Difference between revisions of "Espionage" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(24 intermediate revisions by 10 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Law]]
 
[[Category:Law]]
 +
{{Copyedited}}{{Ebapproved}}{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}
  
'''Espionage''' is the practice of obtaining [[information]] about an organization or a [[society]] that is considered [[secrecy|secret]] or confidential (spying) without the permission of the holder of the information. What differentiates espionage from other forms of [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence work]] is that espionage involves obtaining the information by accessing the place where the information is stored or accessing the people who know the information and will divulge it through some kind of subterfuge.
+
[[Image:BodywornSurveillanceEquipment.jpg|thumb|250px|An intelligence officer's clothing, accessories, and behaviour must be as unremarkable as possible.]]
 +
'''Espionage''' is the practice of obtaining confidential information through spying; a practice that often employs covert, clandestine, illegal or unethical behavior. Spies have been used to create political, military, and economic advantage through most of history. Espionage in the military is typically referred to as "[[military intelligence]]," while espionage in the corporate world is termed "[[industrial espionage]]." Most countries have both military intelligence organizations as well as civilian espionage and intelligence organizations. As the world has advanced and human society has changed, the separation into "friend" and "foe" has blurred and changed, and thus the role of espionage has also changed. Ultimately, it may be that nations and organizations find themselves able to cooperate in achieving common goals for the good of humankind, rather than using unethical means to steal each other's secrets in order to further their own self-centered desires.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
==Types of Espionage==
 +
===Industrial Espionage===
 +
[[Industrial espionage]] is the practice of obtaining confidential information for commercial or economic gain. Types of information targeted for industrial espionage include client lists, research documents, and trade secrets. Those involved in industrial espionage range from individual [[business]] owners to international [[corporation]]s and even [[government]]s. Companies exert great effort to make sure that their proprietary formulas, technologies, and other confidential information remain safe. Industrial espionage often makes use of illegal methods to obtain the desired information.  
  
Espionage is usually thought of as part of an institutional effort (i.e., [[government|governmental]] or corporate espionage). The term espionage is most readily associated with [[state]] spying on potential or actual enemies, primarily for [[military]] purposes, but this has been extended to spying involving [[corporations]], known specifically as [[industrial espionage]]. Many [[nations]] routinely spy on both their enemies and allies, although they maintain a [[policy]] of not making comment on this. In addition to utilizing agencies within a government many also employ private companies to collect information on their behalf such as [[SCG International Risk]] and others. ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'' ([[1990]]) defines espionage as: "...gathering, transmitting, or losing...information related to the [[national defence]]."
+
===Military Intelligence===
 +
[[Military intelligence]] refers to the military agencies responsible for gathering and disseminating information that has tactical or strategic value. In many countries, each branch of the military operates their own individual military intelligence agency, as well as having a central agency to coordinate and disseminate intelligence. Military intelligence often cooperates with civilian intelligence agencies. One of the primary forms of espionage in military intelligence deals with the collection of signals intelligence (SIGINT), a type of intelligence obtained through the monitoring and decryption of information transmitted by electronic and communication signals, such as [[satellite]], [[radio]], and [[telephone]] transmissions.  
  
A spy is a person employed to obtain such secrets. The term [[intelligence officer]] is also used to describe a member of the [[armed forces]], [[police]], or civilian [[intelligence agency]] who specialises in the gathering, fusion, and [[wiktionary:Analysis|analysis]] of [[information]] and intelligence in order to provide advice to their government or another organisation. In general, intelligence officers travel to foreign countries to recruit and "run" intelligence agents, who in turn spy on their own governments. These agents can be [[mole (espionage)|moles]] (who are recruited before they get access to secrets) or [[defectors]] (who are recruited after they get access to secrets).  
+
==Espionage in History==
 +
{{readout|The use of espionage dates back well into ancient history.|left}} The [[Hebrew Bible]] describes the Hebrews' use of espionage in the [[Joshua, Book of|Book of Joshua]] with the story of [[Rahab]], a [[prostitution|prostitute]] who harbored two Hebrew spies. [[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[hieroglyph]]s and [[papyrus|papyri]] describe the existence of court spies. Spies were also prevalent in the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] empires. In [[Asia]], the importance of deception and subversion were discussed by [[China|Chinese]] military tactician [[Sun Tzu]] around 500 B.C.E. in his famous work ''The Art of War''. Two hundred years later, the prime minister of [[India]] wrote the ''Arthashastra'', a treatise on government well known for its discussion of the use of espionage. ''[[Ninja]]s'' were often employed as mercenary spies in [[feudalism|feudal]] [[Japan]], and were known for their skill at infiltrating the enemy. In [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]], espionage played a large role in both [[The Crusades]] and the [[Inquisition]]. During the [[Renaissance]], the political philosopher [[Niccolo Machiavelli]] strongly advocated the use of espionage by the ruling class. [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabethan]] [[England]] was known for the effectiveness of its espionage system, which employed linguists, scholars, and scientists.<ref>Adrienne Lerner, [http://www.espionageinfo.com/Ep-Fo/Espionage-and-Intelligence-Early-Historical-Foundations.html "Espionage and Intelligence, Early Historical Foundations,"] Thompson Gale. Retrieved August 28, 2007.</ref>
  
