Difference between revisions of "Education" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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{{Schools}}
 
{{Schools}}
 
{{otheruses4|institutionalized education|broader context of the term|learning}}
 
{{otheruses4|institutionalized education|broader context of the term|learning}}
'''Education''' [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[skill]]s, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of [[knowledge]], positive [[judgment]] and well-developed [[wisdom]]. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialization]]). Education means 'to draw out', facilitating realisation of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of [[pedagogy]], a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], [[linguistics]], [[neurology|neuroscience]], [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]]. <ref> (2002) Teacher's Mind Resources [[http://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm An overview of education"THE MEANING OF EDUCATION"]] Retrieved November 7, 2007</ref>
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'''Education''' [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[skill]]s, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of [[knowledge]], positive [[judgment]] and well-developed [[wisdom]]. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialization]]). Education means 'to draw out', facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of [[pedagogy]], a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], [[linguistics]], [[neurology|neuroscience]], [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]]. <ref> (2002) Teacher's Mind Resources [[http://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm An overview of education"THE MEANING OF EDUCATION"]] Retrieved November 7, 2007</ref>
  
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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{{Main|History of education}}
 
{{Main|History of education}}
 
[[Image:Laurentius de Voltolina 001.jpg|right|thumb|A depiction of the world's oldest university, the [[University of Bologna]], Italy]]
 
[[Image:Laurentius de Voltolina 001.jpg|right|thumb|A depiction of the world's oldest university, the [[University of Bologna]], Italy]]
Education started as the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500B.C.E. [[Humanism|Humanistic]] and [[naturalism|naturalistic]] forms of education developed not long after in [[Ancient Greece]], copied later by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] empire and than into early and middle Europe.<ref>"education." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06 Nov. 2007. [http://www.answers.com/topic/education]</ref> In the Middle East, [[Islam|Islamic]] educational insitutions were developed as early as the 9th century.<ref>"education." Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. [Answers.com 06 Nov. 2007. http://www.answers.com/topic/education] </ref>
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Education started as the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed.  
 +
 
 +
Many of the first educational systems were based in religious schooling. The nation of [[Israel]] in c.1300 B.C.E., was one of the first to create a system of schooling with adoption of the [[Torah]]. In [[India]], The [[Gurukul]] system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery where the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, [[Hindu Philosophy|Philosophy]], [[Sanskrit Literature|Literature]], Warfare, Statecraft, [[Ayurveda|Medicine]] Astrology and History (the Sanskrit word "[[Itihaas]]" means History). Unlike in many regions of the world, education in China began not with organized religions, but based upon the reading of classical Chinese texts, which developed during [[Western Zhou]] period. This system of education was further developed by the early Chinese state, which depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an [[imperial examination|imperial examination system]] was established in the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 B.C.E.-220) for evaluating and selecting officials. This merit-based system gave rise to schools that taught the classics and continued in use for 2,000 years.  
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Perhaps the most significant influence on the Western schooling system was [[Ancient Greece]]. Such thinkers as [[Socrates]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]] along with many others, introduced ideas such as rational thought, scientific inquiry, [[humanism]] and [[naturalism]]. Yet, like the rest of the world, religious institutions played a large factor as well. Modern systems of education in [[Europe]] derive their origins from the schools of [[medieval]] period. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the sole purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the [[University of Paris]], founded in 1150 had a [[Christianity|Christian]] basis. In addition to this, a number of [[secular]] universities existed, such as the [[University of Bologna]], founded in 1088.
  
 
==Education systems==
 
==Education systems==
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{{main|Primary education}}
 
{{main|Primary education}}
 
[[Image:Teaching Bucharest 1842.jpg|thumb|right|330px|''Primary School in "open air"''. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of [[Bucharest]], around 1842.]]
 
[[Image:Teaching Bucharest 1842.jpg|thumb|right|330px|''Primary School in "open air"''. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of [[Bucharest]], around 1842.]]
Primary or elementary education consists of the first years of formal, structured education that occur during [[childhood]]. [[Kindergarten]] is usually the first stage in primary education, as in most jurisdictions it is compulsoatory, but it is also often associated with preschool education. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education (though in many jurisdictions it is permissible for parents to provide it). Primary education generally begins when children are four to eight years of age. The division between primary and [[secondary education]] is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age ([[adolescence]]); some educational systems have separate [[middle school]]s with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen.
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Primary or elementary education consists of the first years of formal, structured education that occur during [[childhood]]. [[Kindergarten]] is usually the first stage in primary education, as in most jurisdictions it is compulsory, but it is also often associated with preschool education. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education (though in many jurisdictions it is permissible for parents to provide it). Primary education generally begins when children are four to eight years of age. The division between primary and [[secondary education]] is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age ([[adolescence]]); some educational systems have separate [[middle school]]s with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen.
  
