysus}}
 
−
 
 
−
Professor [[Stephen L Harris]] declared that "long before Jesus linked wine and bread as part of the Christian liturgy ({{bibleref|Mark|14:22–25}}; {{bibleref|Luke|22:17–20}}) the two tokens of divine favor were associated in the Dionysian tradition. In the ''Bacchae'' (worshippers of Bacchus, another name for Dionysus), the Athenian playwright Euripides (c. 485–406 B.C.E.) has the prophet Tiresias observe that Demeter and Dionysus, respectively, ''gave humanity two indispensable gifts: grain or bread to sustain life and wine to make life bearable.'' Harris claimed, in line with Michael Cacoyannis's translation of the play (see below), that Tiresias urges his hearers to see in Dionysus's gift of wine a beverage that brings into communion with the divine.<ref name="multiple20"> Stephen L. Harris, ''Understanding the Bible.'' (McGraw Hill, 2002) p 362–3</ref>
 
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−
Others have expanded on Harris's theory by declaring that an idea of [[theophagy]] (eating one's god), or at least of feeding on the life-force of a mystical entity, was characteristic of the central rites of some Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern [[mystery religion]]s and claiming that the acts and ordinances of Jesus and his apostles were "memorialized" in that context. According to them, the Eucharist conveyed the purported mystical benefits of flesh-eating and blood-drinking that were proclaimed by the proponents of [[animal sacrifice]]s and of [[cannibalism]], and can be seen to translate the vestiges of ancient animal sacrifice and/or ritualistic cannibalism into the current age.{{fact|date=March 2007}}
 
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−
Another theory that attributes a pre-Christian connection to the Eucharist has been suggested by [[John Allegro]] and [[Carl Ruck]]. They claim that Jesus was seen as a [[vegetation]] god incarnated, like Dionysus and Osiris, not as a human but as an [[entheogen]]ic plant or [[ethnomycology|fungus]] or both.{{Facts|date=February 2007}}
 
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All these theories make light of the fact that Christianity did not begin among people who believed in or practiced the rites of the mystery religions. The first Christians were either Jews or "the God-fearing" ([[Gentile]]s who attended Jewish synagogue services but held back from becoming [[proselyte]]s [see for example: {{bibleref|Acts|13:16}}, {{bibleref|Acts|13:26}}]). And, as can be seen, for instance, in {{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|6:14–18}} and in the Book of Wisdom, Jews of the time had a very negative attitude to forms of worship other than Jewish. [[Josephus]] too describes first-century Jews as noted for their fierce monotheism and readiness to die rather than worship pagan gods.{{fact|date=March 2007}} [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s 57 C.E. First Letter to the Corinthians ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:20–29}}), written less than thirty years after the death of Jesus, and the [[Acts of the Apostles]] ({{bibleref|Acts|2:42}}, {{bibleref|Acts|2:46}}) present the rite of "the Lord's supper" or "the breaking of bread" as dating from the very beginning of Christianity, when Christianity was still an entirely Jewish phenomenon. While, by the time that Paul wrote this letter, Christianity was beginning to spread among people of whom some may possibly have been adherents of mystery cults and may thus conceivably have attached to the Eucharistic rite meanings not originally associated with it, the rite did not originate among them. Instead, as indicated in these writings, which are the earliest evidence about it, the Eucharist had already for a quarter of a century been practiced as what has been called "a unique form of Table fellowship" by which the earliest Christians, who were, all of them, Jews, reenacted something that Jesus did and said at his last supper.
 
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−
<!-- [[Image:H35.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Dionysus]] holding a wine cup, with a faun eating grapes, by [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]].]] —>
 
−
[[The Bacchae]], the play by the Athenian tragedian [[Euripides]] to which Harris appealed for support for his ideas, speaks of bread and wine as basic gifts to humanity from the Greek gods [[Demeter]] and [[Dionysus]]. In his very loose translation of this play Michael Cacoyannis instead presents these two gifts as means for entering into communion with the divine:
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
 
 
−
: ''Next came the son of the virgin, Dionysus.''
 
−
: ''bringing the counterpart to bread, wine''
 
−
: ''and the blessings of life's flowing juices.''
 
−
: ''His blood, the blood of grape, ''
 
−
: ''lightens the burden of our mortal misery...''
 
−
: ''it is his blood we pour out''
 
−
: ''to offer thanks to the gods. And through him.''
 