The risks vary. An officer may be breaking the host country's laws and can be deported or imprisoned. An agent breaking his/her own country's  laws can be imprisoned for espionage or even executed for treason. For example, when [[Aldrich Ames]] handed a stack of dossiers of CIA agents to his [[KGB]]-officer "handler," the [[KGB]] "rolled up" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames was arrested by the [[FBI]], he faced life in prison; his contact, who had [[diplomatic immunity]], was declared [[persona non grata]] and taken to the airport. In the vernacular, he was "PNGed" (pronounced  "pinged"). Ames's wife  was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence. [[Hugh Francis Redmond]], a CIA officer in China spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage: he was an "illegal," operating without diplomatic cover.  
+
From the eighteenth century onwards, espionage gained even more importance. [[Industrialization]], [[colonialism]], and complicated world politics all fueled the quest for information. Informants during the [[French Revolution]] were used to track down traitors for [[trial]] and execution. Colonial governments used espionage to quell uprisings.
  
[[Spymaster]] is a term often used in [[literature]] for the [[superior]] of a spy ring.
+
The art of espionage was transformed as [[technology]] and information systems grew. Inventions like the [[camera]] and [[telegraph]] revolutionized the clandestine collection and transmission of information, and gave rise to new levels of cryptography and gadgetry. Cameras were made smaller and smaller, and new means were constantly being developed to help spies covertly collect intelligence.
  
==History==
+
==Modern Espionage==
Incidents of espionage are well documented throughout [[history]]. The ancient writings of [[History of China|Chinese]] and [[History of India|Indian]] military strategists such as [[Sun-Tzu]] and [[Chanakya]] contain information on deception and [[subversion (political)|subversion]]. Chanakya's student [[Chandragupta Maurya]], founder of the [[Maurya Empire]], made use of [[assassination]]s, spies and secret agents, which are described in Chanakya's ''[[Arthasastra]]''. The [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the [[Hebrews]] used spies as well, as in the story of [[Rahab]]. [[Feudal Japan]] often used [[ninja]] to gather intelligence. More recently, they played a significant part in [[Elizabethan]] [[England]] (see [[Francis Walsingham]]). Many modern espionage methods were well established even then. [http://www.henrywotton.org.uk/]
 
  
The [[Cold War]] involved intense [[Cold War espionage|espionage]] activity between the [[United States|United States of America]] and its allies and the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] and their allies, particularly related to [[nuclear weapon]]s secrets. Recently, espionage agencies have targeted the [[illegal drug trade]] and those considered to be [[terrorism|terrorists]].
+
[[World War I]] was responsible for a marked change in the development and scope of many countries' espionage programs. Due to the complicated global political climate and numerous, often secret, allegiances between countries, espionage became a valuable and necessary means of obtaining essential information. It was not until World War I that some countries, including the [[United States]], organized agencies solely devoted to the collection of intelligence. World War I also prompted the formation of the United States' Espionage Act in 1917. Repealed in 1921, the act imposed up to twenty years in [[prison]] and $10,000 in fines for interfering with the recruiting of troops or the disclosure of information relating to national defense.
  
For three decades the United States has cultivated its best and brightest to pre-eminence in what is now known as the field of communication and control. As [[technology]] has advanced, the means and methods of espionage have advanced from [[Richard M. Nixon|Nixon]] era [[wire tapping]], through [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] era programs like [[ECHELON]] and [[Carnivore (FBI)|Carnivore]], to surveillance of all electronic transmissions including [[cell phone]] logs, [[voice mail]], [[email]], packet sniffing, trace routing and wireless transmissions.
+
[[World War II]] espionage activities were characterized by the use of cryptography, or [[code]]s. One of the most well known codes was the [[Germany|German]] "Enigma" machine, a machine first marketed commercially in 1923, but then adopted and refined by the German military, which used it extensively during World War II. The machine consisted of a series of rotors and electric wiring that were capable of producing a seemingly unlimited variation of codes. German [[submarine|U-boats]] were equipped with Enigma machines, and codes were changed daily. The [[Great Britain|British]], with help from the [[Poland|Poles]], cracked the "impenetrable" Enigma code, enabling them to defend against German attacks.<ref> "Bletchley Park," British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ).</ref>
  
However, the Soviet Union has been said to have had fielded the largest and most advanced spy networks during its time, infiltrating some of the most secure places on the planet, which has caused many scandals.
+
The [[Cold War]] involved intense espionage activity between the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], and allies on both sides; in particular, information related to [[nuclear weapon]]s secrets was sought after. During the Cold War, both American and Soviet intelligence agencies expanded considerably, employing thousands of agents. SIGINT technology also grew; [[satellite]]s made real-time observations possible, and [[computer]]s aided in the collection of information. No longer were agents the primary source of information; while there were still tasks only performable by humans, satellites and SIGINT were responsible for the penetration of the Soviet Union.<ref name=shadows>Jeremy Isaacs and Taylor Downing, [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/spies/isaacs/index.html "Cold War Experience: In the Shadows,"] CNN. Retrieved August 28, 2007.</ref>
  