 
===Secondary education===
 
===Secondary education===
 
{{main|Secondary education}}
 
{{main|Secondary education}}
In most contemporary [[educational system]]s of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during [[adolescence]]. It is characterised by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive [[primary education]] for [[minor (law)|minor]]s to the optional, selective [[Tertiary education|tertiary]], "post-secondary," or "[[Higher education|higher]]" education (e.g., [[university]], [[vocational school]]) for [[adult]]s. Depending on the system, schools for this period or a part of it may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these varies between the systems. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of education. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years.  In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as [[K-12]] education. The purpose of secondary education can be to give [[common knowledge]], to prepare for either higher education or [[vocational education]], or to train directly to a [[profession]].
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In most contemporary [[educational system]]s of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during [[adolescence]]. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive [[primary education]] for [[minor (law)|minor]]s to the optional, selective [[Tertiary education|tertiary]], "post-secondary," or "[[Higher education|higher]]" education (e.g., [[university]], [[vocational school]]) for [[adult]]s. Depending on the system, schools for this period or a part of it may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these varies between the systems. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of education. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years.  In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as [[K-12]] education. The purpose of secondary education can be to give [[common knowledge]], to prepare for either higher education or [[vocational education]], or to train directly to a [[profession]].
  
 
===Higher education===
 
===Higher education===
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Lifelong, or adult, education has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as ''adult learning'' or ''lifelong learning''. Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
 
Lifelong, or adult, education has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as ''adult learning'' or ''lifelong learning''. Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
 
Lending [[Library|libraries]] provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. The rise in computer ownership and internet access has given both adults and children greater access to both formal and informal education.
 
Lending [[Library|libraries]] provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. The rise in computer ownership and internet access has given both adults and children greater access to both formal and informal education.
In [[Scandinavia]] a unique approach to learning termed [[folkbildning]] has long been recognized as contributing to adult education through the use of learning circles. In Africa, government and international organizations have established institutes to help train adults in new skills so that they are to perform new jobs or utilize new technologies and skills in existing markets, such as [[agriculture]].<ref>"Ethiopia: Higher and Vocational Education since 1975," Encylopedia of the Nations, 1991. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4443.html> (November 7, 2007)</ref>
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In [[Scandinavia]] a unique approach to learning termed [[folkbildning]] has long been recognized as contributing to adult education through the use of learning circles. In Africa, government and international organizations have established institutes to help train adults in new skills so that they are to perform new jobs or utilize new technologies and skills in existing markets, such as [[agriculture]].<ref>"Ethiopia: Higher and Vocational Education since 1975," Encyclopedia of the Nations, 1991. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4443.html> (November 7, 2007)</ref>
  
 
===Alternative education===
 
===Alternative education===
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[[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of  [[school]]s as [[organization]]s. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[school psychologist]]s.  Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as [[gifted]] children and those with specific [[disabilities]].
 
[[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of  [[school]]s as [[organization]]s. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[school psychologist]]s.  Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as [[gifted]] children and those with specific [[disabilities]].
  
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
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Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
  
  
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The [[sociology of education]] is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all. Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. However, according to some sociologists, a key problem is that the educational needs of individuals and marginalized groups may be at odds with existing social processes, such as maintaining social stability through the reproduction of inequality. The understanding of the goals and means of educational [[socialization]] processes differs according to the [[sociological paradigm]] used.
 
The [[sociology of education]] is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all. Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. However, according to some sociologists, a key problem is that the educational needs of individuals and marginalized groups may be at odds with existing social processes, such as maintaining social stability through the reproduction of inequality. The understanding of the goals and means of educational [[socialization]] processes differs according to the [[sociological paradigm]] used.
  
;Developing countries
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===Developing countries===
 
[[Image:Graduates_in_tertiary_education-thousands.jpg|thumb|300px|Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe]]
 
[[Image:Graduates_in_tertiary_education-thousands.jpg|thumb|300px|Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe]]
According to [http://www.borgenproject.org/ The Borgen project], 115 million children lack access to education. In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar [[profession]]s.
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Approximately 115 million children worldwide lack access to education.<ref> (2007) The Borgen Project [[http://www.borgenproject.org/"Borgen Project Homepage"]] Retrieved November 8, 2007 </ref> In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar [[profession]]s.
 