−
: ''we are blessed.''<ref> Euripides, ''The Bacchae.'' (Plume Publishers, 1982.) ''Translated by Michael Cacoyannis.'' p 18</ref></blockquote>
 
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−
This, with its references to "the son of the virgin," "his blood," "the blessings of life's flowing juices," is the Christianity-inspired work of Michael Cacoyannis. It is not what Euripides, who lived centuries before Christianity, wrote. He wrote:
 
−
 
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
 
 
−
: ''For mankind, young man, two elements hold the first place.''
 
−
: ''The goddess Demeter—that is the soil, whatever name you may wish to call it -''
 
−
: ''this gives solid nourishment to human beings.''
 
−
: ''A later arrival, the son of Semele, invented and introduced to mortals''
 
−
: ''the corresponding liquid drink of the grape-bunch.''
 
−
: ''It relieves the grief of wretched human beings,''
 
−
: ''when they are replenished with what flows from the vine.''
 
−
: ''It bestows sleep, oblivion of each day's troubles.''
 
−
: ''No other remedy is there for woes.''
 
−
: ''This, having become a god itself, is poured in libation to the gods,''
 
−
: ''with the result that it is through it that men have benefits.''<ref>(lines 275–285)
 
−
::: {{Polytonic|δύο γάρ, ὦ νεανία,}}
 
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−
: {{Polytonic|τὰ πρῶτ᾽ ἐν ἀνθρώποισι• Δημήτηρ θεά -}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|γῆ δ᾽ ἐστίν, ὄνομα δ᾽ ὁπότερον βούλῃ κάλει•}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|αὕτη μὲν ἐν ξηροῖσιν ἐκτρέφει βροτούς•}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|ὃς δ᾽ ἦλθ᾽ ἔπειτ᾽, ἀντίπαλον ὁ Σεμέλης γόνος}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|βότρυος ὑγρὸν πῶμ᾽ ηὗρε κεἰσηνέγκατο}}
 
−
 
 
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: {{Polytonic|θνητοῖς, ὃ παύει τοὺς ταλαιπώρους βροτοὺς}}
 
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−
: {{Polytonic|λύπης, ὅταν πλησθῶσιν ἀμπέλου ῥοῆς,}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|ὕπνον τε λήθην τῶν καθ᾽ ἡμέραν κακῶν}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|δίδωσιν, οὐδ᾽ ἔστ᾽ ἄλλο φάρμακον πόνων.}}
 
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: {{Polytonic|οὗτος θεοῖσι σπένδεται θεὸς γεγώς,}}
 
−
 
 
−
: {{Polytonic|ὥστε διὰ τοῦτον τἀγάθ᾽ ἀνθρώπους ἔχειν.}}</ref></blockquote>
 
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−
Euripides thus merely states the fact that bread and wine were the basic forms of nourishment in Mediterranean culture. Though what Cacoyannis presents as a translation of Euripides capitalizes the word "Thanks," seemingly in order to evoke the idea of the Eucharist, Euripides in fact made no reference here to any Eucharist-like rite whatever. Neither did he at all picture wine as the blood of Dionysus or call Dionysus "the son of the virgin."
 
−
 
 
  
 +
The older Churches, such as the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances. Many conservative [[Protestant]] communities also practice closed communion, including some conservative [[Lutheran]] Churches. The [[Mennonite]]s and the [[Landmark Baptist Church]]es also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.
  
−
==Notes==
+
Most [[Protestant]] communities, however, practice [[open communion]], including some [[Anglican]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and liberal [[Lutheran]]s. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls ''all'' of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many churches that practice open communion offer it only to [[baptism|baptized]] Christians (regardless of denomination).
−
{{reflist|2}}
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Chemnitz, Martin. ''The Lord's Supper'', Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 0–570–03275-X
+
* Chemnitz, Martin. ''The Lord's Supper''. Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 978-0570032755
−
*Dom Gregory. ''The Shape of the Liturgy'', Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0–8264–7942–1
+
* Dix, Dom Gregory. ''The Shape of the Liturgy''. Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 978-0826479426
−
* Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries'', Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0–570–04270–4
+
* Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries''. Concordia Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 978-0570042709
−
*Hahn, Scott. ''The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth'', Darton, Longman, Todd. 1999. ISBN 0–232–52500–5
+
* Hahn, Scott. ''The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth''. Doubleday, 1999. ISBN 978-0385496599
−
* Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers'', The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0–8146–0432–3
+
* Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers''. The Liturgical Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0814610251
−
*Schmemann, Alexander. ''The Eucharist''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0–88141–018–7
+
* Schmemann, Alexander. ''The Eucharist''. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0881410181
−
*Stookey, L.H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church'', Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 0–687–12017–9
+
* Stookey, Laurence H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church''. Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 978-0687120178
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* [http://www.bethelmbc.org/The_Lord_s_Supper__Scriptur.html The Lord's Supper: What Is Its Scriptural Extent?]
+
All Links retrieved August 13, 2017.
−
* [http://www.therealpresence.org/eucharst/mir/a3.html]—Eucharistic Miracles
 