Since January of 2000, a long list of agencies have been data mining the world's stock exchanges; this program was formalized on October 26, 2001 in the form of the [[Patriot Act]]. This helps track the financing of people who might be laundering money from drug transactions. For a variety of reasons, including changes in technology, it has been necessary to do this without warrants and it is argued that the necessity makes it legal.  
+
With the end of the Cold War, the focus of espionage changed. While the designations of "friend" and "foe" continued to blur for many countries, they became based more on economic relationships than historical and cultural alliances. Intelligence agencies continued to use espionage to collect intelligence on both friends and enemies, but the targets of spies changed from people to information.<ref>H. Keith Melton, [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/spies/melton.essay "Cold War Experience: Spies in the Digital Age,"] CNN. Retrieved August 28, 2007.</ref> SIGINT systems continued to grow in complexity and ability. Programs like the United States' "Echelon" have been used to monitor electronic communications, including [[mobile phone|mobile]] and international [[telephone|land-line calls]] and [[fax machine|fax]] transmissions. The focus of espionage also shifted from governmental and political targets to [[terrorism|terrorist]] organizations and threats.
  
In order to gather political and economic information that might be of advantage to the United States, foreign communications are routinely subject to surveillance. In 2002, new programs of satellite surveillance and unmanned low level drones armed with missiles made it possible not only to perform surveillance in real time, but to respond with force.
+
==The Life of a Spy==
 +
While intelligence agencies are staffed by large numbers of administrators and analysts, the most romanticized member of the intelligence community is the spy. Employed to obtain secrets, spies often undergo rigorous training, intensive background and character checks, and travel to foreign countries. Agents may pose as students, [[tourism|tourists]], [[journalism|journalists]], or business travelers, or they may attempt to pose as a national and spy on an organization from within (known as a "mole").  
  
<div class="NavFrame" style="margin-top:1em; padding:0;border-style:none;"><div class="NavFrame" style="border-style:none;padding:0;"><div class="NavHead" style="text-align:left;">
+
An example of the life of a spy is found in Oleg Kalugin. During the [[Cold War]], [[KGB]] agent Kalugin was sent to the [[United States]] as an exchange student, with the goal of making as many friends and contacts as possible. Later, he worked as a journalist, simultaneously collecting information and recruiting Americans to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] cause. According to Kalugin, who later became a major general and chief of foreign counterintelligence, the Soviets were unparalleled in their attempts at subversion. Agents ran worldwide peace congresses, festivals, women’s movements, and so forth, with the intention of creating discord and weakening the West. Many spies were responsible for disseminating fake information, [[forgery|forgeries]], and rumors, such as the rumor that [[AIDS]] was invented by the [[CIA]].<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/spies/interviews/kalugin/ "Cold War Experience: Inside the KGB,"] CNN. Retrieved December August 28, 2007.</ref>
'''Espionage by country'''</div>
 
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none; text-align:left">
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
! Country
 
! Espionage organizations and agencies
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Argentina}}
 
|[[Secretaría de Inteligencia|Secretariat of Intelligence]], [[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal|National Directorate of Criminal Intelligence]], [[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar|National Directorate of Strategic Military Intelligence]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Australia}}
 
|[[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]], [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Canada}}
 
|[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Cuba}}
 
|[[General Intelligence Directorate]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
 
|[[Bezpečnostní informační služba|Security Information Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|France}}
 
|[[Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure|General Directorate of External Security]], [[Direction centrale des renseignements généraux|Central Directorate of General Intelligence]], [[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire|Directorate of Territorial Surveillance]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Germany}}
 
|[[Bundesnachrichtendienst|Federal Intelligence Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|India}}
 
|[[Research and Analysis Wing]], [[Intelligence Bureau]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Iran}}
 
|[[Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Israel}}
 
|[[Mossad|Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Italy}}
 
|[[SISDE|Democratic Intelligence and Security Service]], [[SISMI|Military Intelligence and Security Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Mexico}}
 
|[[Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional|National Security and Investigation Center]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Pakistan}}
 
|[[Inter-Services Intelligence|Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Netherlands}}
 
|[[General Intelligence and Security Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|New Zealand}}
 
|[[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Russia}}
 
|[[FSB (Russia)|Federal Security Service]], [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|Foreign Intelligence Service]], [[GRU|Main Intelligence Directorate]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|South Africa}}
 
|[[National Intelligence Agency]], [[South African Secret Service]], [[South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|Spain}}
 
|[[Centro Nacional de Inteligencia|National Intelligence Centre]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
 
|[[MI5|Security Service]], [[Secret Intelligence Service]], [[Special Branch]]
 
|-
 
|{{country|flagcountry|United States}}
 
|[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], [[Central Intelligence Agency]], [[Defense Intelligence Agency]]
 
|}
 
</div></div></div>
 
  
 +
Little is publicly known about spies; espionage is by nature secret, and much of what the public "knows" about the life of a spy comes from [[fiction]] and [[film]]. Even seemingly harmless facts about the nature of espionage activity, such as the operating budget of the U.S. intelligence community, are closely guarded. This secrecy is by necessity a major part of a spy's life; they must [[lying|lie]] to close [[friendship|friends]] and [[family]] in order to keep their occupation secret. Those involved in real-life espionage activity have denounced the romanticized version of spying found in film and literature. Markus Wolf, the former head of East Germany's foreign intelligence agency, is quoted as saying that spying "is dirty; people suffer."<ref name=shadows />
  
