Difference between revisions of "Culture of China" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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[[History of education in China|Ancient Chinese education]] also has a long history especially with the [[Imperial examination]].  
 
[[History of education in China|Ancient Chinese education]] also has a long history especially with the [[Imperial examination]].  
  
Empeoror Wu (156-87 B.C.E.) of the Han dynasty created the first university of 50 students, the number reaching 30 000 in later Han. The curriculum relied much on the Confucian classics. Although it was a period of Buddhism and of flourishing of poetry the Tang dynasty (581-907) established a system of imperial examinaton in 605. This system was going to remain all throughout history with modifications at different subsequent periods. The examination to select future leaders of the country included two main parts, one on the Confucian classics, the other being an essay on political subjects and also on poetry. Candidates were also evaluated according to their appearance, ability in speech and callgraphy. The examination was open to all males differently from the previous dynasty, although the aristocrats had their way to succeed better.
+
Empeoror Wu (156-87 B.C.E.) of the Han dynasty created the first university of 50 students, the number reaching 30 000 in later Han. The curriculum relied much on the Confucian classics. Although it was a period of Buddhism and of flourishing of poetry the Tang dynasty (581-907) established a system of imperial examinaton in 605. This system was going to remain all throughout history with modifications at different subsequent periods. The examination to select future leaders of the country included two main parts, one on the Confucian classics, the other being an essay on political subjects and also on poetry. Candidates were also evaluated according to their appearance, ability in speech and calligraphy. The examination was open to all males differently from the previous dynasty, although the aristocrats had their way to succeed better.
  
 
Trades and crafts were usually taught by a [[sifu]]. The female historian [[Ban Zhao]] wrote the [[Lessons for Women]] in the han dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to. [[Chinese marriage]] and [[Taoist sexual practices]] are some of the customs and rituals found in society.
 
Trades and crafts were usually taught by a [[sifu]]. The female historian [[Ban Zhao]] wrote the [[Lessons for Women]] in the han dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to. [[Chinese marriage]] and [[Taoist sexual practices]] are some of the customs and rituals found in society.
  
 
===Values===
 
===Values===
 +
 
{{main|Chinese philosophy|Religion in China}}
 
{{main|Chinese philosophy|Religion in China}}
 
Most social values are derived from [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] with a combination of [[conservatism]]. The subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as [[Neo-Confucianism]], [[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]] and many others have come about. [[Reincarnation]] and other [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]] concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the next-life.
 
Most social values are derived from [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] with a combination of [[conservatism]]. The subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as [[Neo-Confucianism]], [[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]] and many others have come about. [[Reincarnation]] and other [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]] concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the next-life.
 +
 +
Early wisdom, Confucius 's thought and related thoughts of Mencius and Sunzi have played a major role in shaping the Chinese values until the introducton in the late 1st century Ad and its development in the period of disunity from the 3rd to the 9th century.
 +
 +
Early Confucianism emphasized the deep cultivation of the Self and correcting of the heart in order to serve others and be able to establsih correctly a family and contribute to the shaping of a country in caring for those in need particularly those in need of all ages. The Confucian figues were the ruler as a parent to all and the parents of the family with the values of loyalty to the sovereign and filial pieity towatd the parents.
 +
 +
This dramatically changed wi the coming of Buddhism. Although both schools of thoutght share the values of hear ren or compassion, care for others in the ideal way, the Buddhist figure is more the celibate monk or nun. The primary interest is not on family vales or social institutions but more on a quest for self enlightenement and salvation. Therefore from this period of the 4-9 centuries AD in China reamined a tension neverreally resolved between Confucianism and Buddhism.
 +
 +
This is one of the reason that Confucian shcolars wored hard at creating a Confucian renaissance called Neo-Confucianismthat went back to the ancient foundation time and convery the core of Confucianims in a new more elborated way philosoophically and metaphysicaclly.
 +
 +
 +
 +
 +
 +
  
 
== Language ==
 
== Language ==

Revision as of 02:55, 20 September 2007


Chinese Opera, one of the many aspects of traditional Chinese culture

The Culture of China (Chinese: 中國文化) is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex civilizations covering a history of over 5,000 years. The nation covers a large geographical region with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces. Chinese culture (Chinese: 中華文化) is a broad term used to describe the cultural foundation, even among Chinese-speaking regions outside of mainland China.

Chinese culture underwent several turning points and renewals throughout its long unfolding but it was already rich and essential in the period of antiquity called the pre-Chin period that saw the brutal unification of China by Shi Huangdi. A major shift happened from the Shang dynasty which was still connected with barbarian practices to the Zhou dynasty when culture started to flourish.

The antique period saw the creation of language, the emergence of philosophy, science and technology with a great intellligence and diversity that contrast with the chaos that plagued China during the Warring States period, particularly from the 3rd century to the 1st century B.C.E.

The 8-3rd centuries were such an "axial" period as Kark Jaspers said that inventors and thinkers of later periods regularly came back to that period for inspiration. Many texts of that period called classics or "sacred books" have been endlessly commented until the modern times and remain always a source of wonder and discovery.