 
A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities, is evident in countries with a relatively high population density. In some countries, there are uniform, overstructured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.
 
 
 
* Due to [[globalization]], increased pressure on students in curricular activities
 
* Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)
 
  
 
[[India]] is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched [[EDUSAT]], an education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a [[$100 laptop]]. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.
 
[[India]] is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched [[EDUSAT]], an education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a [[$100 laptop]]. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.
  
In Africa, [[NEPAD]] has launched an "[[NEPAD e-school programme|e-school programme]]" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the [[Perpetual Education Fund]]. An International Development Agency project called [http://www.nabuur.com/ nabuur.com], started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
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In Africa, [[NEPAD]] has launched an "[[NEPAD e-school programme|e-school programme]]" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the [[Perpetual Education Fund]]. An International Development Agency project called, started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.<ref> (2007) Nabuur.com [[http://www.nabuur.com/ nabuur.com"Nabuur Homepage"]] Retrieved November 8, 2007 </ref>
  
;Internationalisation
+
===Internationalization===
Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In [[Europe]], for example, the [http://www.erasmus.ac.uk Socrates-Erasmus Programme] stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the [http://www.soros.org/ Soros Foundation] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience (Dubois et al. 2006).
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Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In [[Europe]], for example, the '''Socrates-Erasmus Program''' stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the '''Soros Foundation''' provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience.<ref>Dubois, H.F.W., Padovano G. & Stew, G. (2006) Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review 53(2): 110–116.</ref>
  
;Challenges
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===Challenges===
The goal of education is fourfold: the social purpose, intellectual purpose, economic purpose, and political/civic purpose. Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge. Educators such as [[George Counts]] and [[Paulo Freire]] identified education as an inherently political process with inherently political outcomes. The challenge of identifying ''whose'' ideas are transferred and what goals they serve has always stood in the face of formal and informal education.
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The goal of education is fourfold: the social purpose, intellectual purpose, economic purpose, and political/civic purpose. Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge.
  
In addition to the "Three R's," [[reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], and [[arithmetic]], Western primary and secondary schools attempt to teach the basic knowledge of [[history]], [[geography]], [[mathematics]] (usually including [[calculus]] and [[algebra]]), [[physics]], [[chemistry]] and sometimes [[politics]], in the hope that students will retain and use this knowledge as they age or that the skills acquired will be transferable. The current education system measures competency with tests and assignments and then assigns each student a corresponding grade. The grades, usually a letter grade or a percentage, are intended to represent the amount of all material presented in class that the student understood. Pre- and post-tests may be used to measure how much was learned.
+
There are a number of highly controversial issues in education. Should some knowledge be forgotten? Should classes be segregated by gender? What should be taught? There are also some philosophies, for example [[Transcendentalism]], that would probably reject conventional education in the belief that knowledge should be gained through more direct personal experience.  
  
 
Educational progressives or advocates of [[unschooling]] often believe that grades do not necessarily reveal the strengths and weaknesses of a student, and that there is an unfortunate lack of [[youth voice]] in the educational process. Some feel the current grading system lowers students' [[self-confidence]], as students may receive poor marks due to factors outside their control. Such factors include poverty, [[child abuse]], and [[prejudice]]d or incompetent teachers.
 
Educational progressives or advocates of [[unschooling]] often believe that grades do not necessarily reveal the strengths and weaknesses of a student, and that there is an unfortunate lack of [[youth voice]] in the educational process. Some feel the current grading system lowers students' [[self-confidence]], as students may receive poor marks due to factors outside their control. Such factors include poverty, [[child abuse]], and [[prejudice]]d or incompetent teachers.
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By contrast, many advocates of a more traditional or "back to basics" approach believe that the direction of reform needs to be the opposite. Students are not inspired or challenged to achieve success because of the dumbing down of the curriculum and the replacement of the "canon" with inferior material. They believe that self-confidence arises not from removing hurdles such as grading, but by making them fair and encouraging students to gain pride from knowing they can jump over these hurdles. On the one hand, [[Albert Einstein]], the most famous [[physicist]] of the twentieth century, who is credited with helping us understand the universe better, was not a model school student. He was uninterested in what was being taught, and he did not attend classes all the time. On the other hand, his gifts eventually shone through and added to the sum of human knowledge.  
 