 +
The risks of espionage activity are often high. Spies caught by foreign governments are often [[deportation|deported]] or [[prison|imprisoned]]. An agent caught spying on their own country can be imprisoned or even executed for [[treason]]. While there is a lack of regulation on activity performed outside individual countries' borders (information gathered from satellites and in international waters, for example), most countries have anti-espionage legislation designed to protect national security.
  
===Spies in various conflicts===
+
==Intelligence Agencies==
{{seealso|Intelligence agency|Special Operations Executive}}
 
*[[American Civil War spies|American Civil War]]
 
*[[:Category:World War I espionage|World War I]]
 
*[[:Category:World War II espionage|World War II]]
 
*[[Cold War espionage|Cold War]]
 
*[[The Vietnam War spies|Vietnam War]]
 
  
==Espionage technology and techniques==
+
*'''France'''
{{main|List of intelligence gathering disciplines}}
+
In [[France]], the Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure (DGSE), or "General Directorate of External Security" is responsible for strategic information, electronic intelligence, and foreign counterespionage, as well as military intelligence. The Directorate for Defense Protection and Security (DPSD) is responsible for military counterintelligence operations and political surveillance of the military.  
* [[Agent Handling]]
 
* [[Black Bag Operations]]
 
* [[Concealment device]]
 
* [[Cryptography]]
 
* [[Cut-out (espionage)|Cut-out]]
 
* [[Dead drop]]
 
* [[Eavesdropping]]
 
* [[False flag]] operations
 
* [[Honeypot (espionage)]]
 
* [[Interrogation]]
 
* [[Nonofficial cover]] - NOC
 
* [[One-way voice link]]
 
* [[Steganography]]
 
* [[Surveillance]]
 
* [[TEMPEST]] &mdash; Protection devices for communication equipment.
 
  
==Spy fiction==
+
*'''Germany'''
{{main|Spy fiction}}
+
The Federal Intelligence Service (BND) in [[Germany]] is made up of six departments, each with its own function. Department 1 is responsible for operational procurement (including counterespionage and foreign intelligence collection). Department 2 is responsible for technical surveillance, and Department 3 assesses information. Department 4 is mainly concerned with administration, human resources, legal issues, and schooling for intelligence agents. Department 5 is in charge of security and defense, and Department 6 is responsible for the technological development and maintenance of scientific and communications systems. Unlike many other countries' intelligence services, the BND is forbidden to participate in [[sabotage]], disinformation campaigns, or attempts to influence politics in other states.<ref>[http://cryptome.org/bnd.htm#Department%201 "Bundesnachrichtendienst"] Cryptome.org, translated from www.dundesnachrichtendienst.de. Retrieved August 28, 2007.</ref>
Since not much is publicly known about real-life secret agents, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st century [[literature]] and [[film|cinema]]. Similar to the character of the [[Private investigator|private eye]], the secret agent is usually a loner, sometimes amoral, an [[existential]] [[hero]] operating outside the everyday constraints of society. [[James Bond]], the protagonist of [[Ian Fleming]]'s novels who went on to spawn an extremely successful [[film]] franchise, is probably the most famous [[fiction]]al secret agent of all. Another is a boy called [[Jack Stalwart]]. Another is the boy spy [[Alex Rider]], created by [[Anthony Horowitz]]; Rider is said to be useful due to his youth.  Other popular spies are the characters Nikita, played by [[Peta Wilson]], and Michael Samuelle, played by [[Roy Dupuis]], in the TV series ''[[La Femme Nikita (TV series)|La Femme Nikita]]'' (1997-2001) and Sydney Bristow, played by [[Jennifer Garner]], in the subsequent TV series ''[[Alias (TV series)|Alias]]'' (2001-2006).
 
  
Spy fiction has also become prevalent in video gaming, where the "wetworks" aspect of espionage is highlighted. Game situations typically involve agents sent into enemy territory for purposes of subversion. These depictions are more action-oriented than would be typical in most cases of espionage, and they tend to focus on infiltration rather than information-gathering. Some examples are [[GoldenEye 007]], [[Perfect Dark]], [[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]] and [[Splinter Cell]].
+
*'''Israel'''
 +
In [[Israel]], the Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks, often abbreviated "Mossad," or "Institute," is responsible for the collection and analysis of information, as well as covert operations. Some of Mossad's operations include bringing Jews home from foreign countries, preventing [[terrorism]] and weapons development in hostile countries, and developing special diplomatic relations.<ref>[http://www.mossad.gov.il/Mohr/MohrTopNav/MohrEnglish/MohrAboutUs/ "About Us,"] Israel Secret Intelligence Service, State of Israel. Retrieved August 28, 2007.</ref>
  