People in the culture

People in imperial China - Qing dynasty

Identity

Many ethnic groups have existed in China. In terms of numbers, however, the pre-eminent ethnic group is the Han Chinese, Han tribe 漢族 or Han people 漢人. The term Han comes from the dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) which succeeded the Chin founded by Shi Huangdi, but it evokes the people who already in the ancient period, especially in the north-eastern part, took conscience of belonging to the same group and who made the cultural base for the whole country. On that base the Han were able to expand West and to assimilate other groups culturally.

Throughout history, many groups have been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions. The term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional cultural identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name.

It is to be noted that although foreign powers like the Mongols in 1368 and the Manchu in 1644 took over China they had to unite with the Confucian and Neo-Confucian views and with the Chinese culture if they wanted to keep their power and really govern. Therefore foreign leaders became very much sinicized and even sinophile. The Manchu Kangxi was extremely well versed in the Chinese classics and a great protector of the Confucian humanities.

Regional

Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories, each region being usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Using modern names, here are some distinction:

Society

File:Dragon Throne.jpg
Gold detailing on a throne used by the Qianlong Emperor. Chinese dragon was a symbol reserved for the Emperor of China or high level imperial families during the Qing Dynasty

The dragon is such an important symbol in China that it deserves a few remarks. The dragon has been used in other cultures with different meanings. In Christianity the dragon is related to the snake of the Fall and is called the Beast in the Book of Revelation with the meaning of evil and the enemy of man and God. Saint George is represented as defeating the dragon. However in the Chinese culture the dragon is more related to the cosmic forces without the connatation of evil. The dragon in the first hexagram of the Book of Changes called "The Creative" represents the profound man who comes out of his hidden position and starts to act openly in a cautious way. While developing his action he must be careful not to fall into arrogance when reaching a high position. Richard Wilhelm wo translated first The Book of Chanes into German commented: "The dragon in China is a symbol of the electrically charged, dynamic, arousing force that manifests itself in the thunderstorm. In winter this energy withdraws into the earth; in the early summer it becomes active again ... as a result the creative forces on earth begin to stir again."

Structure

Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society. Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law[1].

The Chinese take as models of leadership the semi-legendary emperors Yao and Shun who were called from among the poor people and lived a sacrificial self-less life befor being asked to lead the empire. It is therefore considered as a regression to have accepted the transmsission of power by the hereditary way.

The Zhou started the conception of the Mandate of Heaven 天命 that they conisdered having received in order to stop the evil ruling of the Shang. Mencius developed a political conception based on the Mandate of Heaven stating that the ruler can lose his Mandate and that in that case he can be removed by the people. With Confucius and Mencius the aim of ruling is to establish a structure of goodness, "ren", 仁政 for the sake of people.

Ancient Chinese education also has a long history especially with the Imperial examination.

Empeoror Wu (156-87 B.C.E.) of the Han dynasty created the first university of 50 students, the number reaching 30 000 in later Han. The curriculum relied much on the Confucian classics. Although it was a period of Buddhism and of flourishing of poetry the Tang dynasty (581-907) established a system of imperial examinaton in 605. This system was going to remain all throughout history with modifications at different subsequent periods. The examination to select future leaders of the country included two main parts, one on the Confucian classics, the other being an essay on political subjects and also on poetry. Candidates were also evaluated according to their appearance, ability in speech and calligraphy. The examination was open to all males differently from the previous dynasty, although the aristocrats had their way to succeed better.

Trades and crafts were usually taught by a sifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the han dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to. Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are some of the customs and rituals found in society.

Values

Main articles: Chinese philosophy and Religion in China

Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism with a combination of conservatism. The subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other rebirth concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the next-life.

Early wisdom, Confucius 's thought and related thoughts of Mencius and Sunzi have played a major role in shaping the Chinese values until the introducton in the late 1st century Ad and its development in the period of disunity from the 3rd to the 9th century.

Early Confucianism emphasized the deep cultivation of the Self and correcting of the heart in order to serve others and be able to establsih correctly a family and contribute to the shaping of a country in caring for those in need particularly those in need of all ages. The Confucian figues were the ruler as a parent to all and the parents of the family with the values of loyalty to the sovereign and filial pieity towatd the parents.

This dramatically changed wi the coming of Buddhism. Although both schools of thoutght share the values of hear ren or compassion, care for others in the ideal way, the Buddhist figure is more the celibate monk or nun. The primary interest is not on family vales or social institutions but more on a quest for self enlightenement and salvation. Therefore from this period of the 4-9 centuries AD in China reamined a tension neverreally resolved between Confucianism and Buddhism.

This is one of the reason that Confucian shcolars wored hard at creating a Confucian renaissance called Neo-Confucianismthat went back to the ancient foundation time and convery the core of Confucianims in a new more elborated way philosoophically and metaphysicaclly.


Language

Chinese calligraphy written by Song Dynasty (1051-1108 C.E.) poet Mi Fu

Spoken Chinese consisted of a number of Chinese dialects throughout history. In the Ming Dynasty standard Mandarin was nationalized. Even so, it wasn't until the Republic of China era in the 1910s when there was any noticeable result in promoting a common unified language in China.