By contrast, many advocates of a more traditional or "back to basics" approach believe that the direction of reform needs to be the opposite. Students are not inspired or challenged to achieve success because of the dumbing down of the curriculum and the replacement of the "canon" with inferior material. They believe that self-confidence arises not from removing hurdles such as grading, but by making them fair and encouraging students to gain pride from knowing they can jump over these hurdles. On the one hand, [[Albert Einstein]], the most famous [[physicist]] of the twentieth century, who is credited with helping us understand the universe better, was not a model school student. He was uninterested in what was being taught, and he did not attend classes all the time. On the other hand, his gifts eventually shone through and added to the sum of human knowledge.  
  
There are a number of highly controversial issues in education. Should some knowledge be forgotten? Should classes be segregated by gender? What should be taught? There are also some philosophies, for example [[Transcendentalism]], that would probably reject conventional education in the belief that knowledge should be gained through more direct personal experience. A recent book argues that children are being expected to learn too much. "There is an ongoing tendency to increase the length of textbooks. There are various reasons why people want to add to the education of children. People who work on education often believe, nobly enough, that the most important contribution is to get children to learn more. Publishers want to sell new books and adding new material is an important aspect of an effective sales pitch".<ref>
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Education has always been and will most likely continue to be a contentious issue across the world. Like many complex issues, it is doubtful that there is one definitive answer. Rather, a mosaic approach that takes into consideration the national and regional culture the school is located in as well as remaining focused on what is best for the children being instructed, as is done in some areas, will remain the best path for educators and officials alike.
{{cite book | author=Bar-Yam,Yaneer | title=Making Things Work | publisher=Knowledge Press | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-9656328-2-2}}</ref> Also, the cost of higher education in developed countries is increasingly becoming an issue.
 
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==

Revision as of 23:28, 8 November 2007


Schools
Musica 1488.jpg
Education
History of education
Pedagogy
Teaching
Homeschooling
Preschool education
Child care center
Kindergarten
Primary education
Elementary school
Secondary education
Middle school
Comprehensive school
Grammar school
Gymnasium
High school
Preparatory school
Public school
Tertiary education
College
Community college
Liberal arts college
University
This article is about institutionalized education. For broader context of the term, see learning.

Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgment and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). Education means 'to draw out', facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology. [1]

Etymology

The word "education" has its roots in proto-Indian-European languages, in the word deuk. The word came into Latin in the two forms: educare, meaning "to nourish" or "to raise," and educatus, which translates as education.In Middle English it was educaten, before changing into its current form.[2]

Education history

A depiction of the world's oldest university, the University of Bologna, Italy

Education started as the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed.

Many of the first educational systems were based in religious schooling. The nation of Israel in c.1300 B.C.E., was one of the first to create a system of schooling with adoption of the Torah. In India, The Gurukul system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery where the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine Astrology and History (the Sanskrit word "Itihaas" means History). Unlike in many regions of the world, education in China began not with organized religions, but based upon the reading of classical Chinese texts, which developed during Western Zhou period. This system of education was further developed by the early Chinese state, which depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination system was established in the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220) for evaluating and selecting officials. This merit-based system gave rise to schools that taught the classics and continued in use for 2,000 years.

Perhaps the most significant influence on the Western schooling system was Ancient Greece. Such thinkers as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato along with many others, introduced ideas such as rational thought, scientific inquiry, humanism and naturalism. Yet, like the rest of the world, religious institutions played a large factor as well. Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of medieval period. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the sole purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the University of Paris, founded in 1150 had a Christian basis. In addition to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the University of Bologna, founded in 1088.

Education systems

Schooling occurs when society or a group or an individual sets up a curriculum to educate people, usually the young. Schooling can become systematic and thorough. Sometimes education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, and this can lead to abuse of the system.

Preschool education

Main article: Preschool education

Preschool education is the provision of education that focuses on educating children from the ages of infancy until six years old. The term preschool educational includes such programs as nursery school, day care or kindergarten, which are occasionally used interchangeably, yet are distinct entities.