==Pop culture==
+
*'''Russia'''
Common espionage in today's world has been dubbed snitching (other variations included ratting and tattle-tale). What separates it from other forms of espionage is that it involves a traitor or victim rather than a spy. Snitching received a bad reputation as it goes against the [[Ethic of reciprocity|golden rule]]. Also the informers are often used as the [[scapegoat]] for a person or group's mistakes and failures. The video [[Stop Snitchin']] was created to show that people who informed authorities on crimes should (or would) be murdered. This resulted in major controversy. Others less stylish and open as James Bond and much more mysterious and uncertainity surrounds them would be ones like Severus Snape from the Harry Potter series.
+
During the [[Cold War]], [[Russia]]n intelligence services were performed by one of the world's most well known agencies: the [[KGB]], the ''Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti'' (“Committee for State Security”). After the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], intelligence agencies underwent extensive restructuring. The Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) engages in foreign espionage and intelligence gathering, as well as [[military intelligence]]. The Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) collects intelligence worldwide, both political and economic, and the Federal Agency for Government Communications and Information (FAPSI) focuses on SIGINT intelligence.
  
 +
*'''United Kingdom'''
 +
The [[United Kingdom]] has three intelligence agencies. The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), sometimes referred to by its historical name "MI6" (“section six” of “military intelligence.”) is responsible for the collection of foreign intelligence. The Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) is primarily responsible for the collection of SIGINT data, as well as keeping the UK's communications systems secure. The Security Service (also known by the historical "MI5") is responsible for counterintelligence, counter-[[terrorism]], and threats to national security.<ref>2006. [http://www.intelligence.gov.uk/agencies/index.asp The Intelligence and Security Agencies,] HM Government, United Kingdom. Retrieved August 28, 2007.</ref>
  
 +
*'''United States'''
 +
In the [[United States]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) is responsible for foreign intelligence collection. Domestically, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) collects information and operates as a counter-espionage agency.
  
==Further reading==
+
==Notes==
===Surveys===
+
<references/>
* Andrew, Christopher. ''For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush'' (1996)
 
* Black, Ian. ''Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services'' (1992)
 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104262552 Bungert, Heike et al eds. ''Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (2003)] essays by scholars
 
* Friedman, George. ''America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies'' (2005), since 9-11
 
* Johnson, Robert, 'Spying for Empire: The Great Game in Central and South Asia, 1757-1947' (London: Greenhill, 2006) British Intelligence and its imperial connection
 
* Kahn, David ''The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet'' (1996), 1200 pages
 
* Knightley, Philip. ''The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century'' (1986)
 
* Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security'' (2003), 1100 pages. 850 articles, strongest on technology
 
* O'Toole, George. ''Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA'' (1991)
 
* Owen, David. ''Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It'' (2002), popular
 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24341844 Richelson, Jeffery T. ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (1997)]
 
* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''The U.S. Intelligence Community'' (4th ed. 1999)
 
* Smith Jr., W. Thomas. ''Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency'' (2003), popular
 
* West, Nigel. ''MI6: British Secret Intelligence Service Operations 1909-1945'' (1983)
 
*[http://www.publishamerica.com/shopping/shopdisplayproducts.asp?catalogid=14425]
 
Delgado, Arturo, ''Counterfeit Reich: Hitler's Secret Swindle'', 2005  ISBN: 1-4241-0389-4
 
 
 
 
 
* West, Nigel. ''Secret War: The Story of SOE, Britain's Wartime Sabotage Organization'' (1992)
 
* Wohlstetter, Roberta. ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'' (1962)
 
 
 
===World War I===
 
*Beesly, Patrick. ''Room 40''. (1982). Covers the breaking of German codes by RN intelligence, including the Turkish bribe, Zimmermann telegram, and failure at Jutland.
 
*Kahn, David. ''The Codebreakers''. (1996). Covers the breaking of Russian codes and the victory at Tannenberg.
 
* May, Ernest (ed.) ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars'' (1984)
 
* Tuchman, Barbara W. ''The Zimmermann Telegram'' (1966)
 
 
 
===World War II: 1931-1945===
 
* Babington-Smith, Constance. ''Air Spy: The Story of Photo Intelligence in World War II'' (1957)
 
* Hinsley, F. H. and Alan Stripp. ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'' (2001)
 
* Hinsley, F. H. ''British Intelligence in the Second World War'' (1996) abridged version of multivolume official history.
 
* Hohne, Heinz. ''Canaris: Hitler's Master Spy'' (1979)
 
* Jones, R. V. ''The Wizard War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939-1945'' (1978)
 
* Kahn, David. ''The Codebreakers''. (1996).
 