−
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=548&letter=L Jewish Encyclopedia: Lord's Supper]
 
−
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/lmass/ord.htm The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962]
 
−
* [http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/euchmenu.htm EWTN—The Holy Eucharist]—Easy yet comprehensive website with Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist
 
−
* [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 Paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church]
 
  
 +
* [http://www.therealpresence.org/eucharst/mir/a3.html Real Presence Eucharistic Education and Adoration Association Home Page: Eucharistic Miracles] ''www.therealpresence.org''.
 +
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=548&letter=L Jewish Encyclopedia: Lord's Supper] ''jewishencyclopedia.com''.
 +
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/lmass/ord.htm The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962] ''www.sacred-texts.com''.
 +
* [http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/euchmenu.htm EWTN—The Holy Eucharist: Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist] ''www.ewtn.com''.
 +
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM The Sacrament of the Eucharist Catechism of the Catholic Church], Libreria Editrice Vaticana.
 +
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05572c.htm Eucharist] Catholic Encyclopedia, ''New Advent''.
 +
* [http://www.liturgy.co.nz/celebratingeucharist/book.html Celebrating Eucharist] by Bosco Peters, ''www.liturgy.co.nz''.
 +
* [http://www.churches-of-christ.net/tracts/job003u.htm The Lord's Supper] ''www.churches-of-christ.net''
  
 +
[[Category:Religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
{{Credit|154344332}}
 
{{Credit|154344332}}

Revision as of 06:56, 31 March 2021

At a Solemn Tridentine Mass, the host is displayed to the people before communion.

The Eucharist is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of the Last Supper between Jesus and his disciples, in which Christians partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ. It is also known as Holy Communion.

Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. Some believe that they partake of the literal body and blood of Jesus, which is transformed through the eucharistic prayer of the priest, while others believe in a "real" but not physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while still others take the act to be a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper. The word "Eucharist" comes from the Greek noun εὐχαριστία (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning thanksgiving. It is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite.

The majority of Christians classify the Eucharist as a sacrament. Some Protestants view it as an ordinance in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of divine grace, but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ. Precursors to the Eucharist are found in a Jewish holy day and pagan rites.

Eucharist in the Bible

In Fra Angelico's Last Supper, Jesus dispenses the Eucharist.

The three synoptic Gospels (Matthew 26:29, Mark 14:24, and Luke 22:19-20), as well as Saint Paul's first Letter to the Corinthians 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 contain versions of the words reportedly spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "Take, eat, this is my body... Take, drink, this is my blood... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: "For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats my flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him" (John 6:55–56).

Bible critics tend to take the view that these passages reflect the tradition of the early church at the time that the New Testament was written. In this view, the Last Supper was simply a Passover meal and only later became a memorial in which believers partake of Jesus' body and blood. The ritual thus developed as Christians dealt with the unexpected death of Jesus and reinterpreted the traditional idea of the Jewish Messiah as a spiritual savior sent by God to die for mankind's sins.

Names for the Eucharist

  • "Eucharist" (from Greek Εὐχαριστία Eucharistia, "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use.
  • "Communion" (from Latin communio, "sharing in common") is a term used, with different meanings, by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; "Holy Communion" is also prevalent.
  • Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist, including "Table of the Lord" (Mensa Domini), the "Lord's Body" (Corpus Domini), and the "Holy of Holies" (Sanctissimum).

The Agape feast

Early Christian painting of an Agape feast

The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a literal meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, the feast also included various other actions, sometimes including elements of the Passover seder and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called Agape Feasts. Agape is one of the Greek words for love, specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.

This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the feast according to their means. It could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (see for example 1 Corinthians 11:20–22). The Eucharist proper was detached from the Agape meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the Agape was definitively dropped by the Church between the sixth and eighth centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the eighteenth century, Pietist Christians began to hold Love Feasts that looked back to the ancient Agape.

Precursors

There are Jewish and pagan antecedents to the Eucharist:

Melchizedek

In the Tanakh, Melchizedek brought bread and wine to Abraham after Abraham's victory over the four kings who had besieged Sodom and Gomorrah and had taken Abraham's nephew Lot prisoner. Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah spoken of as "a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek" (Psalms 110:4).

Passover

At Passover celebrations, the blessing and partaking of bread and wine are a basic component of the feast. The Last Supper was apparently a Passover seder, presided over by Jesus.