The philosophy of early childhood education is largely child-centered education. Therefore, there is a focus on the importance of play. Play provides children with the opportunity to actively explore, manipulate, and interact with their environment. Playing with products made especially for the preschool children helps a child in building self confidence, encourages independent learning and clears his concepts. For the development of their fine and large or gross motor movements, for the growth of the child's eye-hand coordination, it is extremely important for him to 'play' with the natural things around him. It encourages children to investigate, create, discover and motivate them to take risks and add to their understanding of the world. It challenges children to achieve new levels of understanding of events, people and the environment by interacting with concrete materials.[3] Hands-on activities create authentic experiences in which children begin to feel a sense of mastery over their world and a sense of belonging and understanding of what is going on in their environment. This philosophy follows with Piaget's ideals that children should actively participate in their world and various environments so as to ensure they are not 'passive' learners but 'little scientists' who are actively engaged.[4]

Primary education

Primary School in "open air". Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.

Primary or elementary education consists of the first years of formal, structured education that occur during childhood. Kindergarten is usually the first stage in primary education, as in most jurisdictions it is compulsory, but it is also often associated with preschool education. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education (though in many jurisdictions it is permissible for parents to provide it). Primary education generally begins when children are four to eight years of age. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age (adolescence); some educational systems have separate middle schools with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen.

Secondary education

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary," or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period or a part of it may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these varies between the systems. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of education. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States and Canada primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for either higher education or vocational education, or to train directly to a profession.

Higher education

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage or post secondary education, often known as academia, is the non-compulsory educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education (sometimes known collectively as tertiary institutions). Examples of institutions that provide post-secondary education are community colleges (Junior colleges as they are sometimes referred to in parts of Asia and Africa), vocational schools, trade or technology schools, colleges, and universities. They are sometimes known collectively as tertiary or post-secondary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. However, countries that are increasingly becoming more industrialized, such as those in Africa, Asia and South America, are more frequently using technology and vocational institutions to developed a more skilled work-force.

Adult education

Main article: Adult education

Lifelong, or adult, education has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as adult learning or lifelong learning. Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning. Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. The rise in computer ownership and internet access has given both adults and children greater access to both formal and informal education. In Scandinavia a unique approach to learning termed folkbildning has long been recognized as contributing to adult education through the use of learning circles. In Africa, government and international organizations have established institutes to help train adults in new skills so that they are to perform new jobs or utilize new technologies and skills in existing markets, such as agriculture.[5]

Alternative education

Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term which may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include both forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability) and forms of education designed for a general audience which employ alternative educational philosophies and/or methods.

Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community.

Learning modalities

There has been a great deal of work on learning styles over the last two decades. Rita Stafford Dunn and Kenneth J. Dunn focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment[6], at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies.[7] Howard Gardner identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories.[8] Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey's Temperament Sorter focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment[9].

Education can be physically divided into many different learning "modes" but the learning modalities are probably the most common:[10]

  • Kinesthetic learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.
  • Visual learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
  • Auditory learning based on listening to instructions/information.

Depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness. Effective teaching requires a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities. No matter what their preference, students should have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[11]

Education technology

Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia literacy, and provides new ways to engage students, such as classroom management software. Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.

The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in developing countries due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.[12] The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.[13] Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audioconferencing technologies.[14]

Education philosophy

John Locke's seminal work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities

The philosophy of education is the study of the purpose, nature and ideal content of education. Related topics include knowledge itself, the nature of the knowing mind and the human subject, problems of authority, and the relationship between education and society. At least since Locke's time, the philosophy of education has been linked to theories of developmental psychology and human development.

Fundamental purposes that have been proposed for education include:

  • The enterprise of civil society depends on educating young people to become responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens. This is an intricate, challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics, and economics, not to mention an understanding of who children are, in themselves and in society.
  • Progress in every practical field depends on having capacities that schooling can educate. Education is thus a means to foster the individual's, society's, and even humanity's future development and prosperity. Emphasis is often put on economic success in this regard.
  • One's individual development and the capacity to fulfill one's own purposes can depend on an adequate preparation in childhood. Education can thus attempt to give a firm foundation for the achievement of personal fulfillment. The better the foundation that is built, the more successful the child will be. Simple basics in education can carry a child far.

A central tenet of education typically includes “the imparting of knowledge.” At a very basic level, this purpose ultimately deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. The branch of philosophy that addresses these and related issues is known as epistemology. This area of study often focuses on analyzing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth and belief.

While the term, knowledge, is often used to convey this general purpose of education, it can also be viewed as part of a continuum of knowing that ranges from very specific data to the highest levels. Seen in this light, the continuum may be thought to consist of a general hierarchy of overlapping levels of knowing. Students must be able to connect new information to a piece of old information to be better able to learn, understand, and retain information. This continuum may include notions such as data, information, knowledge, wisdom, and realization.