* Kahn, David. ''Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II'' (1978)
 
* Kahn, David. ''Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes, 1939-1943'' (1991)
 
* Lewin, Ronald. ''The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan'' (1982)
 
* May, Ernest (ed.) ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars'' (1984)
 
* Persico, Joseph. ''Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage'' (2001)
 
* Persico, Joseph. ''Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA'' (1991)
 
* Smith, Richard Harris. ''OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency'' (2005)
 
* Stanley, Roy M. ''World War II Photo Intelligence'' (1981)
 
* Wark, Wesley. ''The Ultimate Enemy: British Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1933-1939'' (1985)
 
* Wark, Wesley K."Cryptographic Innocence: The Origins of Signals Intelligence in Canada in the Second World War", ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 22 (1987)
 
 
 
===Cold War Era: 1945-1991===
 
* Aldrich, Richard J. ''The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence'' (2002).
 
* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Intelligence Establishment'' (1981).
 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=25982993 Andrew, Christopher and Vasili Mitrokhin. ''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB'' (1999)]
 
* Andrew, Christopher, and Oleg Gordievsky. ''KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev'' (1990).
 
* Aronoff, Myron J. ''The Spy Novels of John Le Carré: Balancing Ethics and Politics'' (1999).
 
* Bissell, Richard. ''Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs'' (1996)
 
* Bogle, Lori, ed. ''Cold War Espionage and Spying'' (2001), essays by
 
* Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB'', Basic Books (1999), hardcover, ISBN 0-465-00310-9; trade paperback (September, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00312-5
 
* Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World'', Basic Books (2005) hardcover, 677 pages ISBN 0-476-00311-7
 
* Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West'', Gardners Books (2000), ISBN 0-14-028487-7
 
*{{cite book
 
  | last = Craig
 
  | first = R. Bruce
 
  | authorlink =
 
  | coauthors =
 
  | title = Treasonable Doubt: The Harry Dexter White Spy Case
 
  | publisher = University Press of Kansas
 
  | date = 2004
 
  | location =
 
  | pages =
 
  | url =
 
  | doi =
 
  | id = ISBN 0-7006-1311-0 }}
 
* Dorril, Stephen. ''MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service'' (2000).
 
* Dziak, John J. ''Chekisty: A History of the KGB'' (1988)
 
* Gates, Robert M. ''From The Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story Of Five Presidents And How They Won The Cold War'' (1997)
 
* Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr. ''Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America'' (1999).
 
* Helms, Richard. ''A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency'' (2003)
 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27191582 Koehler, John O. ''Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police'' (1999)]
 
* Murphy, David E., Sergei A. Kondrashev, and George Bailey. ''Battleground Berlin: CIA vs. KGB in the Cold War'' (1997).
 
* Persico, Joseph. ''Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA'' (1991)
 
* Prados, John. ''Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II'' (1996)
 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82295474 Rositzke, Harry. ''The CIA's Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action'' (1988)]
 
* Srodes, James. [[Allen Dulles]] (2000), CIA head to [[1961]]
 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106805285 Trahair, Richard C. S. ''Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations'' (2004)], by an Australian scholar; contains excellent historiographical introduction
 
* Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev. ''The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—The Stalin Era'' (1999).
 
* [http://www.spectre.net.au Spectre], One Man's View
 
 
 
  
 +
==References==
 +
*Andrew, Christopher. ''For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush''. Harpercollins, 1996. ISBN 0060921781
 +
*Andrew, Christopher & Vasili Mitrokhin. ''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB''. Darby, PA: Diane Pub, 1999. ISBN 0756753198
 +
*Helms, Richard. ''A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency''. New York: Presidio Press, 2003. ISBN 0812971086
 +
*Hinsley, F. H. & Alan Stripp. ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0192801325
 +
*Kahn, David. ''Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II''. MacMillan, 1978.  ISBN 0025606107
 +
*Kahn, David. ''The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet''. New York: Scribner, 1996.
 +
*Lerner, K. Lee & Brenda Lerner. ''Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security''. Thomson Gale, 2003. ISBN 0787675466
 +
*May, Ernest. '' Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984. ISBN 0691006016
 +
*Persico, Joseph. ''Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage''. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2001. ISBN 0375761268
 +
*Richelson, Jeffery T. ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 019511390X
 +
*Smith, Richard Harris.''OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005.
 +
*Trahair, Richard C. S. 'Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0313319553
  
 
{{Credit1|Espionage|89230707|}}
 
{{Credit1|Espionage|89230707|}}

Latest revision as of 12:20, 21 January 2023


An intelligence officer's clothing, accessories, and behaviour must be as unremarkable as possible.

Espionage is the practice of obtaining confidential information through spying; a practice that often employs covert, clandestine, illegal or unethical behavior. Spies have been used to create political, military, and economic advantage through most of history. Espionage in the military is typically referred to as "military intelligence," while espionage in the corporate world is termed "industrial espionage." Most countries have both military intelligence organizations as well as civilian espionage and intelligence organizations. As the world has advanced and human society has changed, the separation into "friend" and "foe" has blurred and changed, and thus the role of espionage has also changed. Ultimately, it may be that nations and organizations find themselves able to cooperate in achieving common goals for the good of humankind, rather than using unethical means to steal each other's secrets in order to further their own self-centered desires.