Bacchic/Dionysian rites

The Bacchic/Dionysian rites also included the sacramental partaking of wine and bread, with wine signifying the spirit and bread the manifestation of the spirit in matter, or the body. Elements of the Greek thanksgiving (eucharistia) may also have been adopted in the early centuries of the Christian era for the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper.

Christian theology

Did you know?
The Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, is a sacramental reenactment of the Last Supper between Jesus and his disciples, in which Christians partake in the "body" and "blood" of Christ

Though theological interpretations have varied, the Eucharist has long been at the center of Christian worship. In general, the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the salvation of humanity from sin. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.

Roman Catholic Church

In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is one of the seven sacraments, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" (Lumen Gentium 11). "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324).

The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained priest (either bishop or presbyter), who represents Christ himself and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. This view has come to be known as transubstantiation.

Holy Communion, in the sense of partaking of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist, may be given to Catholics either during Mass or outside of Mass, in which case it is normally given only in the form of bread.

Eastern Christianity

Like Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Catholic Churches, and the Assyrian Church of the East believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the Divine Liturgy, the one sacrifice of Christ is made present. The exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ is a mystery. The Eastern tradition does not define any precise moment the change occurs. As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.

Anglicans/Episcopalians

The historical position of the Anglican Communion is found in the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ." The Articles also state that adoration of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.

Anglicans generally and officially believe in the "Real Presence" of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence.

Lutherans

In the Lutheran Book of Concord, Apology XXIV.1, it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly. However, disagreement exists across the various Lutheran bodies regarding the appropriateness of the term Eucharist. Some Lutherans, particularly those who reject high church theology, object to the term because it ostensibly puts the emphasis on human response. Lutheran groups that accept the term note its use throughout the Lutheran Confessions in the Book of Concord.

Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present" in the consecrated bread and wine, so that communicants eat and drink both the elements themselves and the true Body and Blood of Christ (Augsburg Confession, Article 10). The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is often referred to as "consubstantiation" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.

Methodism

A United Methodist Elder consecrates the elements

The Methodist Church believes in the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion, but generally rejects the notion that the bread and wine are literally transformed into Jesus' body and blood. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup," and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The juice may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by dipping the bread into the common cup is becoming more common. Methodists typically kneel at the altar to receive communion, but based on individual need or preference, may stand or be served in the pew.

In 2004, the United Methodist Church reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled This Holy Mystery.

Methodists believe that Holy Communion may be offered by laypersons as well as the clergy. According to Article XIX of the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church, "The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for... the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike.”

Calvinist Reformed

Many Reformed Christians hold that Christ's body and blood are not locally or literally present in the Eucharist, but to the faithful believer Christ is indeed present. "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," John Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. The faithful partaker beholds God incarnate in the Eucharist, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.

Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony, or reused in later services.

Baptists and Zwinglian Reformed

Some Protestant groups see the bread and wine as a symbolic meal, a memorial of the Last Supper and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after Huldrych Zwingli, a Church leader in Zurich, Switzerland during the Reformation. It is commonly associated with Baptists and the Disciples of Christ. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.

Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the Spiritual feeding idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.

Latter Day Saints

Like some other Restorationist sects of Christianity, the Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence, but view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses water instead of wine, following the Doctrine and Covenants where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament..." (see Doctrine and Covenants 27:2)

To Latter Day Saints (or Mormons), the Eucharist (in LDS theology it is "The Sacrament") is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at baptism. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.

Open and closed communion

In the Western Church, the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the "body of Christ" with faith and devotion.

Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in full communion with them. Closed communion was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist St. Justin Martyr (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and catechumens (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite.

The older Churches, such as the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances. Many conservative Protestant communities also practice closed communion, including some conservative Lutheran Churches. The Mennonites and the Landmark Baptist Churches also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.

Most Protestant communities, however, practice open communion, including some Anglican, Reformed, Evangelical, Methodist, and liberal Lutherans. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls all of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many churches that practice open communion offer it only to baptized Christians (regardless of denomination).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chemnitz, Martin. The Lord's Supper. Concordia Publishing House, 1979. ISBN 978-0570032755
  • Dix, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 978-0826479426
  • Elert, Werner. Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries. Concordia Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 978-0570042709
  • Hahn, Scott. The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth. Doubleday, 1999. ISBN 978-0385496599
  • Jurgens, William A. The Faith of the Early Fathers. The Liturgical Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0814610251
  • Schmemann, Alexander. The Eucharist. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0881410181
  • Stookey, Laurence H. Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church. Abingdon, 1993. ISBN 978-0687120178

External links

All Links retrieved August 13, 2017.

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