Education psychology

A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families.[15]

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities.

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).


Education sociology

The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all. Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. However, according to some sociologists, a key problem is that the educational needs of individuals and marginalized groups may be at odds with existing social processes, such as maintaining social stability through the reproduction of inequality. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes differs according to the sociological paradigm used.

Developing countries

File:Graduates in tertiary education-thousands.jpg
Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe

Approximately 115 million children worldwide lack access to education.[16] In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar professions.

India is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a $100 laptop. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.

In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school programme" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the Perpetual Education Fund. An International Development Agency project called, started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.[17]

Internationalization

Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Program stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience.[18]

Challenges

The goal of education is fourfold: the social purpose, intellectual purpose, economic purpose, and political/civic purpose. Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge.

There are a number of highly controversial issues in education. Should some knowledge be forgotten? Should classes be segregated by gender? What should be taught? There are also some philosophies, for example Transcendentalism, that would probably reject conventional education in the belief that knowledge should be gained through more direct personal experience.

Educational progressives or advocates of unschooling often believe that grades do not necessarily reveal the strengths and weaknesses of a student, and that there is an unfortunate lack of youth voice in the educational process. Some feel the current grading system lowers students' self-confidence, as students may receive poor marks due to factors outside their control. Such factors include poverty, child abuse, and prejudiced or incompetent teachers.

By contrast, many advocates of a more traditional or "back to basics" approach believe that the direction of reform needs to be the opposite. Students are not inspired or challenged to achieve success because of the dumbing down of the curriculum and the replacement of the "canon" with inferior material. They believe that self-confidence arises not from removing hurdles such as grading, but by making them fair and encouraging students to gain pride from knowing they can jump over these hurdles. On the one hand, Albert Einstein, the most famous physicist of the twentieth century, who is credited with helping us understand the universe better, was not a model school student. He was uninterested in what was being taught, and he did not attend classes all the time. On the other hand, his gifts eventually shone through and added to the sum of human knowledge.

Education has always been and will most likely continue to be a contentious issue across the world. Like many complex issues, it is doubtful that there is one definitive answer. Rather, a mosaic approach that takes into consideration the national and regional culture the school is located in as well as remaining focused on what is best for the children being instructed, as is done in some areas, will remain the best path for educators and officials alike.

Notes

  1. (2002) Teacher's Mind Resources [An overview of education"THE MEANING OF EDUCATION"] Retrieved November 7, 2007
  2. educate. (n.d.). The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved November 06, 2007, from Dictionary.com website:[1]
  3. Healy, Jane. "Your Child's Growing Mind: Brain Development and Learning From Birth to Adolescence" (Broadway 2004) ISBN 0767916158
  4. Mooney, Carol Garhart. "Theories of Childhood: An Introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget & Vygotsky" (Redleaf Press 2000) ISBN 188483485X
  5. "Ethiopia: Higher and Vocational Education since 1975," Encyclopedia of the Nations, 1991. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4443.html> (November 7, 2007)
  6. Dunn, Rita Stafford and Kenneth J. Dunn Teaching Students Through Their Individual Learning Styles: A Practical Approach (Prentice Hall College Div 1978) ISBN 0879098082
  7. (2007) Indiana University ["Joseph S. Renzulli"] Retrieved November 7, 2007
  8. Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice (Basic Books 2006) ISBN 0465047688
  9. Quenk, Naomi L. Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Assessment (Essentials of Psychological Assessment) (Wiley 1999) ISBN 0471332399
  10. (2004) www.enhancelearning.ca [Varied Learning Modes"Learning Styles"] Retrieved November 7, 2007
  11. (2000) Learning Curve ["Learning Modalities"] Retrieved November 7, 2007
  12. Taghioff, Daniel. Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and Communication Technologies in Development.. Retrieved 2003-10-12.
  13. (2007) Open University ["About OU"] Retrieved November 8, 2007
  14. (2007) Indira Grand National Open University ["IGNOU Homepage"] Retrieved November 8, 2007
  15. Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 214-233.
  16. (2007) The Borgen Project ["Borgen Project Homepage"] Retrieved November 8, 2007
  17. (2007) Nabuur.com [nabuur.com"Nabuur Homepage"] Retrieved November 8, 2007
  18. Dubois, H.F.W., Padovano G. & Stew, G. (2006) Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review 53(2): 110–116.

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