Types of Espionage

Industrial Espionage

Industrial espionage is the practice of obtaining confidential information for commercial or economic gain. Types of information targeted for industrial espionage include client lists, research documents, and trade secrets. Those involved in industrial espionage range from individual business owners to international corporations and even governments. Companies exert great effort to make sure that their proprietary formulas, technologies, and other confidential information remain safe. Industrial espionage often makes use of illegal methods to obtain the desired information.

Military Intelligence

Military intelligence refers to the military agencies responsible for gathering and disseminating information that has tactical or strategic value. In many countries, each branch of the military operates their own individual military intelligence agency, as well as having a central agency to coordinate and disseminate intelligence. Military intelligence often cooperates with civilian intelligence agencies. One of the primary forms of espionage in military intelligence deals with the collection of signals intelligence (SIGINT), a type of intelligence obtained through the monitoring and decryption of information transmitted by electronic and communication signals, such as satellite, radio, and telephone transmissions.

Espionage in History

Did you know?
The use of espionage dates back well into ancient history.

The use of espionage dates back well into ancient history. The Hebrew Bible describes the Hebrews' use of espionage in the Book of Joshua with the story of Rahab, a prostitute who harbored two Hebrew spies. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and papyri describe the existence of court spies. Spies were also prevalent in the Greek and Roman empires. In Asia, the importance of deception and subversion were discussed by Chinese military tactician Sun Tzu around 500 B.C.E. in his famous work The Art of War. Two hundred years later, the prime minister of India wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on government well known for its discussion of the use of espionage. Ninjas were often employed as mercenary spies in feudal Japan, and were known for their skill at infiltrating the enemy. In Europe during the Middle Ages, espionage played a large role in both The Crusades and the Inquisition. During the Renaissance, the political philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli strongly advocated the use of espionage by the ruling class. Elizabethan England was known for the effectiveness of its espionage system, which employed linguists, scholars, and scientists.[1]

From the eighteenth century onwards, espionage gained even more importance. Industrialization, colonialism, and complicated world politics all fueled the quest for information. Informants during the French Revolution were used to track down traitors for trial and execution. Colonial governments used espionage to quell uprisings.

The art of espionage was transformed as technology and information systems grew. Inventions like the camera and telegraph revolutionized the clandestine collection and transmission of information, and gave rise to new levels of cryptography and gadgetry. Cameras were made smaller and smaller, and new means were constantly being developed to help spies covertly collect intelligence.

Modern Espionage

World War I was responsible for a marked change in the development and scope of many countries' espionage programs. Due to the complicated global political climate and numerous, often secret, allegiances between countries, espionage became a valuable and necessary means of obtaining essential information. It was not until World War I that some countries, including the United States, organized agencies solely devoted to the collection of intelligence. World War I also prompted the formation of the United States' Espionage Act in 1917. Repealed in 1921, the act imposed up to twenty years in prison and $10,000 in fines for interfering with the recruiting of troops or the disclosure of information relating to national defense.

World War II espionage activities were characterized by the use of cryptography, or codes. One of the most well known codes was the German "Enigma" machine, a machine first marketed commercially in 1923, but then adopted and refined by the German military, which used it extensively during World War II. The machine consisted of a series of rotors and electric wiring that were capable of producing a seemingly unlimited variation of codes. German U-boats were equipped with Enigma machines, and codes were changed daily. The British, with help from the Poles, cracked the "impenetrable" Enigma code, enabling them to defend against German attacks.[2]

The Cold War involved intense espionage activity between the United States, the Soviet Union, and allies on both sides; in particular, information related to nuclear weapons secrets was sought after. During the Cold War, both American and Soviet intelligence agencies expanded considerably, employing thousands of agents. SIGINT technology also grew; satellites made real-time observations possible, and computers aided in the collection of information. No longer were agents the primary source of information; while there were still tasks only performable by humans, satellites and SIGINT were responsible for the penetration of the Soviet Union.[3]

With the end of the Cold War, the focus of espionage changed. While the designations of "friend" and "foe" continued to blur for many countries, they became based more on economic relationships than historical and cultural alliances. Intelligence agencies continued to use espionage to collect intelligence on both friends and enemies, but the targets of spies changed from people to information.[4] SIGINT systems continued to grow in complexity and ability. Programs like the United States' "Echelon" have been used to monitor electronic communications, including mobile and international land-line calls and fax transmissions. The focus of espionage also shifted from governmental and political targets to terrorist organizations and threats.

The Life of a Spy

While intelligence agencies are staffed by large numbers of administrators and analysts, the most romanticized member of the intelligence community is the spy. Employed to obtain secrets, spies often undergo rigorous training, intensive background and character checks, and travel to foreign countries. Agents may pose as students, tourists, journalists, or business travelers, or they may attempt to pose as a national and spy on an organization from within (known as a "mole").