The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese. It was used for thousands of years, but was mostly reserved for scholars and intellectuals. By the 20th century, millions of citizens, especially those outside of the imperial court were illiterate[1]. Only after the May 4th Movement did the push for Vernacular Chinese begin. This allowed common citizens to read since it was modeled after the linguistics and phonology of a spoken language.

Mythology and spirituality

Luohan, one of the spiritual figures shared between Chinese and India Culture across different types of buddhism
Main articles: Chinese mythology, Chinese folk religion, and Traditional Chinese holidays

A large part of Chinese culture is based on the notion that a spiritual world exists. Countless methods of divination have helped answer questions, even serving as an alternate to medicine. Folklores have helped fill the gap for things that cannot be explained. There is often a blurred line between myth, religion and unexplained phenomenon. While many deities are part of the tradition, some of the most recognized holy figures include Guan Yin, Jade Emperor and Budai. Other concepts have extended to outside of mythology into spiritual symbols such as Door god and the Imperial guardian lions. Along with the belief of the holy, there is also the evil. Practices such as Taoist exorcism fighting mogwai and jiang shi with peachwood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from generations. A few Chinese fortune telling rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement.

Health

A large part of traditional Chinese culture is about finding the balance of Yin and Yang in relation to Qi, health and the meridian system in order to find harmony. Traditional Chinese medicine consists of a number of treatments including Chinese herbology and acupuncture. Other less intrusive forms of health improvement include qigong and meditation.

Literature

Zhūgě Liàng, a character in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The extensive collection of books that have been preserved since the Zhou Dynasty demonstrate just how advanced the intellectuals have been at one time. The Five Cardinal Points is the foundation for almost all major studies. Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of subjects including poetry, astrology, astronomy, calendar, constellations and many others. Some of the most important early texts include I Ching and Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics. Many Chinese concepts such as Yin and Yang, Qi, Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and earth were all theorized in the dynastic periods.

Notable confucianists, taoists and scholars of all class have made significant contributions from documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundred of years ahead of time. Many novels such as Four Great Classical Novels spawned countless fictional stories. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese culture would embark on a new era with Vernacular Chinese for the common citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature.

Arts

A Tang Dynasty tri-color Chinese glazed horse circa 700 C.E.
For all major visual, performance or artistic categories, see Chinese art.

Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of fine art, folk art and performance art. Porcelain pottery was one of the first form of art in the Palaeolithic period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the Book of Songs, Confucius and the Chinese poet and statesman Qu Yuan. Chinese painting became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of Shan shui with specialized styles such as Ming Dynasty painting. Early Chinese music was based on percussion instruments, which later gave away to string and reed instruments. By the Han dynasty papercutting became a new art form after the invention of paper. Chinese opera would also be introduced and branched regionally in additional to other performance formats such as variety arts.

Martial arts

File:Wu Jianquan.jpg
Wu Chien-ch'uan demonstrate a Wu family posture known as Step Forward, Deflect, Parry and Punch 進步搬攔捶

China is the original birth place of Eastern martial arts. The names of martial arts were called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu. China also includes the home to the well-respected Shaolin Monastery and Wudang Mountains. The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Overtime, some art forms have branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has brewed some of the most renowned martial artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others. The art have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including the more standard 18 arms. Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.

Fashion

Different social class in different time eras boast different fashion trends. China's fashion history covers thousands of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements. Fashionable but questionable practices such as footbinding have also been part of the culture. Many symbols such as phoenix have been used for decorative as well as political purposes.

Architecture

Forbidden City, featuring classic construction style
Main article: Chinese architecture

Chinese architecture, examples of which can be found from over 2,000 years ago, has long been a hallmark of the culture. There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless of specific region or use. The most important is its emphasis on width, as the wide halls of the Forbidden City serve as an example. In contrast, western architecture emphasize on height, though there are exceptions such as pagodas.

Another important feature is symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow, to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself. Feng shui has played an important part in structural development.

Cuisine

Chinese meal in Suzhou with rice, shrimp, eggplant, fermented tofu, vegetable stir-fry, vegetarian duck with meat and bamboo
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The overwhelmingly large variety mainly comes from the emperors hosting a banquet of 100 dishes each meal[2]. Countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines were involved in the food preparation process. Overtime, many dishes became part of the everyday-citizen culture. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion[2]. Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style or even American Chinese food are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.

Leisure

A number of games and past-times are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is Mah Jong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai Solitaire. Others include Pai Gow, Pai gow poker and other bone domino games. Go proverb and Xiangqi is also popular. Ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the culture.

See also

  • Sinology
  • Chinese Thought
  • Traditional Chinese objects
  • Science and technology in China

External links

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. 1.0 1.1 Mente, Boye De. [2000] (2000). The Chinese Have a Word for it: The Complete Guide to Chinese thought and Culture. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658010786
  2. 2.0 2.1 Kong, Foong, Ling. [2002] (2002). The Food of Asia. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0794601464

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