An example of the life of a spy is found in Oleg Kalugin. During the Cold War, KGB agent Kalugin was sent to the United States as an exchange student, with the goal of making as many friends and contacts as possible. Later, he worked as a journalist, simultaneously collecting information and recruiting Americans to the Soviet cause. According to Kalugin, who later became a major general and chief of foreign counterintelligence, the Soviets were unparalleled in their attempts at subversion. Agents ran worldwide peace congresses, festivals, women’s movements, and so forth, with the intention of creating discord and weakening the West. Many spies were responsible for disseminating fake information, forgeries, and rumors, such as the rumor that AIDS was invented by the CIA.[5]

Little is publicly known about spies; espionage is by nature secret, and much of what the public "knows" about the life of a spy comes from fiction and film. Even seemingly harmless facts about the nature of espionage activity, such as the operating budget of the U.S. intelligence community, are closely guarded. This secrecy is by necessity a major part of a spy's life; they must lie to close friends and family in order to keep their occupation secret. Those involved in real-life espionage activity have denounced the romanticized version of spying found in film and literature. Markus Wolf, the former head of East Germany's foreign intelligence agency, is quoted as saying that spying "is dirty; people suffer."[3]

The risks of espionage activity are often high. Spies caught by foreign governments are often deported or imprisoned. An agent caught spying on their own country can be imprisoned or even executed for treason. While there is a lack of regulation on activity performed outside individual countries' borders (information gathered from satellites and in international waters, for example), most countries have anti-espionage legislation designed to protect national security.

Intelligence Agencies

  • France

In France, the Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure (DGSE), or "General Directorate of External Security" is responsible for strategic information, electronic intelligence, and foreign counterespionage, as well as military intelligence. The Directorate for Defense Protection and Security (DPSD) is responsible for military counterintelligence operations and political surveillance of the military.

  • Germany

The Federal Intelligence Service (BND) in Germany is made up of six departments, each with its own function. Department 1 is responsible for operational procurement (including counterespionage and foreign intelligence collection). Department 2 is responsible for technical surveillance, and Department 3 assesses information. Department 4 is mainly concerned with administration, human resources, legal issues, and schooling for intelligence agents. Department 5 is in charge of security and defense, and Department 6 is responsible for the technological development and maintenance of scientific and communications systems. Unlike many other countries' intelligence services, the BND is forbidden to participate in sabotage, disinformation campaigns, or attempts to influence politics in other states.[6]

  • Israel

In Israel, the Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks, often abbreviated "Mossad," or "Institute," is responsible for the collection and analysis of information, as well as covert operations. Some of Mossad's operations include bringing Jews home from foreign countries, preventing terrorism and weapons development in hostile countries, and developing special diplomatic relations.[7]

  • Russia

During the Cold War, Russian intelligence services were performed by one of the world's most well known agencies: the KGB, the Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (“Committee for State Security”). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, intelligence agencies underwent extensive restructuring. The Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) engages in foreign espionage and intelligence gathering, as well as military intelligence. The Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) collects intelligence worldwide, both political and economic, and the Federal Agency for Government Communications and Information (FAPSI) focuses on SIGINT intelligence.

  • United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has three intelligence agencies. The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), sometimes referred to by its historical name "MI6" (“section six” of “military intelligence.”) is responsible for the collection of foreign intelligence. The Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) is primarily responsible for the collection of SIGINT data, as well as keeping the UK's communications systems secure. The Security Service (also known by the historical "MI5") is responsible for counterintelligence, counter-terrorism, and threats to national security.[8]

  • United States

In the United States, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is responsible for foreign intelligence collection. Domestically, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) collects information and operates as a counter-espionage agency.

Notes

  1. Adrienne Lerner, "Espionage and Intelligence, Early Historical Foundations," Thompson Gale. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  2. "Bletchley Park," British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ).
  3. 3.0 3.1 Jeremy Isaacs and Taylor Downing, "Cold War Experience: In the Shadows," CNN. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  4. H. Keith Melton, "Cold War Experience: Spies in the Digital Age," CNN. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  5. "Cold War Experience: Inside the KGB," CNN. Retrieved December August 28, 2007.
  6. "Bundesnachrichtendienst" Cryptome.org, translated from www.dundesnachrichtendienst.de. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  7. "About Us," Israel Secret Intelligence Service, State of Israel. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  8. 2006. The Intelligence and Security Agencies, HM Government, United Kingdom. Retrieved August 28, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Andrew, Christopher. For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush. Harpercollins, 1996. ISBN 0060921781
  • Andrew, Christopher & Vasili Mitrokhin. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. Darby, PA: Diane Pub, 1999. ISBN 0756753198
  • Helms, Richard. A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency. New York: Presidio Press, 2003. ISBN 0812971086
  • Hinsley, F. H. & Alan Stripp. Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0192801325
  • Kahn, David. Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II. MacMillan, 1978. ISBN 0025606107
  • Kahn, David. The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet. New York: Scribner, 1996.
  • Lerner, K. Lee & Brenda Lerner. Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security. Thomson Gale, 2003. ISBN 0787675466
  • May, Ernest. Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984. ISBN 0691006016
  • Persico, Joseph. Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2001. ISBN 0375761268
  • Richelson, Jeffery T. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 019511390X
  • Smith, Richard Harris.OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005.
  • Trahair, Richard C. S. 'Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0313319553

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.